The document discusses the anatomy and functions of various endocrine glands. It describes the pituitary gland as having two lobes - the anterior pituitary gland which produces several hormones including growth hormone and prolactin, and the posterior pituitary gland which stores hormones produced in the hypothalamus. The thyroid gland produces thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism. The parathyroid glands regulate calcium levels through parathyroid hormone. Other glands discussed include the adrenal glands, pancreas, gonads, thymus, and pineal gland.
The document discusses the anatomy and functions of various endocrine glands. It describes the pituitary gland as having two lobes - the anterior pituitary gland which produces several hormones including growth hormone and prolactin, and the posterior pituitary gland which stores hormones produced in the hypothalamus. The thyroid gland produces thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism. The parathyroid glands regulate calcium levels through parathyroid hormone. Other glands discussed include the adrenal glands, pancreas, gonads, thymus, and pineal gland.
Original Description:
Anatomy and Physiology - Endocrine System transes by Roeisa Salinas
The document discusses the anatomy and functions of various endocrine glands. It describes the pituitary gland as having two lobes - the anterior pituitary gland which produces several hormones including growth hormone and prolactin, and the posterior pituitary gland which stores hormones produced in the hypothalamus. The thyroid gland produces thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism. The parathyroid glands regulate calcium levels through parathyroid hormone. Other glands discussed include the adrenal glands, pancreas, gonads, thymus, and pineal gland.
The document discusses the anatomy and functions of various endocrine glands. It describes the pituitary gland as having two lobes - the anterior pituitary gland which produces several hormones including growth hormone and prolactin, and the posterior pituitary gland which stores hormones produced in the hypothalamus. The thyroid gland produces thyroid hormones that regulate metabolism. The parathyroid glands regulate calcium levels through parathyroid hormone. Other glands discussed include the adrenal glands, pancreas, gonads, thymus, and pineal gland.
MTY1102 Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Salinas, Roeisa A.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Gross Anatomy & Basic Function of Endocrine
Glands Functional Anatomy of the Endocrine Glands PITUITARY GLAND (hypophysis) • 2nd major control system of body • Coordinate and integrate body activities • in the sella turcica of sphenoid bone • Hormone = Greek “to arouse” • 2 lobes: Adenohypophysis (APG) & • Target Organs – respond to particular hormone Neurohypophysis (PPG) + infundibulum • Cells have nuclei, mitochondria, ER, Golgi bodies, secretory vesicles 4 main chemical groups that act as hormones: 1. Protein & glycoprotein molecules – insulin, GH, PTH 2. Small peptide molecules – vasopressin, prods of enteroendocrine cells 3. AA derivatives – thyroxine, adrenaline/epi, noradrenaline/nore 4. Steroids from cholesterol – adrenal cortical hormones, ovarian/testicular hormones • Endocrine function – anterior P.G., thyroid, adrenals, parathyroids • Endo & Exocrine function – pancreas and Anterior Pituitary Gland (Adenohypophysis) gonads • Epithelial upgrowth from roof of primitive oral • Both gland types are derived from epithelium cavity – Rathke’s pouch (R’sP) • Endocrine glands (EnG) – release hormones in • Contain a cleft/group of cyst-like spaces w/c ECF/blood represent vestigial lumen of R’sP • Exocrine glands (ExG) – release at body • Remnant of R’sP divides major part of APG from surface/ducts thin zone of tissue, between APG & PPG – pars intermedia • Extension surrounds the neural stalk – pars tuberalis Posterior Pituitary Gland (Neurohypophysis/pars nervosa) • Downgrowth of nervous tissue from hypothalamus, joined by pituitary stalk – infundibulum MTY1102 Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Salinas, Roeisa A. 1. Oxytocin – produced in paraventricular nuclei, “swift birth” 2. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) – vasopressin/arginine vasopressin, in supraoptic nuclei; conserve water in distal convoluted tubules of kidneys & collecting tubules reabsorb water by sodium PINEAL GLAND • Small cone-shaped gland in rood of 3rd ventricle • Major endo product is melatonin – diurnal cycle/sleep-wake cycle Anterior Pituitary Hormones: • Melatonin - peaks at night/lowest at noon; effect on reprod. system that prevents precocious • Target organ is another endoc. gland; secrete sexual maturation; changing level may affect hormone in response to stimulation biological rhythms: body temp, sleep, appetite • “master gland” – controls activity of many other THYROID GLAND endoc. Gland 1. Gonadotropins – regulate gamete production & • 2 lobes joined by a central mass – isthmus hormonal activity (ovaries/testes) • Located in throat, inferior to larynx • Epithelial downgrowth from fetal tongue o Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) • C cells are from ultimobranchial element of 4th o Luteinizing hormone (LH) branchial pouch 2. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) – • Also part of normal brain development endocrine activity of adrenal cortex • Cretinism – like dwarfism + affected brain, 3. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) – influence absence of thyroxine growth and activity of thyroid gland 1. Thyroid hormone (TH) – 2 active hormones, 2 hormones not directly involved in EnG regulation: control rate of body metabolism and cellular oxidation 4. Growth Hormone (GH) – determine body size, growth of muscle/long bones o T4 (thyroxine/tetraiodothyronine) o T3 (triiodothyronine) – more active 5. Prolactin (PRL) – milk production by breasts 2. Calcitonin – released in response to high blood • Ventral hypothalamic hormones control Ca level production/secretion of tropic hormones, GH, PARATHYROID GLANDS PRL • Hypothalamic hormones reach cells of APG via • Embedded on posterior surface of thyroid gland hypophyseal portal system (2nd image) • 2 small oval glands on each lobe Posterior Pituitary Hormones: • Secrete parathyroid hormone (PTH) – most important regulator of calcium balance of blood • Not an EnG, does not synthesize hormones • Stimulate kidneys to convert vit D to active D3 • Storage area for 2 neurohormones transported form (Calcitriol) to it via axons of neurons in paraventricular & supraoptic nuclei of hypothalamus THYMUS • Cell body (producer, in hypothalamus), • Bilobed gland in superior thorax, posterior to infundibulum (long axon), herring bodies sternum, anterior to heart/lungs (ends of PPG, storage of secretory vesicles) • Visible in infant, begins to thin at puberty, almost invisible at old age MTY1102 Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Salinas, Roeisa A. • Produces families of hormones: thymulin, THE GONADS thymosin, thymopoietin • Ovaries – paired, almond-sized organs in pelvic • Involved in maturation of T lymphocytes/T cells cavity, produce female sex cells (ova); EnG and and immune response ExG functions only begin at puberty; 2 steroid • Act locally as paracrines (affect nearby cells) hormone groups ADRENAL (SUPRARENAL) GLANDS 1. Estrogens • At the top of kidneys - development of secondary sex charac.: maturation • Triangle, “kidney party hats” of reprod. system and development of the breasts • Adrenal medulla develops from neural crest - act w/ progesterone to bring cyclic changes of the tissue uterine lining – menstrual cycle • Directly controlled by SNS - prepare mammary gland for lactation • Adrenal medulla – act w/ SNS, fight-or-flight 2. Progesterone response - uterine musculature in quiescent state 1. Epinephrine – 80% - Helps prepare breast tissue for lactation 2. Norepinephrine – 20% • Testes – paired oval suspended in pouchlike sac • Adrenal cortex – 3 major groups of steroid (scrotum) outside pelvic cavity; produce male hormones (corticosteroids) sex cells (sperm); EnG and ExG begin at 1. Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) – zona puberty glomerulosa, regulate water and electrolyte balance 1. Testosterone – maturation of reprod. system, in ECFs by Na ion reabsorption in kidney tubules male secondary charac, sexual drive/libido 2. Glucocorticoids (cortisol (hydrocortisone), cortisone, corticosterone) – z. fasciculata, resist Microscopic Anatomy of Endocrine Glands long-term stressors by increasing blood glucose levels Anterior Pituitary Gland
3. Gonadocorticoids (sex hormones) – z. 2 main cells population based on color:
reticularis, androgens (male), estrogens (female) • Chromophils – w/ color PANCREAS o Basophils – Violet/blue o Acidophils – orange • Partially behind stomach in abdomen Note: Eosinophils - pink • EnG and ExG functions • Chromophobes – w/o color • Produce digestive enzymes, insulin, glucagon • Pancreatic islets/islets of Langerhans secrete the hormones 1. Insulin – decrease blood sugar levels, accelerate transport of glucose in body cells (oxidized for energy/converted to glycogen or fat for storage); from alpha cells 2. Glucagon – increase blood sugar level, stimulates liver to break down glycogen stores to glucose, synthesize glucose by gluconeogenesis, Other cells involved in secretion: release glucose to blood; from beta cells • Somatotrophs – GH secretion, 50% • Mammotrophs – lactotrophs, PRL, 20% • Corticotrophs – secrete ACTH, 20% MTY1102 Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Salinas, Roeisa A. • Thyrotrophs – TSH (thyrotrophin), 5% Thyroid Gland • Gonadotrophs – FSH and LSH, 5% • Follicles – spherical sacs w/ pink-stained Pars intermedia material (colloid); stored T3 & T4 attached to protein colloidal material stored in follicles as • Derived embryologically from R’Sp thyroglobulin; formed by simple • Basophilic cells lying in irreg clusters between cuboidal/squamous epithelial cells that APG and PPG synthesize products • Contain small cystic spaces filled with eosinophilic material • Contain secretory granules like corticotrops • Produce alpha-MSH from POMC at low levels
• Inactive – thyroid epithelial cells are simple
