Chapter 1:

Diodes and applications

Pham Duy Hung, PhD
Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunications,
VNU-University of Engineering and Technology
Email: hungpd@vnu.edu.vn

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Outline
1. Introduction
2. The ideal diode
3. The real diode
4. Applications
5. Other diode

Textbook: Adel. S. Sedra, Kenneth C. Smith. Microelectronic Circuits. Oxford University

Press. 2011 (Chapter 4).

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1. Introduction
• Diode is a semiconductor device conducting the
current in one direction.
• It has two terminals as Anode (A+) and Cathode (K-).
• When positive and negative polarities are at the anode
and cathode, respectively, the diode is forward biased
and is conducting.
• When positive and negative polarities are at the
cathode and anode, respectively, the diode is reverse
biased and is not conducting.
• If the reverse-biasing voltage is sufficiently large, the
diode is in reverse-breakdown region and large current
flows though it.
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2. The Ideal Diode
2.1 Current-Voltage characteristic
• The ideal diode may be considered the most
fundamental nonlinear circuit element

(b) i-v characteristic

(a) Diode circuit symbol

(c) Equivalent circuit in the (d) Equivalent circuit in the

reserve direction forward direction
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2. The Ideal Diode
2.2 Some applications – The rectifier

(a) Rectifier circuit (b) Input waveform

(c) Equivalent circuit, 𝑣 ≥ 0 (d) Equivalent circuit, 𝑣 < 0 (e) Output waveform

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Exercise 1
Exe4.1-4.3 (P169): For the circuit as follows:

4.1 Sketch the transfer characteristic 𝑣 versus 𝑣

4.2 Sketch the waveform of 𝑣
4.3 Find the peak value of 𝑖 and the DC component 𝑣 if 𝑣 has a peak value of 10V and R=1k

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 Exercise 1 (Solution)

4.1 The transfer characteristic 𝒗𝒐 versus 𝒗𝑰 4.2 The waveform of 𝒗𝑫

4.3 Find the peak value of 𝒊𝑫 and the DC component 𝒗𝒐
We have: 𝑣 = 𝑣 + 𝐼 𝑅. 𝐼 max when diode is conducting => 𝑣 = 0 → 𝐼 = = 10𝑚𝐴
DC component 𝑣 :
𝑣 / 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑇
𝑣 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜋 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0 = = 3.18𝑉
𝑇 𝜔𝑇 2 2𝜋 𝜋

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2. The Ideal Diode
2.2 Some applications – Diode Logic Gates

The output will be high if one or The output will be high if all of
more of the inputs are high the inputs are high
Y= A + B + C OR gate Y = A . B . C AND gate
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 Exercise 2

• Exa 4.2 (P171): Assuming

the diodes to be ideal, find
the values of I and V.

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Exercise 3
• Exe 4.4 (P173): Find the values of I and V in
the circuits shown in Fig 1.4.

Figure 1.4

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Exercise 4
• Exe 4.5 (P174): Figure 1.5 shows a circuit for an AC voltmeter. It utilizes a
moving-coil meter that gives a full-scale reading when the average current
flowing through it is 1mA. The meter has a 50 resistance. Find the value of R
that results in the meter indicating a full-scale reading when the input sine-wave
voltage is 20 V peak-to-peak. (Hint: The average value of half-sine waves is Vp /π.)

Figure 1.5

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3. The Real Diode
3.1 The I-V characteristic
• The characteristic curve consists of three
distinct regions:
The forward-bias region, by
The reverse-bias region, by
Knee voltage
The breakdown region, by

Cut-in Voltage
Drop Voltage

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3. The Real Diode
3.1 The I-V characteristic
•
⁄
 is constant ( for a given diode at a given
temperature (Saturation current).
 : thermal voltage ,Note
at room temperature ( )
⁄


or Where 2.3𝑉 = 60𝑚𝑉

 Voltage drop: 0.7V

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Exercise 5
• Exa 4.3 (P176): A silicon diode said to be a 1mA device displays a forward
voltage of 0.7 V at a current of 1 mA. Evaluate the junction scaling constant .
What scaling constants would apply for a 1A diode of the same manufacture that
conducts 1 A at 0.7 V?

