RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Structure of an atom

The atom consists of subatomic particles called electrons, protons and neutrons. The protons
and neutron exist in the nucleus of the p n
+

atom whereas the electrons orbit

around the shell.

The atomic number tells the number of

protons in an atom. The mass number tells the total number of protons and neutrons in an
atom. So if the no. of neutrons are to be determined, we use the following formula.

mass number atomic number

𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 = ___________________________________________
-

In a neutral atom, the no. of protons are equal to the no. of electrons.

Geiger-Marsden Gold Foil Experiment

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Alpha particles
2+

P P
nn

At the start, it was assumed the atom consists of a large positive sphere with electrons stick on
it. This was called the “plum pudding model”. The experiment was to test the validity of the
model but what turned out was entirely opposite.

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 RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
A beam of alpha particles was struck on a very thin gold foil. Around the gold foil, was placed a
fluorescent screen in order to detect the beam of the alpha particle after the gold foil. Based on
the previous theories, it was expected that all the alpha particles would all pass through
without deviation, but this did not happen.

Observations:

Most of the Alpha

particles were able to pass un deviated
1. ________________________________________________________________________ .

A
few deflected
at
large angles
2. ________________________________________________________________________
them bounced back
very few of
3. ________________________________________________________________________
.

Deduction:

Atom is
mostly
empty space
1. ________________________________________________________________________
.

dense
A
verysmall and
positively charged
nucleus exists
2. ________________________________________________________________________ in
center
Electrons move around the nucleus
3. ________________________________________________________________________
.

Reasons for such behavior of alpha particles

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Most Alpha particles through the empty space
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crossed
1. ________________________________________________________________________
atoms
of
________________________________________________________________________
.

Those which
approached hear the nucleus
2. ________________________________________________________________________ ,
deflected
due to
repulsion
________________________________________________________________________
.

Those which
approached head on to The nucleus
-

3. ________________________________________________________________________ ,

back
of repulsion
bounced because
________________________________________________________________________
.

In a lecture Rutherford delivered at Cambridge University, he said:

It was quite the most incredible event that has ever happened to me in my life. It was almost
as incredible as if you fired a 15-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit
you. On consideration, I realized that this scattering backward must be the result of a single
collision, and when I made calculations I saw that it was impossible to get anything of that
order of magnitude unless you took a system in which the greater part of the mass of the
atom was concentrated in a minute nucleus. It was then that I had the idea of an atom with a
minute massive center, carrying a charge.
— Ernest Rutherford

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 RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Isotopes
Atoms the same element
of
-

___________________________________________
with same number of protons
___________________________________________
but different number
___________________________________________
of
neutrons
___________________________________________
.

___________________________________________

Hence, they have a different mass number. Some isotopes turn out to be radioactive in nature
and are hence classified as radioactive isotopes. For example, carbon has a radioactive isotope
with mass number 14 i.e. 6p and 8n and is used for carbon dating of prehistoric remains and old
plants.

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 RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Radioactivity
The emission radioactive
phenomenon of of radiations
______________________________________________________________________________
the nucleus atom.
from of
an
______________________________________________________________________________

The nucleus emits extra particles or energy to gain a stable state. All elements beyond lead (Pb)
in the periodic table are naturally radioactive.

Radioactive emissions are

The emissions do notoccur in

any pattern.
1. Random: ________________________________________________________________

Any nucleus at
anytime.
decay
________________________________________________________________________
can

________________________________________________________________________
The
process happens on its own. These is
2. Spontaneous: ____________________________________________________________
external conditions on the rate
no
effectof
________________________________________________________________________
of
emission. (Temp, pressure etc).
________________________________________________________________________

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There are three type of radioactive radiations namely
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Alha 3 patients
• rays
____________________________
• ____________________________
• Gamma rays
____________________________
energy
It must be noted that a single substance can emit either one or more than one radiations
simultaneously. It is not necessary that a single element would emit only one type of radiations.
For example, radon emits alpha only, thorium emits alpha and gamma, and plutonium emits
alpha, beta and gamma.

