WATER PURIFICATION BY REVERSE OSMOSIS: A

CASE STUDY
A PROJECT REPORT
SUBMITTED TO
INSPIRE PROGRAMME
DST, TECHNOLOGY BHAVAN
NEW MEHRAULI ROAD
NEW DELHI

INSPIRE SCHOLARSHIP FOR THE YEAR 2022

SUBMITTED BY PROJECT SUPERVISOR

SURESH SARAN Prof. Dr, Rohit kumar jain
Student of BSc IIIrd Year (Msc,Phd) Assistant Professor
JNVU JODHOUR Head of department of physics
Jodhpur, Rajasthan 342001 Lachoo memorial of science and
INSPIRE Scholarship Registration no: 201900020208 technology Jodhour
 CERTIFICATE
Certified that the project entitled studies of
‘’ WATER PURIFICATION BY REVERSE OSMOSIS:
A CASE STUDY ’’ Submitted by SURESH
SARAN is his own work and had been
under supervision. It is recommended that
this project be placed before the examiner
for evaluation.

(Signature of the Principal) (Signature of the Supervisor)

Dr. A.K. Purohit Prof. Dr.Rohit Kumar Jain

Faculty of science Head,Department of physics

(JNVU JODHPUR) Principal,Lachho Memorial of
Science and Technology,Jodhpur
 CERTIFICATE
To whosoever it may concern
This is to certify that Mr. Suresh Saran
student of BSc IIIrd year in Department of
Science (Physics) Lachoo Memorial College
of Science and Technology Jodhpur has
completed the project work entitled ‘’
WATER PURIFICATION BY REVERSE OSMOSIS: A
CASE STUDY ’’ successfully during 25 May
2022 to 20 July 2022.

(Signature of the Supervisor)

Prof. Dr.Rohit Kumar Jain
Head,Department of physics
Principal,Lachho Memorial of
Science and Technology,Jodhpur

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I owe my special sense of gratitude to Prof. Dr.Rohit Kumar
Jain (supervisor), Department of Physics,Principal
,Lachoo Memorial College of Science & Technology, Jodhpur
(supervisor), Prof.Dr.Desh Raj Sharma,Associate Professor,
Dept. Physics,Lachoo Memorial College of Science &Technology
Jodhpur for extending unstinted support,constant help and
affection without any reservation throughout the course of
present investigaton.
The enthusiastic support and whole – hearted co-operation
which helped me in no small measure for completing this
project .this work by Dr.Rohit Kumar Jain,Principal(LMCST)
Jodhpur ,Dr.Desh Raj HOD Physics (LMCST) Jodhpur,
is peacefully acknowledged.

(SURESH SARAN)

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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION
The composition of water varies widely with local geological conditions. Neither
groundwater nor surface water has ever been chemically pure water (H2O), Water
contains varying amounts of gases, minerals and organic matter of natural origin.
The total concentrations of substances dissolved in fresh water for its consideration
to be of good quality can be hundreds of mg/L. The epidemiology and advances in
microbiology and chemistry since the 19th century has identified a numerous
waterborne disease causative agents. The knowledge that water may contain some
constituents that are undesirable is the point of departure for establishing
guidelines and regulations for drinking water quality. Maximum acceptable
concentrations of inorganic and organic substances and microorganisms have been
established internationally to assure the safety of drinking water. The potential
effects of totally unmineralised water had not generally been considered, since this
water is not found in nature except the rainwater and naturally formed ice.
Although rainwater and ice are not used as community drinking water sources in
industrialized countries where drinking water regulations were developed but they
are being used by individuals in some locations. In addition, many natural waters
are low in many minerals or soft (low in divalent ions), and hard waters are often
artificially softened. Awareness of the importance of minerals and other beneficial
constituents in drinking water has existed for thousands years, being mentioned in
the Vedas of ancient India. In the book Rig Veda, the properties of good drinking
water were described as follows: “Sheetham (cold to touch), Sushihi (clean), Sivam
(should have nutritive value, requisite minerals and trace elements), Istham
(transparent), Vimalam lahu Shadgunam (its acid base balance should be within
normal limits)”. The fact that water may contain desirable substances has received
less attention in guidelines and regulations, but an increased awareness of the