• Solution:
/ /
 We have: =>
 Diode 1mA: Is=10-3 x e-700/25=10-3 x e-28 A=6.9x 10-16 A
 Diode 1A: Is=1 x e-700/25= e-28 A=6.9x 10-13 A

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Exercise 6-7
• Exe 4.6 (P177): Find the change in diode voltage if the current changes from 0.1
mA to 10 mA.
• Solution: we have V2-V1=2.3 x VT x log(I2/I1)=60 x log (10/0.1)= 120mV
• Exe 4.7 (P177): A silicon junction diode has v = 0.7 V at i = 1 mA. Find the
voltage drop at i = 0.1 mA and i = 10 mA.
• Solution: we have V2-V1=2.3 x VT x log(I2/I1)
o i=0.1mA: V2-700=60xlog(0.1/1) =>V2-700=-60 =>V2=640mV=0.64V.
o i=10mA: V2-700=60xlog(10/1) => V2=700+60=760mV=0.76V.

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3. The Real Diode
3.1 The I-V characteristic
• The Reverse-bias Region: If is
negative and a few time larger than
(~25mV) in magnitude, the diode
current becomes 𝑺 Knee voltage
• The Breakdown Region:
The reverse current increase rapidly
with the associated increase in
voltage drop very small

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3. The Real Diode
3.2 Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics
• The exponential model: The diode operation in the forward region is
provided by the exponential model.
⁄

(Kirchhoff loop)
Two ways for obtaining the solution:
 Graphical Analysis using the exponential model
 Iterative analysis using the exponential model

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3. The Real Diode
3.2 Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics
• Graphical analysis using the exponential model

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3. The Real Diode
3.2 Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics
• Iterative analysis using the exponential model
⁄

Using a simple iterative procedure

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Exercise 8
• Exa4.4 (P180): Determine the current 𝐼 and the diode voltage 𝑉 for the
circuit in beside figure with 𝑉 = 5 V and R = 1k. Assume that the diode has a
current of 1 mA at a voltage of 0.7 V.

• Solution:
.
 𝐼 = = = 4.3𝑚𝐴
 We then use the diode equation to obtain a better estimate for 𝑉 using equation 𝑉 − 𝑉 = 2.3𝑉 log .
o 𝑉 = 0.7𝑉, 𝐼 = 1 mA, and 𝐼 = 4.3 mA results in 𝑉 = 0.738 V.
=> Thus the results of the first iteration are 𝐼 = 4.3 mA and 𝑉 = 0.738 V.
 The second iteration proceeds in a similar manner: 𝐼 = 4.262𝑚𝐴; 𝑉 = 0.738𝑉

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3. The Real Diode
3.2 Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics
• The Constant Voltage Drop Model
It is the simplest and most widely used
diode model.
When forward biased, the diode has a
voltage drop varying in a narrow range,
0.6V to 0.8V
This model assumes

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 Exercise 9
Exe 4.10 (P183): For the circuit in beside figure, find 𝐼 and 𝑉 for the case 𝑉 = 5 V and R =
10k. Assume that the diode has a voltage of 0.7 V at 1-mA current. Use (a) iteration and (b) the
constant-voltage-drop model with 𝑉 = 0.7 V.