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 RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Properties Alpha Beta Gamma
Nature

--- 5
>
o or

80E
:
==

fift
-
=
↑

:
Basic Symbol

&
-
N
Nuclear Symbol

=
Charge

8
Penetrating Power (depends
--zzoo

·
-8-
88880
upon size of particle) _________________________ _________________________ _________________________

&>
5
_________________________ _________________________ _________________________
f(f)

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>
·

_________________________ _________________________ _________________________

Physics by Kashan Rashid
M
&

_________________________
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_________________________ _________________________ _________________________

:
⑥
_________________________ _________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________ _________________________
-

Range
Speed
-- -

①
&

-
-
I

N
=
E

#
174/199
 Ionization Power (depends

RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS

8
·-
>
&80
08:

·
upon charge of particle) _________________________ _________________________ _________________________

oro
_________________________ _________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________ _________________________
!80
⑥
↑

_________________________ _________________________ _________________________

_________________________ _________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________ _________________________
_________________________ _________________________ _________________________
Nuclear equation of
emission CLASSMATE
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-

Deflection in magnetic field Deflection in electric field

⑪
↑

&

↑-
5

1
⑦

1
1
④
M

-
34

↑ A
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7
Alpha
Particles (x)

231X/
235

92
U -YX +

Beta Particle (1)

235 235 emits as a
H PX
U ·p
n
Z
Betanice
+ P p N
M

92 93 Pun 7.
-
1 n

92 -

1 1)
-

1 less neutron
I more
proton
Gamma Rays (U)

235g* > 2352 + U

92 92

unstable stable
excited) state
state

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 RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Half Life
Time
taken
for radioactive sample to decrease
______________________________________________________________________________
a

its radioactive nuclei to the initial value.

way of
______________________________________________________________________________

8100,
years
850,825
2
years 2
OR

Time taken for radioactive decrease

the sample to
______________________________________________________________________________
its
activitytohalf of initial
its value.
______________________________________________________________________________

Activity 100em/sec
=>

Rate the
of
radioactive emissions sample. from
·

______________________________________________________________________________
No. radioactive radiations inted unit time.
per
of
·
______________________________________________________________________________

As the time passes and some nuclei decay to a stable one, the activity of the radioactive sample
of radioactive
2,N 3N
No. decrease. 2 2=
- +
-

initial
a
nuclei No 7 No
I
,

(0
No Formulae for half-life
of CLASSMATE Rashidyears
·

4 6
yearsby Kashan
Physics
-

Lyears years
no. -
&
-
-

nuclei YOUR PARTNER FOR PURSUING EXCELLENCE

𝐴0 𝑡
𝐴= 𝑡1/2 =
2𝑛 𝑛
005No .
.....
-

Where,

• A= __________________________________________
No
0.25
0.125
No,,,,,,,,'.. ....
>time
• 𝐴 _________________________________________
t 02t
3t
z
• 𝑡1/2 ________________________________________
• t __________________________________________
• n __________________________________________

Although, the method of solving the questions of half-life at O levels should be based more
upon general thinking rather than employment of formula.

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 RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
The radioactive decay curve is an exponential decay curve with x-axis representing the time and
y-axis representing either the mass or the activity of the radioactive sample. An example of the
graph is shown below. The distribution of points around the curve show the randomness of the
process.

Geiger-Muller tube or GM Tube

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A GM tube works on the principle of ionization effect by the radiations. As the radiations enter
the GM tube, they ionize the argon gas inside
it into argon ions and electrons. A potential is
established inside the tube and the ions and
electrons are accelerated towards their
opposite poles. Further ionization is achieved
during acceleration of these particles as they
collide with the neighbouring ones.

On reaching the electrode, the current is

pulse is generated which is amplified and fed to a scaler or a ratemeter. A scaler gives the count
of the pulses received whereas the ratemeter gives the counts received per unit time i.e. count
background countructe
rate. ......
radiations GM- tube 2
↳

- 40 countlmin countrate

basigiona
radiations 180/199
detected
by GM-tube
radiations
 RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Patterns of radioactive emissions in a Diffusion Cloud Chamber

The patterns in a diffusion cloud chamber is also used to detect the type of emissions received.
The chamber consists of air with vapors of alcohol is cold enough that it become saturated. As
the ionizing radiations pass through medium, further cooling occurs and this causes the vapours
to condense on the ions created. The resulting white lines of liquid drops are formed which are
made visible by either illuminating or observing againt a dark background.

v
/
/
⑨
↑ -

- -
ma

--

i
~

↳
7
④
L

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short straight
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tracks short and broken
long curry
tracks
Storage of radioactive sources +curvy
Radioactive sources are stored in lead chambers as gamma radiations, which are the most
penetrating, can not pass through.