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biological value of water has been established as a basis for pure water in the past
several decades. Artificially-produced demineralised waters, first distilled water
and later also deionized or reverse osmosis-treated water, had been used mainly
for industrial, technical and laboratory purposes. These technologies became more
extensively applied in drinking water treatment in the 1960’s as limited drinking
water sources in some coastal and inland arid areas could not meet the increasing
water demands resulting from increasing populations, higher living standards,
development of industry, and mass tourism. Demineralisation of water was needed
where the primary or the only abundant water source available was highly
mineralized brackish water or sea water. Drinking water supply was also of concern
to ocean-going ships, and spaceships as well. Initially, these water treatment
methods were not used elsewhere since they were technically exacting and costly.
The demineralised water is defined as water almost or completely free of dissolved
minerals as a result of distillation, deionization, membrane filtration (reverse
osmosis or nanofiltration), electrodialysis or other technology. The total dissolved
solids (TDS) in such water can vary but TDS could be as low as 1 mg/L. The electrical
conductivity is generally less than 2 mS/m and may even be lower (< 50 mg/L) can
have negative taste characteristics to which the consumer may adapt with time.
This water is also reported to be less thirst quenching. Although these are not
considered to be health effects, they should be taken into account when
considering the suitability of low mineral content water for human consumption.
Poor organoleptic and thirst-quenching characteristics may affect the amount of
water consumed or may cause persons to seek other, possibly less satisfactory
water sources. Williams [1996] reported that distilled water introduced into the
intestine caused abnormal changes in epithelial cells of rats, possibly due to
osmotic shock. Histology did not reveal any signs of erosion, ulceration or
inflammation in the oesophagus, stomach and jejunum. Altered secretory function
in animals (i.e., increased secretion and acidity of gastric juice) and altered stomach
muscle tone were reported in studies for WHO, but currently available data have
not unambiguously demonstrated a direct negative effect of low mineral content
water on the gastrointestinal mucous membrane. It has been adequately
demonstrated that consuming water of low mineral content has a negative effect
on homeostasis mechanisms, compromising the mineral and water metabolism in
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the body. An increase in urine output (i.e., increased diuresis) is associated with an
increase in excretion of major intra- and extracellular ions from the body fluids,
their negative balance, and changes in body water levels and functional activity of
some Body water management-dependent hormones. Experiments in animals,
primarily rats, for up to one-year periods have repeatedly shown that the intake of
distilled water or water with TDS ≤ 75 mg/L leads to: 1.) increased water intake,
diuresis, extracellular fluid volume, and serum concentrations of sodium (Na) and
chloride (Cl) ions and their increased elimination from the body, resulting in an
overall negative balance.., and 2.) Lower volumes of red cells and some other
hematocrit changes. Although Rakhmanin et al. did not find mutagenic or
gonadotoxic effects of distilled water, they did report decreased secretion of tri-
iodothyronine and aldosterone, increased secretion of cortisol, morphological
changes in the kidneys including a more pronounced atrophy of glomeruli, and
swollen vascular endothelium limiting the blood flow. Reduced skeletal ossification
was also found in rat foetuses whose dams were given distilled water in a one-year
study. Apparently the reduced mineral intake from water was not compensated by
their diets, even if the animals were kept on standardized diet that was
physiologically adequate in caloric value, nutrients and salt composition. Results of
experiments in human volunteers evaluated by researchers for the WHO report (3)
are in agreement with those in animal experiments and suggest the basic
mechanism of the effects of water low in TDS (e.g. < 100 mg/L) on water and
mineral homeostasis. Low-mineral water markedly: 1.) increased diuresis (almost
by 20%, on average), body water volume, and serum sodium concentrations, 2.)
Decreased serum potassium concentration, and 3.) Increased the elimination of
sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium and magnesium ions from the body. It was
thought that low-mineral water acts on osmoreceptors of the gastrointestinal tract,
causing an increased flow of sodium ions into the intestinal lumen and slight
reduction in osmotic pressure in the portal venous system with subsequent
enhanced release of sodium into the blood as an adaptation response. This osmotic
change in the blood plasma results in the redistribution of body water; that is, there
is an increase in the total extracellular fluid volume and the transfer of water from
erythrocytes and interstitial fluid into the plasma and between intracellular and
interstitial fluids. In response to the changed plasma volume, baroreceptors and
7
volume receptors in the bloodstream are activated, inducing a decrease in
aldosterone release and thus an increase in sodium elimination. Reactivity of the
volume receptors in the vessels may result in a decrease in ADH release and an
enhanced diuresis. The German Society for Nutrition reached similar conclusions
about the effects of distilled water and warned the public against drinking it. The
warning was published in response to the German edition of The Shocking Truth
about Water, whose authors recommended drinking distilled water instead of
"ordinary" drinking water.

Reverse osmosis (RO) is a water purification technology that uses a semipermeable

membrane to remove ions, molecules, and larger particles from drinking water. In
reverse osmosis, an applied pressure is used to overcome osmotic pressure,
a colligative property, that is driven by chemical potential differences of the
solvent, a thermodynamic parameter. Reverse osmosis can remove many types of
dissolved and suspended species from water, including bacteria, and is used in both
industrial processes and the production of potable water. The result is that
the solute is retained on the pressurized side of the membrane and the
pure solvent is allowed to pass to the other side. To be "selective", this membrane
should not allow large molecules or ions through the pores (holes), but should
allow smaller components of the solution (such as solvent molecules) to pass freely.