• Solution for iteration:

.
 Iteration 1: VD=0.7V, 𝐼 = = = 0.43𝑚𝐴. • Solution for CVD model
. 𝑉 −𝑉 5 − 0.7
𝑉 = 𝑉 + 0.06 ∗ log = 0.7 + 0.06 ∗ log = 0.678 𝑉 𝐼 = = = 0.43𝑚𝐴
𝑅 10𝑘
 Iteration 2: VD=0.678V, 𝐼 = =
.
= 0.432𝑚𝐴. => ID=0.43 mA, VD=0.7V

.
=> 𝑉 = 𝑉 + 0.06 ∗ log = 0.678 + 0.06 ∗ log .
= 0.678 𝑉

Summary: ID=0.43mA, VD=0.678V

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3. The Real Diode
3.2 Modeling the Diode Forward Characteristics
• The small signal model

If satisfies ,

or with

The dynamic resistance

→ This is the small signal model of the diode, which applies for
signal that has amplitude smaller than 5mV
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Exercise 10
• Exe4.13(P189): Find the value of the diode small-signal resistance at bias
currents of 0.1 mA, 1 mA, and 10 mA.

• Solution: The dynamic resistance

o
.
o
o

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Exercise 11
• Exa4.5 (P186): Consider the circuit shown in the below figure for the case in which R = 10k. The
power supply V+ has a DC value of 10 V on which is superimposed a 60Hz sinusoid of 1V peak
amplitude. (This “signal” component of the power-supply voltage is an imperfection in the power-
supply design. It is known as the power-supply ripple.) Calculate both the dc voltage of the diode
and the amplitude of the sine-wave signal appearing across it. Assume the diode to have a 0.7-V
drop at 1-mA current.

a) Circuit for the Example

b) Circuit for calculating the dc operating point
c) Small signal equivalent circuit

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Exercise 11 (solution)
• Considering dc quantities only, we assume 𝑉 = 0.7 V and
( . )
calculate the diode dc current: 𝐼 = = 0.93𝑚𝐴
• At the operating point, the diode dynamic resistance 𝑟 is:
𝑉 25
𝑟 = = = 26.9Ω
𝐼 0.93
• The signal voltage across the diode can be found from the
small-signal equivalent circuit in Fig.(c). Here 𝑣 denotes the
60-Hz 1-V peak sinusoidal component of V+, and 𝑣 is the
corresponding signal across the diode. Using the voltage-
divider rule provides the peak amplitude of 𝑣 as follows:
𝑟 26.9
𝑣 𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝑣 =1 = 2.68𝑚𝑉
𝑅+𝑟 10𝑘 + 26.9

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 3. The Real Diode
3.3 Zener diode Operation in the Reverse Region
• In breakdown region, a reverse bias (𝑉 ) beyond the
knee voltage (𝑉 ) leads to a large reverse current (𝐼 )
(knee current)
• 𝑟 called the dynamic resistance, is the inverse of the
slope of the almost-linear I-V curve at the Q-point.
Typically, it is in range of a few ohms to a few ten ohms.
• ∆𝐼 and ∆𝑉 on Zener:
• 𝑉 denotes the point at which the straight line of slope
intersects the voltage axis.
• Voltage 𝑉 :
(maximum current)

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Exercise 12
• Exa4.7 (P192): The 6.8-V zener diode in the circuit of Fig. 4.19(a)
is specified to have 𝑉 = 6.8𝑉 at 𝐼 = 5𝑚𝐴, 𝑟 = 20Ω, and 𝐼 =
0.2𝑚𝐴. The supply voltage 𝑉 is nominally 10 V but can vary by
± 1𝑉.
a) Find 𝑉 with no load and with 𝑉 at its nominal value.
∆
b) Find the change in 𝑉 resulting from the ±1𝑉 charge in 𝑉 . Note that ,
∆
usually expressed in mV/V, is known as line regulation.
c) Find the change in 𝑉 resulting from connecting a load resistance 𝑅 that
∆
draws a current 𝐼 =1mA, and hence find the load regulation ( ) in
∆
mV/mA.
d) Find the change in 𝑉 when 𝑅 =2k.
e) Find the value of 𝑉 when 𝑅 =0.5k.
Figure 4.19. (a) Circuit for example; (2) The
circuit with the Zener diode replaced with
f) What is the minimum value of 𝑅 for which the diode still operates in the its equivalent circuit model.
breakdown region?