The people handling the radioactive substances wear proper protective clothing which include
long gloves, closed shoes and full length lab coats. Food is not allowed to be carried or
consumed in places where radioactive emissions are present.

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 RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Uses of radioactive substances

1. Medical treatment: gamma rays from a radioisotope of cobalt are used for the
treatment of cancer.
2. Thickness gauge or crack detection: A radioactive source is placed at one side and a
detector on the other. As both the objects are moved, the value on the count rate is
monitored. If there appears a significant change in the count rate, the space is analyzed
for any cracks, voids or change in thickness.
3. Carbon dating: Plants and trees absorb C-14 along with C-12 when they are alive. When
their fossils are analyzed, the quantity of C-14 is determined as this isotope of Carbon is
radioactive and its quantity decreases. By determining the percentage reduction, the
age of the plant or the time of death can be estimated.
4. Sterilization: Gamma rays are also used for killing bacteria on medical instruments.
5. Tracers: radioactive materials are injected in stream to determine the flow of the
material where visiblity is zero. They are also inserted in blood to determine the
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injected Kashan
by in gas linesRashid
to detect any
leaks in the pipe line.

Hazards of Radioactivity
Catracts
1. ________________________________________________________________________
Cancer
2. ________________________________________________________________________
DNA mutations
3. ________________________________________________________________________
Tumors
4. ________________________________________________________________________
Sea (Air contamination
5. ________________________________________________________________________

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 RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Background Radiation

These radiations enter the earth atmosphere from space and are present everywhere. However
they are in very trace amount and do not cause any damage to surrounding. If a GM tube
attached to a ratemeter is placed in an environment with no radioactive source nearby, it will
still show some count rate which is because of the background radiations.

Sources of background radiations

• Rocks and Minerals

_____________________________________________________
• Cosmic
_____________________________________________________
rays
• Underground radioactive reserves
_____________________________________________________
• Nuclear waste dimpsite
_____________________________________________________

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 RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Question Type 1

Question Type 2

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 RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Question Type 3

Question type 4
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 RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Nuclear Reactions
Fission Reaction
A nuclear reaction in which a large constable nucleus
______________________________________________________________________________
breaks into smaller, more stable nuclei, releasing
______________________________________________________________________________

energy.
______________________________________________________________________________
The
reaction is by insectinga neutron inthe
triggered
______________________________________________________________________________
unstable nucleus.
______________________________________________________________________________

Reaction Equations
↓ ↓ ↓
235 1 140 93
92𝑈 + 0𝑛 → 56 𝐵𝑎 + 36 𝐾𝑟 + 3 10𝑛

proton no. and mass

no, both are conserved.
235
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 144
54𝑋𝑒
90
+ 38 𝑆𝑟 + 𝑥 10𝑛

255 1 144 90 x(1)

+
=

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+ +

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______________________________________________________________________________
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236 234 7s0 = +

x 2
______________________________________________________________________________
=

235 𝑦
92𝑈 + 10𝑛 → 55𝐵𝑎 + 90𝑥𝑅𝑏 + 2 10𝑛

225 1 90 2(1) 92 0 55 x
y
______________________________________________________________________________
+ + +
= + +
=

x 37
y 144
______________________________________________________________________________
= =

Insertion of a neutron is prefered over proton or electron, Why?

Proton is changed so would

positively repulsion
1. ________________________________________________________________________
feel
and more will be needed.
energy
________________________________________________________________________
Election is small to create
very enough
2. ________________________________________________________________________
unstability.
________________________________________________________________________

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 RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
n

U
N
Y

H
X
n

U
Y
n

U
Y

ofose-> join
Fusion Reaction
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A nuclear YOUR
reaction in which
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two small nuclei combine
______________________________________________________________________________
stable
to
form large more nucleus, large
releasing
______________________________________________________________________________
a

amount
of energy.
______________________________________________________________________________
·
It occurs atstars. ↑H 3H +

yHe in
______________________________________________________________________________
-
+

The diagram shows a simple fusion reaction,

the one that occurs at the Sun. Two hydrogen
isotopes combine to form a Helium atom and
releases a neutron with immense amount of
energy.