In the normal osmosis process, the solvent naturally moves from an area of low
solute concentration (high water potential), through a membrane, to an area of
high solute concentration (low water potential). The driving force for the
movement of the solvent is the reduction in the free energy of the system when
the difference in solvent concentration on either side of a membrane is reduced,
generating osmotic pressure due to the solvent moving into the more concentrated
solution. Applying an external pressure to reverse the natural flow of pure solvent,
thus, is reverse osmosis. The process is similar to other membrane technology
applications. However, key differences are found between reverse osmosis and
filtration. The predominant removal mechanism in membrane filtration is straining,
or size exclusion, so the process can theoretically achieve perfect efficiency
regardless of parameters such as the solution's pressure and concentration.
Reverse osmosis also involves diffusion, making the process dependent on
pressure, flow rate, and other conditions. Reverse osmosis is most commonly

8
known for its use in drinking water purification from seawater, removing
the salt and other effluent materials from the water molecules.

Chapter 2

Osmosis and reverse osmosis

2.1 Osmosis
Osmosis is a naturally occurring phenomenon and one of the most important
processes in nature. It is a process where a weaker saline solution will tend to
migrate to a strong saline solution. Examples of osmosis are when plant roots
absorb water from the soil and our kidneys absorb water from our blood. In figure-
1 the working mechanism of Reverse Osmosis is demonstrated. A solution that is
less concentrated will have a natural tendency to migrate to a solution with a higher
concentration. For example, if you had a container full of water with a low salt
concentration and another container full of water with a high salt concentration
and they were separated by a semi-permeable membrane, then the water with the
lower salt concentration would begin to migrate towards the water container with
the higher salt concentration.

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Figure-1 illustration of mechanism involved in Osmosis

A semi-permeable membrane is a membrane that will allow some atoms or

molecules to pass but not others. A simple example is a screen door. It allows air
molecules to pass through but not pests or anything larger than the holes in the
screen door. Another example is Gore-tex clothing fabric that contains an
extremely thin plastic film into which billions of small pores have been cut. The
pores are big enough to let water vapour through, but small enough to prevent
liquid water from passing.

2.2 Reverse Osmosis

Reverse Osmosis is the process of Osmosis in reverse. Whereas Osmosis occurs
naturally without energy requirement, to reverse the process of osmosis we need
to apply energy to the more saline solution. A reverse osmosis membrane is a semi-
permeable membrane that allows the passage of water molecules but not the
majority of dissolved salts, organics, bacteria and pyrogens. However, it is needed
to ‘push’ the water through the reverse osmosis membrane by applying pressure
that should be greater than the naturally occurring osmotic pressure in order to

10
desalinate (demineralize or deionize) water in the process, allowing pure water
through while holding back a majority of contaminants.

Figure-2 Mechanism of Reverse Osmosis

Above is a diagram outlining the process of Reverse Osmosis. When pressure is

applied to the concentrated solution, the water molecules are forced through the
semi‐permeable membrane and the Contaminants are not allowed through.

Chapter 3

WORKING PROCESS OF REVERSE OSMOSIS

Reverse osmosis works by using a high pressure pump to increase the pressure on
the salt side of the RO and force the water across the semi-permeable RO
membrane, leaving almost all (around 95% to 99%) of dissolved salts behind in the
reject stream. The amount of pressure required depends on the salt concentration
of the feed water. The more concentrated the feed water, the more pressure is
required to overcome the osmotic pressure.
In very simple terms, feed water is pumped into a Reverse Osmosis (RO) system
and we get two types of water coming out of the RO system: good water and bad
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water. The good water that comes out of an RO system has the majority of
contaminants removed and is called permeate. Another term for permeate water
is product water – they mean the same thing. Permeate is the water that was
pushed through the RO membrane and contains very little contaminants.
The ‘bad’ water is the water that contains all of the contaminants that were unable
to pass through the RO membrane and is known as the concentrate, reject, or
brine. All three terms (concentrate, reject, and brine) are used interchangeably and
mean the same thing. Below is a simple schematic that shows how an RO system
works. As the feed water enters the RO membrane under pressure (enough
pressure to overcome osmotic pressure) the water molecules pass through the
semi-permeable membrane and the salts and other contaminants are not allowed
to pass and are discharged through the concentrate stream, which goes to drain or
can be fed back into the feed water supply in some circumstances to be recycled
through the RO system to save water. The water that makes it through the RO
membrane is called permeate or product water and usually has around 95% to 99%
of the dissolved salts removed from it.

