KARYA INTERNSHIP PROJECT WORK FINAL REPORT ON

MATHEMATICAL MODELING
A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITTED TO

KARYA PROGRAMME, Govt of Rajasthan

Department of Science & Technology

Shastri Nagar, Jaipur

KARYA student name: Arvind Kumar Nehra

Title of Project: Mathematical modeling
Supervisor name: Prof. S. Ghorai
Allocated institute name: IIT Kanpur
Date of joining: 29 June 2023
Date of completion: 15 August 2023

Signature of KARYA student Signature of Supervisor

 Table of Contents

1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
2. CERTIFICATE FROM SUPERVISOR
3. INTRODUCTION
4. OBJECTIVES
5. METHODOLOGY
6. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
7. CONCLUSION
8. REFERENCES
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

As I reach the culmination of my Mathematics project, I find myself overwhelmed with a

deep sense of gratitude and appreciation towards those who have made this journey
possible.
First and foremost, I am immensely grateful to my exceptional supervisor, Prof. S.
Ghorai, for their unwavering belief in my potential and their unending support
throughout this project have been truly transformative. Their mentorship, insightful
guidance, and dedication to my academic growth have not only enriched this research
but have also inspired me to strive for excellence in every pursuit.
I want to express my sincere appreciation to my parents and family for their
unconditional love and encouragement. Their constant support and belief in my abilities
have been a pillar of strength, motivating me to preserve even during the most
challenging times.
I am very thankful to DST Rajasthan to provide me such a great opportunity to pursue
the internship in Mathematical Modeling from IIT Kanpur.
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr ARVIND KUMAR NEHRA has

successfully completed study on “MATHEMATICAL MODELING”
during four weeks duration under my supervision. Mr Arvind
Kumar Nehra was a KARYA fellow of DST Govt. of Rajasthan
during this period.

Name & signature of Supervisor

Introduction:
In the world of scientific exploration and solving real-world problems, mathematical modeling plays a
vital role as a powerful tool that goes beyond the limits of traditional fields of study.

It stands as a bridge between theoretical concepts and real-world applications, providing a framework
for understanding complex systems and predicting their behaviour. This internship report explores the
captivating world of mathematical modeling, exploring its importance, methodologies, and practical
applications.

Fundamentally, mathematical modeling is the art of formulating mathematical equations and structures
to represent and interpret diverse phenomena across various domains, such as physics, biology,
economics, engineering, and beyond. It enables researchers to model and study complex systems that
are difficult to directly observe, providing valuable insights that influence important decisions and
stimulate innovation.

This report will reveal the many aspects of mathematical modeling by demonstrating how it is used in
real-life situations. From predicting the spread of infectious diseases to optimizing supply chain logistics
and simulating climate change patterns, mathematical models play a pivotal role in tackling global
challenges.

Throughout my internship, I will have the opportunity to develop a complete understanding of the
underlying mathematical principles and computational techniques. Furthermore, this report will reflect
on the challenges I encounter during the internship and the valuable experiences I gain while handling
diverse datasets and refining models.

In conclusion, this report aims to emphasize the crucial role of mathematical modeling in today's data-
driven and interconnected world. Our exploration of dynamical modeling has provided valuable insights
into the behaviour of complex systems over time. Through steady state analysis, we've understood the
equilibrium points and stability of dynamic systems, enhancing our predictive abilities. The
implementation of discrete time dynamic systems has enabled us to understand the trajectories of
change, offering a framework to optimize the behaviour of the system.
OBJECTIVE:

Develop a better understanding of the basic concepts of mathematical modeling this is the core
principle of the project work. To gain the basic and fundamental idea of mathematical modeling, I have
been introduced with the general types of modeling and methodology and afterward some deeper
concepts of mathematical simulation, also obtain the knowledge about using mathematical modeling to
solve real-life problems.

To optimize the objective of this mathematical modeling project is to analyze and determine the optimal
decision or solution for a given problem. This involves formulating a mathematical model, applying
appropriate methods, and interpreting the results to achieve the best outcome based on the specified
constraints and objectives.

Through the application of mathematical techniques and analysis, the goal is to maximize efficiency,
minimize costs, or achieve any other specified target, resulting in the most favourable solution.