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 RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Nuclear Fission Reactor

A nuclear reaction uses the phenomenon of fission reaction to generate electricity. The diagram
below a basic schematic of a fission reactor.

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Working Mechanism

1. Uranium rods are struck

by neutrons to initiate fission
______________________________________________________________________________
and heat is
reaction
produced 2 This heat is carried
______________________________________________________________________________
.
.

to water using molten salt where water turns to steam

______________________________________________________________________________ .

3. steam is used to drive the turbine which drives the

______________________________________________________________________________
to This steam is then
generator produce electricity 4
______________________________________________________________________________
. .

liquid using cold water in

condensed back to the
______________________________________________________________________________
condenser Water is
.

pumped back
and the cycle continues
______________________________________________________________________________ .

Control rods are used to control the speed

of reaction by
______________________________________________________________________________
the reactor
adjusting the quantity of
neutrons in
______________________________________________________________________________ .

______________________________________________________________________________

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 RADIOACTIVITY & NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Purpose of Boron Rods

Boron rods (control rods) are used in a nuclear reactor to absorb the neutrons emitted during
the process and control the reaction.

Theories of Star Formation

A well-defined theory of star formation does not yet exist. A serious deficiency therefore
remains in current theories of the structure and evolution of stars. Most theories of star
formation require stars to form from the interstellar gas. The existing knowledge of the
interstellar gas is not sufficient to define the initial conditions for star formation precisely.

Four major groups of star formation

theory are identified. These deal with
formation by collapse under gravity, by
random accretion, by condensation,
and by processes associated with the
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attention is given to the theory of
collapse under gravity since this is
regarded as the major theory of star
formation on the ground that its
conceptional framework is better
defined than that of the others.

I ) and dust starts to

A
huge cloud of mostly Hydrogen
______________________________________________________________________________
gas
collapse under its own
gravitational feed Temperature
______________________________________________________________________________
.

of
collision and it tries to
rises due to
greater no of
______________________________________________________________________________
gas .

expand Gravitational force is stronger than expansion force

______________________________________________________________________________
.

so compression cloud continues

of
until the
temperature
______________________________________________________________________________
is
highenough that Hydrogen nuclei fuse to form Helium
______________________________________________________________________________ .

At that time the star is born

______________________________________________________________________________
,
.

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 356

Fission Reaction

A visiable nucleus breaks smaller

large into

CLASSMATE
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nuclei Physics
the by Kashan Rashid
insection a neutron.
of
more
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Energy is released this

during process.

The elementemits radiations Betan

i.e. alpha, a

Gamma from the

and nucleus atom
of
an

the
time taken
The
for radioactive nucleito
get
halved is long.
 367

14

15

15 17+
=
32

325 P cop -
1
35
+

15 -

(-1)

the
radioactive
A radiation in
form of a
fast
moving electron miffed
from the nucleus.

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contmet
sample GM
=
cube

o #
sheet of paper
contmet
sample GM
=
cube

o #
2cm-thick Al. block

Note radiations without and them

background sample
new
reading with
sample. Place
of paper
a sheet

3/00 source and GM tube and

replace itwith
then

thickAluminiumblock.
Can
If only Beta particles are

produced, there will be no effectwithpaper but

readings woulddrop to background with Aluminium
block.
 368

- - >

radioactive
Time
taken
for the
sample decrease
to

its initial its value.

activity
↓
to
half of
no
of radioactive nucleicoontrate

1480 -> 700 - 350 time:14.3x2

no

2
way
lives
= 20.6
days

20.6 days

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 385

28.

↑ I

Atom 3 and 4
Atom

Atom 3 and 5
Atom

Atom 3 and Atom

4

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17

35
 386

sample + background

49

35.5 -

22

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85
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Rockand Minerals

cosmic
rays
 387

22

- >

49 -

22
27

27 13.5 =

I
13.5 22
graph
+

85
=
35.5 days

on detector
Background contrate
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Physics by Kashan Rashid
as

radioactive radiation
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block.
goes past lead
no

Not sensible noteven the radiation

as
sample's
wouldreach detector.