It is important to understand that an RO system employs cross filtration rather

than standard filtration where the contaminants are collected within the filter
media. With cross filtration, the solution passes through the filter, or crosses the
filter, with two outlets: the filtered water goes one way and the contaminated
water goes a different route. To avoid build up of contaminants, cross flow filtration
allows water to sweep away contaminant build up and also allow enough
turbulence to keep the membrane surface clean.

3.1 REMOVAL OF SALT BY RO

Reverse Osmosis is capable of removing up to 99%(+) of the dissolved salts (ions),
particles, colloids, organics, bacteria and pyrogens from the feed water (although
an RO system should not be relied upon to remove 100% of bacteria and viruses).
An RO membrane rejects contaminants based on their size and charge. Any
contaminant that has a molecular weight greater than 200 is likely rejected by a

12
properly running RO system. Likewise, the greater the ionic charge of the
contaminant, the more likely it will be unable to pass through the RO membrane.
For example, a sodium ion has only one charge (monovalent) and is not rejected by
the RO membrane as well as calcium for example, which has two charges. Likewise,
this is why an RO system does not remove gases such as CO2 very well because
they are not highly ionized (charged) while in solution and have a very low
molecular weight. Because an RO system does not remove gases, the permeate
water can have a slightly lower than normal pH level depending on CO2 levels in
the feed water as the CO2 is converted to carbonic acid.
Reverse Osmosis is very effective in treating brackish, surface and ground water for
both large and small flows applications. Some examples of industries that use RO
water include pharmaceutical, boiler feed water, food and beverage, metal
finishing and semiconductor manufacturing to name a few.

Chapter 4

THE PERFORMANCE OF REVERSE OSMOSIS AND DESIGN CALCULATIONS

There are a handful of calculations that are used to judge the performance of an
RO system and also for design considerations. An RO system has instrumentation
that displays quality, flow, pressure and sometimes other data like temperature or

13
 hours of operation. In order to accurately measure the performance of an RO
system you need the following operation parameters at a minimum:
1. Feed pressure
2. Permeate pressure
3. Concentrate pressure
4. Feed conductivity
5. Permeate conductivity
6. Feed flow
7. Permeate flow
8. Temperature
● The data collected from RO System is-
Permeate Flow 4.9 gpm
Concentrate Flow 2.1 gpm
Feed water Conductivity 470 μS
Permeate water Conductivity 14 μS
Concentrate Conductivity 1180 μS
Table-1 various parameter of RO
4.1 Salt Rejection %
This equation tells us how effective the RO membranes are removing
contaminants. It does not tell us how each individual membrane is performing, but
rather how the system overall on average is performing. A well‐designed RO system
with properly functioning RO membranes will reject 95% to 99% of most feed water
contaminants (that are of a certain size and charge). You can determine effective
the RO membranes are removing contaminants by using the following equation:

Salt Rejection %
= Conductivity of Feed Water – Conductivity of Permeate Water x 100
Conductivity of Feed
By using data from above table
Salt Rejection % = ((470 – 14) ÷470) ×100
= 97 %
The higher the salt rejection, the better the system is performing. A low salt
rejection can mean that the membranes require cleaning or replacement.

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4.2 Salt Passage %
This is simply the inverse of salt rejection described in the previous equation. This
is the amount of salts expressed as a percentage that are passing through the RO
system. The lower the salt passage, the better the system is performing. A high salt
passage can mean that the membranes require cleaning or replacement.
Salt Passage % = (1- Salt Rejection %)
= (1- 97) = 3%
4.3 Recovery %
Percent Recovery is the amount of water that is being ‘recovered’ as well
permeates water. Another way to think of Percent Recovery is a amount of water
that is not sent to drain as concentrate, but rather collected as permeate or product
water. The higher recovery percentage means that less water is going to drain as
concentrate and saving of more permeate water. However, if the recovery
percentage is too high for the RO design then it can lead to larger problems due to
scaling and fouling. The percentage Recovery for an RO system is established with
the help of design software taking into consideration numerous factors such as feed
water chemistry and RO pre-treatment before the RO system. Therefore, the
proper percentage Recovery at which an RO should operate at depends on what it
was designed for. Thus calculating the percentage Recovery we can quickly
determine if the system is operating outside of the intended design. The formula
for calculation of percentage Recovery is as given below

% Recovery = Permeate Flow Rate (gpm) x 100

Feed Flow Rate (gpm)
Where; Feed Flow = Permeate Flow + Concentrate Flow
= 4.9 + 2.1 = 7 gpm
% Recovery = (4.9 ÷ 7) x100
= 70 %

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This 70% recovery rate means that for every 100 gallons of feed water that enter
the RO system, we are recovering 70 gallons as usable permeate water and 25
gallons is going to drain as concentrate. Industrial RO systems typically run
anywhere from 50% to 85% recovery depending on the feed water characteristics
and other design considerations.