To ensures the reliability and effectiveness of the model in capturing real-world dynamics, performing
the sensitivity analysis for better and accurate results and outcomes.

Our secondary objective is to acquire the understanding of core concepts of dynamical modeling and the
system which are changing continuously with respect to time. And to use these methodologies in real
world problems and to expend the knowledge about future of mathematical modeling.
METHODOLOGY

In this mathematical modeling project, we aim to develop a comprehensive understanding of

Mathematical Modeling by constructing a robust and effective methodology. The primary goal is to
devise a mathematical model that accurately represents the underlying dynamics of the system and
yields valuable insights for further analysis and prediction. The methodology is structured into several
key stages, each designed to address specific aspects of the problem.

Problem Definition: We begin by precisely defining the research question and objectives of the project.
This step involves a thorough literature review to identify existing models and approaches, enabling us to
build upon prior knowledge.

Model Selection: Based on the nature of the problem, we choose the most suitable mathematical model
or a combination of models. This selection may involve differential equations, stochastic processes, or
optimization techniques, depending on the complexity and dynamics of the system.

Model Development: We develop the chosen mathematical model, describing the system's behaviour
and interactions between its components. Rigorous mathematical derivations and simulations are
conducted to ensure the model's integrity.

Sensitivity Analysis: We conduct sensitivity analysis to identify critical parameters and evaluate their
impact on the model's outcomes. This step enhances our understanding of the system's behaviour under
various conditions.

Interpretation and Insights: The results obtained from the model are thoroughly analysed and
interpreted to extract meaningful insights into the system's behaviour, providing valuable information for
decision-making processes.

By following this well-structured methodology, we expect to contribute significantly to the

understanding and management of Mathematical Modeling and address real-world challenges more
effectively.
Results:
The Results and Discussion section highlights the achievements and insights gained during this great
four-week internship focused on mathematical modeling. The internship includes a comprehensive
exploration of various topics, including Steady state analysis, Dynamical system models, Discrete time
dynamic systems, and the Eigenvalue method for dynamic system. Through this splendid program,
valuable outcomes and observations were obtained, exploring the way for a deeper understanding of
mathematical modeling's practical applications and problem-solving techniques.

WEEK 1: Steady state analysis

WEEK 2: Dynamical system models
WEEK 3: Discrete time dynamic systems
WEEK 4: Eigenvalue method for dynamic system
DYNAMIC MODELING

Dynamic modeling is a powerful approach that enables us to understand and predict the behaviour of
complex systems that change over time. Whether it’s the spread of a disease, the trajectory of a
spacecraft, or the fluctuations of stock prices, dynamic modeling provides us with a valuable tool to
simulate and analyze these processes.

This is the most important and emerging part of modeling.

Since, Static model represents a system at a particular point in time when the system is in balance.
Whereas Dynamic model represents systems as they change over time that result from system activities.

The Dynamic modeling describes those aspects of a system concerned with time and the sequencing of
the operations.

For example, for an aircraft a static system analysis maybe sufficient for the stress in wings during steady
flight. However, for the aircraft to be subjected to the time varying stresses during flight through
turbulent air, emergency maneuvers or hard landing a dynamic system analysis has to be done.

Dynamic system analysis is more complex than static system analysis since the conclusion based on static
system analysis may not be correct.

In fact, system may never reach to steady state condition due to external disturbances or instabilities
that occur when system dynamics are taken into account.

In dynamical modeling our principal goal is to start with Physical component descriptions of system
understanding of component behaviour to create mathematical models of the system.

Mathematical model of state determined system are defined by set of ordinary differential equations in
terms of state variables and a set of algebraic relations which define values of other system variables to
state variables.
Dynamic behaviour of state- determined system can be predicted if

● values of state variables at some initial time known, and

● future time history of input quantities to system is known.

These models have built in assumptions

Even in Future do not affect the present state of system i.e. time runs only in one direction from past to
future.

Like some disease spreading with respect to time or any spatial population is growing in some specific
region change with respect to time or two species grows simultaneously in an area with constrained
resources. We study the behaviour of these systems with the help of mathematical concepts and
anticipate future behaviour or outcome(result) based on our analysis.