flat/cuboidal cells • Active – tall and columnar • Scalloped pale edge of colloid is where the colloid has been removed from follicle lumen (bitten off to release stored hormones) Posterior Pituitary Gland • Non-myelinated axons of specialized neurons (neurosecretory activity) • Cell bodies are in supraoptic (ADH) & paraventricular nuclei (oxytocin) of hypothalamus • Hormones are passed down to axons in neurosecretory granules, accumulate in • Parafollicular or C cells – 2nd type of endoc cell distended terminations of axons where contact w/ neuroendocrine cells structure; found as w/ capillaries happen – Herring bodies scattered cells in the follicle lining/small clumps • Pituicytes – specialized highly branched glial in interstices between follicles; secrete cells, supports axons calcitonin MTY1102 Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Salinas, Roeisa A. Parathyroid Glands - aldosterone secretion is independent of ACTH control 2 major cell types: • Chief cells – small w/ round central nuclei and pale eosinophilic/clear cytoplasm; secrete and synthesize PTH • Oxyphil cells – occur in nodules; copious eosinophilic cytoplasm seen packed with mitochondria
2. Zona fasciculata – middle and broadest of the
cortical zones; w/ narrow columns and cords of cells, 1 cell thick, separated by fine strands of collagen and wide-bore capillaries; abundant cytoplasm and pale staining due to many lipid droplets; abundant mitochondria and smooth ER Adrenal (Suprarenal) glands - secretes glucocorticoid hormones (cortisol) w/ • Small, flat endoc glands closely applied to upper many metabolic effects: pole of each kidney o Raise blood glucose level, increase cellular 2 types with diff functions and origin: synthesis of glycogen • Adrenal cortex – similar embryological origin to o Increase rate of CHON breakdown and rate gonads; secrets various steroid hormones; of liberation of lipid from tissue stores adrenal steroids divided to 3: o Mineralocorticoids – z.g. - cortisol secretion is controlled by hypothalamus o Glucocorticoids – z.f. via APG tropic hormone ACTH o Sex hormones – z.r. Adrenal glands layers: 3 zonas + top & bottom layer • Capsule • Zona glomerulosa (z.g.) • Zona fasciculata (z.f.) • Zona reticularis (z.r.) • Adrenal medulla
3. Zona reticularis – thin, innermost layer, lies next
1. Zona glomerulosa - cells arranged in irreg ovoid to adrenal medulla; irreg network of branching cords clusters separated by delicate fibrous trabeculae; and clusters of glandular cells separated by wide round nuclei, less cytoplasm than cells in z.f.; diameter capillaries; cells are smaller than z.f. w/ cytoplasm with many smooth ER and mitochondria less cytoplasm but darker staining because of fewer w/ scanty lipid droplets lipid droplets - secretes mineralocorticoid hormones (aldosterone) controlled by the RA system - brown lipofuscin pigment is seen, secretes small - aldosterone acts directly on renal tubules to quantities of androgens and glucocorticoids increase Na and water retention MTY1102 Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Salinas, Roeisa A. 2. Glucagon – metabolic effects that oppose insulin Other cells present in the islets: • Somatostatin – released by delta cells • Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) • Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) Enterochromaffin (EC) Cells: • Motilin • 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT, serotonin) • Substance P • Adrenal medulla – similar origin to SNS, highly specialized add-on of this system; secretes • Islet of Langerhans – groups of up to 3000 catecholamine hormones under control of secretory cells supported by a fine collagenous preganglionic neurons of SNS: network w/ fenestrated (tiny openings/pores) o Adrenaline (epinephrine) capillary; delicate capsule surrounds each islet; o Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) cells are small w/pale-stained granular - clusters of cells w/ granular, faintly basophilic cytoplasm cytoplasm, w/ many capillaries in their fine supporting stroma - acute physical and psychological stresses initiate the release of these hormones - released catecholamines act on adrenergic receptors: heart/BVs, bronchioles, visceral muscle, skeletal muscle - adrenaline also has potent metabolic effects (glycogenolysis) - Insulin-producing beta cells over 60% distributed in islet - Glucagon-producing alpha cells about 25% arranged around periphery Pineal Gland 2 main cell types: • Pinealocytes (pineal chief cells) – highly modified neurons in clusters and cords surrounded by fenestrated capillaries; round nuclei w/ prominent nucleoli and granular Endocrine Pancreas cytoplasm; cytoplasmic granules w/ melatonin and precursor 5-HT • embryonic epithelium of the pancreatic ducts • Neuroglial cells – like astrocytes of CNS; consists of both exocrine and endocrine cells dispersed between clusters of pinealocytes and • during development, endocrine cells migrate in association w/ capillaries from duct system and aggregate around capillaries = isolated clusters of cells – islets of Langerhans • main secretory products: 1. Insulin – promotes uptake of glucose by most cells (liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue) MTY1102 Anatomy & Physiology Laboratory Salinas, Roeisa A.