4.4 Concentration Factor

The concentration factor is related to the RO system recovery and is an important
equation for RO system design. The more water we recover as permeate (the
higher the % recovery), the more concentrated salts and contaminants we
collected in the concentrate stream. This can lead to higher potential for scaling on
the surface of the RO membrane when the concentration factor is too high for the
system design and feed water composition.

Concentration Factor = (1 / (1-Recovery %)

= (1/ (1 – 0. 7))
= 3.34

The concept typical identical to that of a boiler or cooling tower. The boiler or
cooling tower both has purified water exiting the system (steam) and end up
leaving a concentrated solution behind. As the degree of concentration increases,
the solubility limits may be exceeded and precipitate on the surface of the
equipment as scale.
A concentration factor of 3.34 means that the water going to the concentrate
stream will be 3.34 times more concentrated than the feed water

4.5 Flux Rate

Gfd = gpm of permeate x 1,440 min/day s

RO elements in system x square footage of each RO element

We consider that the RO system is producing 70 gallons per minute (gpm) of

permeate. There are 3 RO vessels and each vessel holds 6 RO membranes.
Therefore total of 3 x 6 = 18 membranes are present. The type of membrane in the
RO system is a Dow Filmtec BW30-365. This type of RO membrane (or element) has
365 square feet of surface area.

To find the flux (Gfd):

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 Gfd = 70 gpm x 1,440 min/day s
18 elements x 365 sq ft

= 100,800
6,570
The flux is 15.34 Gfd.
This means that 15.34 gallons of water is passed through one square foot area of
each RO membrane per day. This number could be good or bad depending on the
type of feed water chemistry and system design. Below is a general rule of thumb
for flux ranges for different source waters and can be better determined with the
help of RO design software. If the Dow Filmtec LE-440i RO membranes is used in
the calculation for below given example, then the flux would have been 14. So it is
important factor that what type of membrane is used and to keep the type of
membrane consistent throughout the system.
Feed Water Source Gfd
Sewage Effluent 5-10
Sea Water 8-12
Brackish Surface Water 10-14
Brackish Well Water 14-18
RO Permeate Water 20-30

4.6 Mass Balance

A Mass Balance equation is used to determine if flow and quality instrumentation
is reading properly or requires calibration. If instrumentation is not reading
correctly, then the performance data trending is useless.

We will need to collect the following data from an RO system to perform a Mass
Balance calculation
1. Feed Flow (gpm)
2. Permeate Flow (gpm)
3. Concentrate Flow (gpm)
4. Feed Conductivity (μS)
5. Permeate Conductivity (μS)
6. Concentrate Conductivity (μS)

The mass balance equation is:

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(Feed flow x Feed Conductivity) = (Permeate Flow x Permeate Conductivity) +
(Concentrate Flow x Concentrate Conductivity)

Where; Feed Flow = Permeate Flow + Concentrate Flow

Using data from table 1

The Mass Balance Equation would be

(7 x 470) = (4.9 x 14) + (2.1 x 1180)

3,290 ≠ 25, 47

Then find the difference:

= Difference x 100
Sum
= 3290- 2547 x 100
3290+2547
= 13%
A difference of +/- 5% is ok. A difference of +/- 5% to 10% is generally adequate. A
difference of > +/- 10% is unacceptable and calibration of the RO instrumentation
is required to ensure that you are collecting useful data. In the above, the RO mass
balance equation falls out of range and requires attention.

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Chapter 5

TYPES OF REVERSE OSMOSIS (RO) SYSTEM AND UNDERSTANDING THE DIFFERENCE

BETWEEN PASSES AND STAGES
The term ‘stage’ and ‘pass’ are often mistaken for the same thing in an RO system
and can be confusing terminology for an RO operator. It is important to understand
the difference between 1 and 2 stages RO and a 1 and 2 pass RO.

5.1 Difference between a 1 and 2 stage RO System

In a one stage RO system, the feed water enters the RO system as one stream and
exits the RO as either concentrate or permeates water.
In a two‐stage system the concentrate (or reject) from the first stage then becomes
the feed water to the second stage. The permeate water is collected from the first
stage is combined with permeate water from the second stage. Additional stages
increase the recovery from the system.
1 stage RO system

2 stage RO system

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5.2 Array
In a reverse osmosis system an array describes the physical arrangement of the
pressure vessels in a 2 stage system. Pressure vessels contain RO membranes
(usually from 1 to 6 RO membranes are in a pressure vessel). Each stage can have
a certain amount of pressure vessels with RO membranes. The reject of each stage
then becomes the feed stream for the next successive stage. The 2 stage RO system
displayed on the previous page is a 2:1 array which means that the concentrate (or
reject) of the first 2 RO vessels is fed to the next 1 vessel.