Steady State Analysis

In this section we will consider the simplest type of dynamic model. The mathematics required are
elementary indeed. Even so, the practical applications for this model are numerous, and the absence of
too much sophisticated technique leaves us free to concentrate on some of the most fundamental ideas
of dynamic Modeling.

Example. In an unmanaged tract of forest area, hardwood and softwood trees compete for the available
land and water. The more desirable hardwood trees grow more slowly, but are more durable and
produce more valuable timber. Softwood trees compete with the hardwoods by growing rapidly and
consuming the available water and soil nutrients. Hardwoods compete by growing taller than the
softwoods can and shading new seedlings. They are also more resistant to disease. Can these two types
of trees coexist on one tract of forest land indefinitely, or will one type of tree drive the other to
extinction?

Let the total population of hardwood and softwood tree is H and S respectively. We will use five step
method and now we have to make some assumptions.

Growth rate function

Now our objective is to derive the function for growth rate of a population for which we want to create
concrete model and study their behaviour. Let we want to study the growth of any specific species
population (let's say bacteria in a particular region) let x be the total number of bacteria which we want
to anticipate and study their behaviour in a very small specific region.
And the rate of change in the population is dx/dt with respect to time t. So, the rate of change of
population would be proportional to total number of bacteria.

dx
∝x
dt
dx
=ax
dt
By integrating both side

1
∫ ax dx =∫ dt

( 1a ) log ( x )=t +c
log ( x )=at +ac
at ac
x=e . e
x= A . e at
0
Since, x 0= A . e

x 0= A

So x=x 0 . eat
Now we want to plot the graph and observe the relation between x and t

Figure: graph showing how the number of bacteria (x) changes over time
From the graph, it is crystal clear that the number of bacteria is increasing exponentially with respect to
time. With that being said, the number of bacteria at the beginning (at t = 0) was x 0 .

dx
Since the is the rate of change in the population(bacteria). So, the per capita growth rate would be
dt
equal to ()
1 dx
x dt
.

Now, if a point k at x axis is the intersecting point and let y= ( )

1 dx
x dt
1 dx
then finally plotting the graph to find out the relation between . and x , we get
x dt

Figure: the graph showing relation between x and 1/x(dx/dt)

The equation of the straight line we get,

1 dx
.
x x dt
+ =1
k a

( 1x ) dxdt =a− axk

dx
=ax−a x 2
dt
Which can be written as

dx 2
=ax−b x
dt
And this would be called the growth rate (rate of change per capita). As general let P is the total
population of the species which we want to anticipate and ‘a’ is intrinsic growth rate then the net growth
rate of population g(P) is can be write as follow

The growth rate of an increasing population is given by

g(P) = aP – bP²

Where P is the total population and a is called intrinsic growth rate. And a << r is a measure of the
strength of resource limitations. If a is smaller, there is more room to grow.

Both species will compete for their survival. The effect of competition is due to resource limitations.

Therefore, the net growth rate of a Hardwood trees is

2 dx
g ( H )=ax −b x −fxy=
dt
And the net growth rate of softwood trees is

2 dy
g ( S )=cy −d y −gxy=
dt

Theorem: let f1(x1,.... ,xn), f2(x1,......,xn), ......, fn(x1,.......,xn) function of n variables are given. The functions
(f1, . . . , fn) represent the rate of change of each variable x 1, . . . , xn respectively. A point (x1, . . . , xn) in the
set S is called an equilibrium point if

f1(x1,........,xn) = 0

fn(x1,........,xn) = 0

The next step to solve our problem is to formulate the model. Let x = H and y = S denotes our two state
variables.

Now in our case the steady state equations are

dx 2
=ax−b x −fxy=0
dt
dy
=cy−d y 2−gxy =0
dt
Now in order to find the solution the system of equations we solve the both above equations and the
solution represents a straight line for each.

x ( a−bx −fy )=0

 y ( c−dy −gx )=0
here, we obtain

bx + fy=a
gx+ dy=c
x y
⇒ + =1
a a
b f
x y
⇒ + =1
c c
g d

This shows that the first equation of line intersects the x axis at the point (a/b, 0) and y axis at the point
(0, a/f). And the second equation of line intersect the x axis at point (c/g, 0) and y axis at the point (0,
c/d).