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Exercise 12 (Solution)
• 𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝐼 𝑟 ; 𝑉 =6.8V, 𝐼 = 5 mA, and 𝑟 = 20Ω => 𝑉 = 6.7𝑉
a) Find 𝑉 with no load and with 𝑉 at its nominal value.
𝑉 −𝑉 10 − 6.7
𝐼 =𝐼= = = 6.35𝑚𝐴
𝑅+𝑟 500 + 20
→ 𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝐼 𝑟 = 6.7 + 6.35 ∗ 0.02 = 6.83𝑉
∆
b) Find the change in 𝑉 resulting from the ±1𝑉 charge in 𝑉 (∆𝑉 = ±1𝑉). Note that , usually expressed
∆
in mV/V, is known as line regulation.
∆𝑉 = ∆𝑉 = ±1 = ±38.5𝑚𝑉, So line regulation: 38.5mV/V
c) Find the change in 𝑉 resulting from connecting a load resistance 𝑅 that draws a current 𝐼 =1mA, and
∆
hence find the load regulation ( ∆ ) in mV/mA.
Because 𝐼 = 1 mA, the zener current 𝐼 will decrease by 1 mA.
∆𝑉 = 𝑟 ∆𝐼 = 20 ∗ −1 = −20𝑚𝑉
∆
The load regulation is: ∆ = −20𝑚𝑉/𝑚𝐴.
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 Exercise 12 (Solution)
d) Find the change in 𝑉 when 𝑅 =2k.
.
𝑅 = 2𝑘 → 𝐼 = = 3.4𝑚𝐴
→ ∆𝐼 = −3.4𝑚𝐴 → ∆𝑉 = 20 ∗ −3.4 = −68𝑚𝑉
e) Find the value of 𝑉 when 𝑅 =0.5k.
.
𝑅 = 0.5𝑘->𝐼 = = 13.6𝑚𝐴. This is not possible because I=6.35mA (for 𝑉 = 10𝑉). So the Zener must be cut off.
.
If this is indeed the case, then 𝑉 is determined by the voltage divider formed by 𝑅 and R (Fig. a): 𝑉 = 𝑉 = 5𝑉.
Since this voltage is lower than the breakdown voltage of the zener, the diode is indeed no longer operating in
the breakdown region.
f) What is the minimum value of 𝑅 for which the diode still operates in the breakdown region?
For the zener to be at the edge of the breakdown region, 𝐼 = 𝐼 = 0.2𝑚𝐴 and 𝑉 ≅ 𝑉 = 6.7𝑉.
At this point the lowest (worst-case) current supplied through R is I=(9-6.7)/0.5=4.6mA and thus the load current is
𝐼 =4.6 - 0.2 = 4.4 mA. The corresponding value of 𝑅 is
6.7
𝑅 = ≅ 1.5𝑘
4.4

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4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.1 Rectifier circuits

• Half-Wave Rectifier Block diagram of a DC power supply

• Full-Wave Rectifier
• Bridge Rectifier

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 4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.1 Rectifier circuits
• Half-Wave Rectifier

𝑣 = 0, 𝑣 <𝑉
𝑣 =𝑣 −𝑉 , 𝑣 ≥𝑉
PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage)=𝑽𝒔
the diode must be able to withstand without breakdown

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Exercise 13
• Exe 4.19 (P197): For the half-wave rectifier circuit in beside figure, show the
following: (a) For the half-cycles during which the diode conducts, conduction
begins at an angle 𝜃 = sin (𝑉 /𝑉 ) and terminates at (𝜋 − 𝜃), for a total
conduction angle of (𝜋 − 2𝜃). (b) The average value (dc component) of 𝑉 is 𝑉 ≅
⁄ 𝑉− , (c) The peak diode current is (𝑉 − 𝑉 )⁄𝑅. Find numerical
values for these quantities for the case of 12-V (rms) sinusoidal input, 𝑉 =0.7 V,
and R = 100Ω. Also, give the value for PIV.