5.3RO System with Concentrate Recycle

With an RO system that can’t be properly staged and the feed water chemistry
allows for it, a concentrate recycle setup can be utilized where a portion of the
concentrate stream is fed back to the feed water to the first stage to help increase
the system recovery.

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5.4 Difference between a Single Pass RO and Double Pass RO system
Think of a ‘pass’ as a standalone RO system. With this in mind, the difference
between a single pass RO system and a double pass RO system is that with a double
pass RO, the permeate from the first pass becomes the feed water to the second
pass (or second RO) which ends up producing a much higher quality permeate
because it has essentially gone through two RO systems.

Besides producing a much higher quality permeate, a double pass system also
allows the opportunity to remove carbon dioxide gas from permeates by injecting
caustic between the first and second pass. C02 is undesirable when you have mixed
bed ion exchange resin beds after the RO. By adding caustic after the first pass, you
increase the pH of the first pass permeate water and convert C02 to bicarbonate
(HCO3-) and carbonate (CO3-2) for better rejection by the RO membranes in the
second pass. This can’t be done with a single pass RO because injecting caustic and
forming carbonate (CO3-2) in the presence of cation such as calcium will cause
scaling of the RO membranes.

Single Pass RO

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Double Pass RO

Chapter 6

PRETREATMENT AND PRETREATMENT SOLUTION FOR RO

6.1 RO PRETREATMENT

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Proper pretreatment using both mechanical and chemical treatments is critical for
an RO system to prevent fouling, scaling and costly premature RO membrane
failure and frequent cleaning requirements. The following are the common
problems that an RO system can face due to lack of proper pretreatment.

(a) Fouling
Fouling occurs when contaminants accumulate on the membrane surface
effectively plugging the membrane. There are many contaminants in municipal
feed water that are naked to the human eye and harmless for human consumption,
but large enough to quickly foul (or plug) an RO system. Fouling typically occurs in
the front end of an RO system and results in a higher pressure drop across the RO
system and a lower permeate flow. This translates into higher operating costs and
eventually the need to clean or replace the RO membranes. Fouling will take place
eventually to some extent given the extremely fine pore size of an RO membrane
no matter how effective your pretreatment and cleaning schedule is. However, by
having proper pretreatment in place, you will minimize the need to address fouling
related problems on a regular basis.

Fouling can be caused by the following

1. Particulate or colloidal mater (dirt, silt, clay, etc.)

2. Organics (humic/fulvic acids, etc)
3. Microorganisms (bacteria, etc). Bacteria present one of the most common
fouling problems since RO membranes in use today cannot tolerate a disinfectant
such as chlorine and the fore microorganisms are often able to thrive and multiply
on the membrane surface. They may product biofilms that cover the membrane
surface and result in heavy fouling.
4. Breakthrough of filter media upstream of the RO unit. GAC carbon beds and
softener beds may develop an under drain leak and if there is not adequate post
filtration in place the media can foul the RO system.

By performing analytical tests, you can determine if the feed water to your RO has
a high potential for fouling. To prevent fouling of an RO system, mechanical
filtration methods are used. The most popular methods to prevent fouling are the
use of multi‐media filters (MMF) or microfiltration (MF). In some cases cartridge
filtration will suffice.

(b) Scaling

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As certain dissolved (inorganic) compounds become more concentrated
(remember discussion on concentration factor) then scaling can occur if these
compounds exceed their solubility limits and precipitate on the membrane surface
as scale. The results of scaling are a higher pressure drop across the system, higher
salt passage (less salt rejection), low permeate flow and lower permeate water
quality. An example of a common scale that tends to form on an RO membrane is
calcium carbonate (CaCO3).

(c) Chemical Attack

Modern thin film composite membranes are not tolerant to chlorine or
chloramines. Oxidizers such as chlorine will ‘burn’ holes in the membrane pores
and can cause irreparable damage. The result of chemical attack on an RO
membrane is a higher permeate flow and a higher salt passage (poorer quality
permeate water). This is why microorganism growth on RO membranes tends to
foul RO membranes so easily since there is no biocide to prevent its growth.

(d) Mechanical Damage

Part of the pre-treatment scheme should be pre and post RO system plumbing and
controls. If ‘hard starts’ occur mechanical damage to the membranes can occur.
Likewise, if there is too much backpressure on the RO system then mechanical
damage to the RO membranes can also occur. These can be addressed by using
variable frequency drive motors to start high pressure pumps for RO systems and
by installing check valve(s) and/or pressure relief valves to prevent excessive back
pressure on the RO unit that can cause permanent membrane damage.