Figure: Graph of softwood trees y versus hardwood trees x showing equilibria for the tree
problem

These solutions represent the equilibrium points of our dynamic model.

We will get total four solutions at following coordinates

(0, 0)
 (a/b, 0)

(0, a/f)

And the fourth point is where these two lines intersects (i.e. the solution of these two lines)

To solve the system of equations, by using elimination method we get,

ad−cf
x=
bd−gf
bc−ag
y=
bd−gf
If the two lines do not cross inside the state space, then there are only three Equilibria. In this case the
two species of trees cannot coexist in peaceful equilibrium. We are interested to know the conditions
under which x > 0 and y > 0. It is reasonable to assume that a > b, since the effect of competition
between members of the same species should be stronger than the competition between species.

In our rate of change equation ax−b x2 −fxy , the first term shows unrestricted growth while the
second term represents the effect of compilation within a population.

Since the two types of trees do not occupy exactly the same ecological specialty, it is reasonable to
suppose that the effect of competition within a population would be the stronger.

So,

bd – gf > 0

Therefore, the condition of coexistence of these two species is

ad – cf > 0

bc – ag > 0

So, we can say that,

a c
⇒ >
f d
c a
⇒ >
g b
And our final step is to express the result in plain English which is obtained from our analysis. It is
difficult to do so in this case, because our answer is qualified, and the qualifications involve unknown
parameters. In order to communicate our results clearly, we want to better understand and explain we
would like to find a more tangible interpretation of our conditions for coexistence.

The steady–state analysis of this section leaves one important question unanswered. Given that a
dynamic model has an equilibrium solution, will we ever get there? The answer depends on the
dynamics of the model.
Steady–state analysis cannot answer the question of stability, that’s why we will use another method to
analysis the behaviour of such models.

So, in a nut shell, instead of steady state analysis we have to perform dynamic model analysis.

Dynamic systems
Dynamical system models stand out as the most frequently employed dynamic models. Within such
models, the forces of change find representation through differential equations. This segment will delve
into the graphical approach to gather qualitative insights about dynamical systems, with a primary focus
on stability-related inquiries.

Theorem: A dynamical system consists of n state variables (x1, . . . , xn) and a system of differential
equation

d x1
=f 1(x 1 , … .., x n)
dt
.

d xn
=f n (x 1 , … .. , x n )
dt
defined on the state space (x 1 ,……, xn) ∈ S, where S is a subset of R n. The existence and uniqueness
theorem of differential equations states that if f 1,……, fn have continuous first partial derivatives, then
there exists a unique solution to this system of differential equation through this initial condition.

Example: The blue whale and fin whale are two similar species that inhabit the same areas. Hence, they
are thought to compete. The intrinsic growth rate of each species is estimated at 5% per year for the
blue whale and 8% per year for the fin whale. The environmental carrying capacity (the maximum
number of whales that the environment can support) is estimated at 150,000 blues and 400,000 fins.
The extent to which the whales compete is unknown. In the last 100 years intense harvesting has
reduced the whale population to around 5,000 Blues and 70,000 fins. Will the blue whale become
extinct?

It can be solved with dynamic system method. Firstly, we will create a concrete model of this whole
system and then we will solve that model with the help of mathematical concepts.

Our first step is to make some useful assumptions and assign some variables to illustrate the model.

Variables: B = total no. of blue whales

F = total no. of fin whales

gB = growth rate of blue whale population

gF = growth rate of Fin whale population

CB = effect of competition on blue whale

CF = effect of competition on fin whale

Assumptions: gB = 0.05B(1 - B/150000)

gF = 0.08F(1 - F/400000)

CB = CF = aBF

a is a positive real constant

Objective: our objective is to Determine whether dynamic system can reach stable equilibrium
starting from B = 5, 000, F = 70, 000

After assigning variables and assumptions, our next step is to formulate the model. Let x = B (no. of blue
whales) and y = F (no. of Fin whales)

Then

dx
x ' =f ( x , y ) =
dt
' dy
y =g ( x , y )=
dt
Where,
 (
f ( x , y )=0.05 x 1−
x
)
150000
− Axy

g ( x , y )=0.08 y ( 1−
400000 )
y
−Axy

Now we need to solve this model. According to the above theorem in order to find the equilibrium or
dx dy
stable point, we need to put =0 and =0
dt dt
So,

'
( 150000
x =0.05 x 1−
x
)− Axy=0
y =0.08 y (1−
400000 )
' x
− Axy=0

By putting f(x, y) = 0, We obtain

[ (
x 0.05 1−
x
150000 )
−Ay =0
]
(
0.05 1−
x
150000 )
= Ay

x Ay
1− =
150000 0.05
x y
+ =1
150000 0.05
A
Hence, we get the solution as straight line equation which intersect x axis at 150000 and y axis at 0.05/A

For second equation g(x, y) = 0

[ (
y 0.08 1−
y
400000 )
−Ax =0
]
(
0.08 1−
y
400000
=Ax)
x y
+ =1
0.08 400000
A
So, the line intersects x and y axis at 0.08/A and 400000 respectively.
The equilibria will be at the intersection of these two lines. Furthermore, the velocity vectors will be
vertical along (x’ = 0) and horizontal along (y′ =0).

Figure: graph of fin whale y vs blue whale x showing the vector field for the whale problem.

There are four equilibrium solutions, three are following:

(0, 0)

(150000, 0)

(0, 400000)

And the last one at a point whose coordinates depends on A. In our graphical analysis, we assume that
400000 < 0.05/A

In this case it is crystal clear that the equilibrium in the interior is the only stable one. In fact, any
solution through a point in the interior of the state space will eventually converge upon this equilibrium.
In particular, the solution with initial conditions x1(0) = 5, 000 and x2(0) = 70, 000 tends to this
equilibrium as t → ∞ .

And eventually we come to step five that says that we need to express the result in normal English
without any typical mathematical terms.

Based on our analysis, in the absence of further harvesting, the whale Populations will grow back to their
natural levels, and the ecological system will remain in stable equilibrium. Of course, our conclusions are
based on some rather broad assumptions. For Example, we have assumed that the effect of competition
is relatively small. If it were larger (i.e., if (0.05/α) < 400, 000), then the two species could not coexist.

It does seem reasonable to make the assumption that α is small, since we know that the two species
have coexisted for a long time before we began to harvest them. We have also made several simplifying
assumptions about the growth process. The most critical of these is that for very small population levels,
the population still tends to increase at the intrinsic growth rate. It is believed that some species have a
minimum size below which the growth rate is negative, indicating the extinction of the species.
Discrete time dynamical system

So far, we have discussed the continuous dynamic models in which the time variable was a continuous
quantity in an interval.

A discrete-time dynamical system is a mathematical model used to describe the evolution of a system
over time in discrete steps or intervals. Instead of representing continuous changes, like in a continuous-
time system, it operates in a step-wise manner. Each step updates the state of the system based on
certain rules or equations, which determine how the system behaves over time. This type of system is
often used in various fields like physics, engineering, biology, and economics to study processes that
occur in distinct, separate increments.

In discrete system we have to model time variable as being discrete so in this case the usual differential
equations replaced by their discrete time analog: difference equations.

Example: Astronauts in training are required to practice a docking maneuver under manual control. As a
part of this maneuver, it is required to bring an orbiting spacecraft to rest relative to another orbiting
craft. The hand controls provide for variable acceleration and deceleration, and there is a device on
board that measures the rate of closing between the two vehicles. The following strategy has been
proposed for bringing the craft to rest. First, look at the closing velocity. If it is zero, we are done.
Otherwise, remember the closing velocity and look at the acceleration control. Move the acceleration
control so that it is opposite to the closing velocity (i.e., if closing velocity is positive, we slow down, and
we speed up if it is negative) and proportional in magnitude (i.e., we brake twice as hard if we find
ourselves closing twice as fast). After a time, look at the closing velocity again and repeat the procedure.
Under what circumstances will this strategy be effective?

This is discrete dynamic system model in which we have to observe quantities (parameters) at nth time
or (n+1)th time. So, to create the concrete model of this problem, we assign some variables and after
that we will make some assumptions regarding to solve our problem using discrete time system
technique.