6.2 Pretreatment Solutions

Pre-treatment solutions for RO systems can be made in order to minimize fouling,
scaling and chemical attack of the following.
6.2.1 Multi Media Filter (MMF)
A Multi-Media Filter is used to help prevent fouling of an RO system. A MMF
typically contains three layers of media consisting of anthracite coal, sand and
garnet, with a supporting layer of gravel at the bottom. These are the Medias of
choice because of the differences in size and density. The larger (but lighter)
anthracite coal will be on top and the heavier (but smaller) garnet will remain on
the bottom. The filter media arrangement allows the largest dirt particles to be
removed near the top of the media bed with the smaller dirt particles being
retained deeper and deeper in the media. This allows the entire bed to act as a

24
filter allowing much longer filter run times between backwash and more efficient
particulate removal.

A well‐operated Multi-Media Filter can remove particulates down to 15-20

microns. A Multi‐Media Filter that uses a coagulant addition (which induces tiny
particles to join together to form particles large enough to be filtered) can remove
particulates down to 5-10 microns. To put this in perspective, the width of a human
hair is around 50 microns.

A multi media filter is suggested when the Silt Density Index (SDI) value is greater
than 3 or when the turbidity is greater than 0.2 NTU. There is no exact rule, but the
above guidelines should be followed to prevent premature fouling of RO
membranes.

It is important to have a 5 micron cartridge filter placed directly after the MMF unit
in the event that the under drains of the MMF fail. This will prevent the MMF media
from damaging downstream pumps and fouling the RO system.

6.2.2 Microfiltration (MF)

Microfiltration is effective in removing colloidal and bacteria matter and has a pore
size of only 0.1-10μm. MF is helpful in reducing fouling potential for an RO unit.
Membrane configuration can vary between manufacturers, but the "hollow fiber"
type is the most commonly used. Typically, the water is pumped from the outside
of the fibers, and the clean water is collected from the inside of the fibers.
Microfiltration membranes used in potable water applications usually operate in
"dead‐end" flow. In dead-end flow, all of the water fed to the membrane is filtered
through the membrane. A filter cake that must be periodically backwashed from
the membrane surface forms. Recovery rates are normally greater than 90 percent
on feed water sources which have fairly high quality and low turbidity feeds.

6.2.3 Antiscalants and Scale Inhibitors

Antiscalants and scale inhibitors, as their name suggests, are chemicals that can be
added to feed water before an RO unit to help reduce the scaling potential of the
feed water. Antiscalants and scale inhibitors increase the solubility limits of
troublesome inorganic compounds. By increasing the solubility limits, you are able
to concentrate the salts further than otherwise would be possible and
therefore\achieve a higher recovery rate and run at a higher concentration factor.
Antiscalants and scale inhibitors work by interfering with scale formation and
25
crystal growth. The choice of Antiscalants or scale inhibitor to use and the correct
dosage depends on the feed water chemistry and RO system design.

6.2.4 Water Softening

A water softener can be used to help prevent scaling in an RO system by exchanging
scale forming ions with non scale forming ions. As with a MMF unit, it is important
to have a 5 micron cartridge filter placed directly after the water softener in the
event that the under drains of the softener fail.

6.2.5 Sodium Bisulfite

By adding sodium bisulfite (SBS or SMBS), which is a reducer, to the water stream
before an RO at the proper dose you can remove residual chlorine and chloramines.

6.2.6 Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)

GAC is used for both removing organic constituents and residual disinfectants (such
as chlorine and chloramines) from water. GAC media is made from coal, nutshells
or wood. Activated carbon removes residual chlorine and chloramines by a
chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons from the surface of the GAC
to the residual chlorine or chloramines. The chlorine or chloramines ends up as a
chloride ion that is no longer an oxidizer.

The disadvantage of using a GAC before the RO unit is that the GAC will remove
chlorine quickly at the very top of the GAC bed. This will leave the remainder of the
GAC bed without any biocide to kill microorganisms. A GAC bed will absorb organics
throughout the bed, which is potential food for bacteria, so eventually a GAC bed
can become a breeding ground for bacteria growth which can pass easily to the RO
membranes. Likewise, a GAC bed can produce very small carbon fines under some
circumstances that have the potential to foul an RO.