Variables: tn = time of nth velocity observation

vn = velocity at time tn

Cn = time to make nth control adjustment

An = acceleration after nth adjustment

wn = wait before (n+1)th observation

Assumptions: tn+1 = cn + tn + wn
 V n+1 = v n + a n-1 c n + a n w n

a n = -kv n

Cn > 0

Objective: find out that whether v n → 0

Let vn be the closing velocity observed at time t n. Therefore, the change in closing velocity due to our
adjustments will be

∆ (vn) = vn+1 – vn
The time between observations can be denoted by

∆ t n = t n+1 – t n
And the time taken by observer into two successive adjustments will be having two parts. First the time
it takes to adjust the velocity control and the second part is the time between adjustments and the next
observation of velocity parameter. Let C n is the to adjust the velocity controls, and w n is the waiting time
until the next observation.

The parameter cn is a function of astronaut response time, and we are free to choose w n. Let an denote
the acceleration setting after the nth adjustment. Then we can say that

∆ v n=a n−1 c n +a n wn

a n=−k v n

Next step is to select the modeling approach. We will model this problem as discrete time dynamic
system.

Step three is to formulate the model. We are modeling the docking problem as a discrete system model.

By our above assumptions, we obtain

( v n+1−v n )=−k v n−1 c n−k v n w n

Here, we can see that the change in velocity over the nth time step depends on both v n and vn-1. To
simplify the analysis, let us assume that cn = c and wn = w for all n. Then the length of each time step is

∆ t=c+w
Let x1(n) = vn

x2(n) = vn-1

Then ∆ x1 = - kwx1 – kcx2

∆ x2 = x1 - x2
In the next step we will solve the model. Since it is a discrete type model so in such model, we put ∆ x1 =
0 and ∆ x2 = 0

Here in this case, we have x1 and x2 as variable so we will write

∆ x1 = - kwx1 - kwx2 = 0
∆ x2 = x1 - x2 = 0
By solving these two straight line equations, we get an equilibrium point (0, 0) at the intersection of
these two lines.

It appears as though solutions will tend toward equilibrium, but it is hard to be sure. If k, c, and w are
large, then the equilibrium is probably unstable, but once again it is difficult to tell

Sometimes in math, we deal with some problems that we can’t solve right away. When this happens, it’s
a good idea to look at our assumptions and see if we can make the problem simpler to solve. However,
simplifying the problem is only useful if the simplified version still matters. In our docking problem,
we’ve split the change in speed (∆ vn) into two parts. One part is about how the speed changes from
when we check it to when we adjust our speed. Imagine we can do this very quickly. Specifically, let’s say
c is much smaller than w. If v n and vn-1 are not too different, the approximation ∆ v n ≈−kw v n should be
reasonably accurate.

The difference equation ∆ x 1=−kw x 1 is similar to dx/dt = F(x) and we will get a stable equilibrium for
any kw < 2. If kw < 1, we will approach the equilibrium asymptotically without overextending.

Step 5 five is to answer the analysis question in plain English. So far, we didn't get any exact answer, by
using this type of method we can’t tell absolutely whether the model is stable or not. At the moment
with the help of the analysis we did, we just can say that a completely satisfactory solution is not
obtainable by elementary graphical methods. In other words, but we can talk about the stability of the
system using more typical methods to determine exactly the conditions under which the proposed
control strategy will work. Still, we may come to the conclusion that the mentioned strategy will work
effectively as long as the time interval between two successive adjustments is not too long. In our
question it is also mentioned that there is a time delay between reading the velocity indicator and
adjustment control. Of course, it is natural that it takes some time to do both things at one time. So, by
this delay statement our problem has become more complicated. In case we ignore the time delay
between successive adjustments, we can state general conclusion:

The control strategy will work as long as the control adjustments are not too violent.

Example: let u = (x, y) and consider the difference equation ∆u = −λu, where λ > 0. What is the behaviour
of solution near the equilibrium point u 0 = (0, 0)

Solution: To be given that F(x) = - λx

Now if we represent the system as matrix then the system can be expressed as following

u= [ xy ]
∆u = ∆ [ xy ]
∆ u=−¿ λu

[ ∆∆ xy ]=[−λ y]
−λ x

∆ x=−λ x
∆ y =−λ y
x n+1−x n =−λ x n

y n+ 1− y n=−λ y n

x n+1=−λ x n+ x n =xn ( 1−λ )

y n+ 1=−λ y n + y n= y n ( 1− λ )

Let λ=1/2

1
x n+1= x n
2
1
y n+ 1= y n
2
1
x n= ( x n−1 )
2

x n−1=
1 1
x ( 1
= x
2 2 n−2 22 n−2)
.

Similarly,

1
x= x0
2n
1
y= x
n 0
2
Here as n → ∞ the variable x will tend to 0 and also y will tend to 0. It shows that the whole system is
tending to origin and is stable at equilibrium point (0, 0).
we can check that this result is only valid till, we are near at origin the condition for which the system is
stable and tends to origin is can be found by ( 1− λ )n statement.

Since −1<1− λ<1

−2<−λ <0
2> λ> 0
It shows that if we take any point further from 2, the system will not remain stable in it will diverge
towards ∞ or −∞

So, the differential equation ∆ x=−λx is stable from -2 to 2. For larger values, the dynamics of the
system will be changed and it won’t work as it does into -2 to 2.

Thus, we can say that the difference in behaviour between discrete and continuous system can be
dramatic.
Eigenvalue Methods

When the equations of dynamic model are linear, it is possible to obtain an exact analytical solution.
While linear dynamics are rare in real life, the majority of dynamic systems can be approximated by
linear systems, at least locally. Such linear approximations, especially in the neighbourhood of an
isolated equilibrium point, provide the basis for many of the most important analytical techniques
available for dynamic modeling.

Example: Reconsider our previous example of hardwood and softwood tree problem and we’ll try to
find out the behaviour of the system with the help of eigenvalue method. Assume that hardwood grow
at a rate of 10% per year and softwoods at a rate of 25% per year. An acre of forest land can support
about 10,000 tons of hardwoods or 6000 tons of softwoods. The extent of competition has not been
numerically determined. Can both types of trees coexist in stable equilibrium?

Since the assigned variables and assumptions would remain same as previous but in this particular case
we have,

a = 0.10

c = 0.25

b = 0.10/10000

d = 0.25/6000

and the next step is to select the modeling approach. We will analyze this nonlinear dynamical system by
the eigenvalue method.

Theorem: let we are given a dynamical system of two differential equations

d x^ ∂f ∂f
=f ( x 0 + x^ , y 0+ ^y )=f ( x0 , y 0 ) + ^x |x , y + ^y | +… and
dt 0
∂x 0 0
∂ y x ,y
0

d ^y ∂g ∂g
=g ( x 0 + ^x , y 0 + ^y ) =g ( x 0 , y 0 ) + x^ |x , y + ^y | +… which can be represent as following:
dt ∂x
0 0
∂ y x ,y
0 0

[ ]
∂f ∂f

[]
d x^
dt ^y
=
∂x
∂g
∂y
∂g [ ^^xy ]
∂x ∂y ( x0 , y 0)
 [ ]
∂f ∂f
∂x ∂y
Then an equilibrium point ( x 0 , y 0 ) is asymptotically stable if the matrix A= has
∂g ∂g
∂x ∂y ( x0 , y 0)
eigenvalues with all negative real parts. If any eigenvalue has a positive real part, then the equilibrium is
unstable.

The eigenvalue method is based on linear approximation. And the general solution for this type of
λ t λ t
systems is X ( t )=c 1 e v 1+ c2 e v 2 where λ 1 and λ 2 are eigenvalues of the matrix A and v 1 and v2 are
1 2

the corresponding eigenvectors.

So, in our tree problem we get the dynamic system of equation as follows:

0.10 2 0.05
f ( x , y )=0.10 x− x− xy
10000 10000
0.25 2 0.125
g ( x , y )=0.25 y − y− xy
6000 6000
Since the equilibrium point for this problem is

ad−cf
x=
bd−gf
bc−ag
y=
bd−gf
We now have specified the values of a, b, c and d so we get the equilibrium point x 0 and y0 as

28000
x 0= ≈ 9333
3
4000
y 0= ≈ 133 3
3
And the partial derivatives of the system of differential equation we get above are:

∂f −y x 1 ∂f −x
= − + & =
∂ x 200000 50000 10 ∂ y 200000
∂g −y ∂g −x y 1
= & = − +
∂ x 48000 ∂ y 48 000 12 000 4
Now we put these values back into the matrix A and figure out the eigenvalue for the matrix A.