26
Chapter 7

RO ANALYSIS AND CLEANING OF MEMBRANE

7.1 RO Data Trending and Normalization
The RO membranes are the heart of the RO system and certain data points needs
to be collected to determine the health of the RO membranes. These data points
include the system pressures, flows, quality and temperature. Water temperature
is directly proportional to pressure. As the water temperature decreases it
becomes more viscous and the RO permeate flow will drop as it requires more
pressure to push the water through the membrane. Likewise, when the water
temperature increases the RO permeate flow will increase. As a result,
performance data for an RO system must be normalized so that flow variations are
not interpreted as abnormal when no problem exists. The normalized flows,
pressures and salt rejection should be calculated, graphed and compared to the
baseline data (when the RO was commissioned or after the membranes were
cleaned or replaced) to help troubleshoot any problems and also determine when
to clean or inspect the membranes for damage. Data normalization helps display
the true performance of the RO membranes. As a general rule of thumb, when the
normalized change is +/- 15% from the baseline data then you need to take action.
If you don’t follow this rule then RO membrane cleanings may not be very effective
at brining the membranes back to near new performance.

7.2 RO Cleaning
RO membranes will inevitably require periodic cleaning, anywhere from 1 to 4
times a year depending on the feed water quality. As a general rule, if the
normalized pressure drop or the normalized salt passage has increased by 15%,
then it is time to clean the RO membranes. If the normalized permeate flow has
decreased by 15% then it is also time to clean the RO membranes. You can either
clean the RO membranes in place or have them removed from the RO system and
cleaned off site by a service company that specializes in this service. It has been
proven that offsite membrane cleaning is more effective at providing a better
cleaning than onsite cleaning skids.

RO membrane cleaning involves low and high pH cleaners to remove contaminants

from the membrane. Scaling is addressed with low pH cleaners and organics,

27
colloidal and bio fouling is treated with a high pH cleaner. Cleaning RO membranes
is not only about using the appropriate chemicals. There are many other factors
involved such as flows, water temperature and quality, properly designed and sized
cleaning skids and many other factors that an experienced service group must
address in order to properly clean RO membranes.

RO Membrane

28
Chapter 8

Result and conclusion

Now a day Reverse Osmosis is an effective and proven technology to produce water
that is suitable for many industrial applications that require demineralized or
deionized water. Further post treatment after the RO systems such as mixed bed
deionization can increase the quality of the RO permeate and make it suitable for
the most demanding applications. Proper pretreatment and monitoring of an RO
system is crucial in preventing costly repairs and unscheduled maintenance. With
the correct system design, maintenance program, and experienced service support,
the RO system can provide highly pure water for many years.
RO removes many inorganic impurities from drinking water. Its effectiveness
depends not only on the type of membrane but on feed water, quality,
temperature, pressure, and flow control, as well as the type and concentration of
specific contaminants to be removed.

• A typical RO system consists of a sediment filter, pump, reverse osmosis

membrane, flow regulator, storage tank, final activated carbon filter (for taste and
odours), and dispensing faucet. An AC prefilter is sometimes needed for
dechlorination.
• RO is commonly used to treat only the water used for drinking and cooking at the
point of use rather than at the point of entry for all household use.

The performance of RO system is obtained as-

Salt Rejection % = 97 %
Salt Passage % =3%
Recovery % = 70 %
Concentration Factor = 3.34

29
Flux Rate = 15.34 Gfd
Difference of Mass Balance = 13 %

It can be concluded that the principle of treating wastewater as a valuable source

becomes increasingly accepted. The larger demand of water due to population
growth and increased comfort is translated into better protection of sources and
eventually, zero discharge or nearly zero discharge systems. A remarkable
observation is that in none of projects adverse health effects were obtained, even
on a long timescale. This shows that the technologies for producing clean water
from wastewater are available, but not everyone is convinced. A good direction for
the future to stimulate water recycling is therefore not in technology but rather in
education programs and information campaigns.

Another conclusion to be made is the difference between developed and

developing countries. Water recycling requires (expensive) technology if the
effluent is to be safe and reliable. Developing countries lack infrastructure and
financial means to do this, so that water recycling, where applied, is unsafe due to
remaining microbiological and chemical contaminations. When used for irrigation,
pollutants are spread over a large area and may affect the crops. Waste and
wastewater is discharged into rivers without any treatment; pollutants accumulate
and cause problems downstream where the water is to be used as the only source.
Drinking water production interferes with this approach, in some cases even
through direct contact between river water and drinking water.

WHO REPORT:
The final WHO report, published as an internal working document concluded that
“not only does completely demineralised water (RO WATER) have unsatisfactory
organoleptic properities, but it also has a definite adverse influence on the animal
and human organism.”

The potential for adverse health effects from long term consumption of
demineralised water is of interest not only in countries lacking adequate fresh
water but also in countries where some types of home water treatment systems
are widely used or where some types of bottled water are consumed.

30
Chapter 9

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