Now we figure out the partial derivatives at equilibrium point and if the both eigenvalues are negative
than the model is stable. So, we can say that those two species will coexist until certain given conditions.
 [ ]
−7 −7
75 150
Therefore, A=
−1 −1
36 18

The eigenvalues of the matrix can be computed as the roots of the equation

| |
7 −7
λ+
75 150
=0
−1 1
λ+
36 18

By solving the determinant, we get following quadratic equation

2
1800 λ +268 λ+7
=0
1800
−67 ± √ 1339
⇒ λ=
900
here it is crystal clear that the real parts of both eigenvalues are negative. So, the equilibrium is stable.

Finally, our fifth step is to express the result in common language without using any typical mathematical
terms. We have found that hardwoods and softwoods can coexist in stable equilibrium. There will be
approximately 9300 tons per acre of hardwoods and 1300 tons per acre of softwoods in that stable
forest. These conclusions are based on certain fixed assumptions about the degree of competition
between the two types of trees.

Discussion:

1. Summary of results: The internship report covers various aspects of mathematical modeling,
starting with an introduction to its significance as a powerful tool for understanding complex
systems and predicting their behavior across different domains. It highlighted the bridge
between theoretical concepts and real-world applications, showcasing how mathematical
models are crucial in solving real-world problems.
 2. Comparisin with real world data: The Comparison with Real-World Data or Literature in the
Mathematical Modeling Project revealed intriguing insights into the accuracy and validity of the
developed models. By comparing the model's predictions with real-world data or findings from
existing literature, the project aimed to assess the model's reliability and its ability to capture
real-world dynamics effectively.

3. Challenges and Limitations: During the project limited time period for the project affects the in-
depth analysis and potentially restricting the depth and complexity of the project's outcomes.
Furthermore, Data lilimitations, assumptions, Computational complexity also were flies in the
ointment. Collaborating with domain experts or researchers from different disciplines could lead
to interdisciplinary applications and provide fresh perspectives on problem-solving.

4. Extension and future work: There are great possibilities lie in this field. The field of
mathematical modeling holds immense potential for future research and innovation, offering a
multitude of unexplored avenues and possibilities. There are a lot of several key areas present
exciting opportunities like complex system modeling, big data and machine learning integration,
uncertainty quantification, Hybrid modeling approachs.

CONCLUSION
The internship has played a pivotal role in expending ongoing education and intellectual development.
The well-structured study plan, regular discussions with the supervisor, effective problem-solving, and
the ability to seek clarifications have contributed in understanding mathematical modeling concepts. In
this whole internship I learned a lot of new things, got the chance to understand practical life usages of
Mathematics, and This internship has developed a great deal of curiosity in my mind for further
exploration and uncover hidden possibilities. This internship has developed an aspect of critical thinking
and developed an attitude to look beyond known and seek for new undiscovered potentials.

The future of mathematical modeling is teeming with exciting prospects. As technology advances and
interdisciplinary collaboration thrives, the field will continue to evolve, unlocking new insights into
complex systems and guiding us towards evidence-based solutions. Embracing these opportunities will
propel mathematical modeling to new heights, empowering us to address pressing global challenges and
create a brighter and more sustainable future. Overall, this internship has been a rewarding experience,
highlighting the significance of mathematical modeling in addressing real-world challenges

As we conclude this internship, I am confident that the knowledge gained and the skills developed will
continue to be valuable assets in my academic and professional journey. This project has instilled a
deeper appreciation for the power of mathematical modeling and its potential to drive positive change
in society.

REFERENCES:
MARK M. Meerschaert , Mathematical Modeling (fourth edition) academic press, Elsevier (2013)

Edward Bender, An Introduction to Mathematical Modeling, Dover publication, New York

J. N. Kapur, Mathematical Modeling, Stylus Publishing, LLC

Steven H. Strogatz, Nonlinear dynamics and chaos, second edition, CRC Press

Principles of Applied Mathematics: Transformation and Approximation" by James P. Keener and James
Sneyd