• Solution: rms (Root mean square) of sinusoidal input is 12V => 𝑉 = 12 ∗ 2

 The conduction angle(𝝅 − 𝟐𝜽)
.
𝜃 = sin (𝑉 /𝑉 )= sin = 2.4 => The conduction angle: 𝝅 − 𝟐𝜽=175.2
.
 The average value (DC component) of 𝑽𝒐 : 𝑉 ≅ − = − = 5.05𝑉
.
 The peak current: 𝑰𝑫 = (𝑉 − 𝑉 )⁄𝑅 = =0.1267A; 𝑃𝐼𝑉 = 𝑉 = 12 2 = 16.97𝑉

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4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.1 Rectifier circuits
• Half-Wave Rectifier Ideal Diode

Real Diode?

Filter capacitor

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4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.1 Rectifier circuits
• Half-Wave Rectifier

Ideal diode

is peak-to-peak ripple voltage

𝜔∆𝑡 = 2𝑉 ⁄𝑉 , where 𝜔 =

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4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.1 Rectifier circuits
• Full-wave Rectifier

PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage)=𝟐𝑽𝒔 − 𝑽𝑫

the diode must be able to withstand without breakdown

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 Exercise 14
• Exe.4.20 (P198): For the full-wave rectifier circuit as the
beside figure, show the following: (a) The output is zero for
an angle of 2 centered around the zero-
crossing points of the sin-wave input. (b) The average value
(dc component) of is . (c)The peak current
through each diode is .
Find the fraction (percentage) of each cycle during which
, the value of , the peak diode current, and the value of PIV,
all for the case in which is a 12-V (rms) sinusoid, ,
and R = 100 Ω

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Exercise 14 (solution)
rms (Root mean square) of sinusoidal input is 12V =>
.
a) The for an angle =

=> The fraction (percentage) of each cycle during which :

∗ ∗
b) The average value (dc component) of is 10.1V
c) The peak current through each diode is =( -0.7)/100=163mA
d) PIV=2Vs- = -0.7=32.2V

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4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.1 Rectifier circuits
• The Bridge Rectifier

PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage)=𝑽𝒔 − 𝟐𝑽𝑫 + 𝑽𝑫 = 𝑽𝒔 − 𝑽𝑫

the diode must be able to withstand without breakdown

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Exercise 15
• Exe 4.21 (P200): For the bridge rectifier circuit as the beside figure, use
the constant-voltage-drop diode model to show that (a) the average (or
dc component) of the output voltage is (b) the peak
diode current is .
Find numerical values for the quantities in (a) and (b) and the PIV for
the case in which is a 12-V (rms) sinusoid, , and R = 100 Ω.

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Exercise 15 (solution)
• rms (Root mean square) of sinusoidal input is 12V =>
a) The average (or dc component) of the output voltage is
∗ ∗
=>
∗ .
b) The peak diode current is

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4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.2 Limiting Circuits
• Limiter circuits
 ≤𝑣 ≤ 𝑣 = 𝐾𝑣
 If 𝑣 > , 𝑣 is limited to 𝐿
 If 𝑣 < , 𝑣 is limited to 𝐿 Transfer characteristic
for a double limiter
circuit

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4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.2 Limiting Circuits
• Limiter circuits

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Exercise 16
• Exe 4.26 (P210): Assuming the diodes to be ideal,
describe the transfer characteristic of the circuit shown
in the beside figure. 𝐷 𝐷

• Solution:

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4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.3 Clamping Circuits
• Clamping Circuits
Clamped capacitor

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4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.3 Clamping Circuits

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4. Some application circuits using diodes
4.3 Clamping Circuits

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5. Some other types of diodes
5.1 Photo diode
Photo Diode

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5. Some other types of diodes
5.2 Light-emitting Diode (LED)

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Exercises:
• Section 4.1 (P216): The ideal diode, from exe. 4.1 to exe. 4.16.
• Section 4.2 (P219): The terminal characteristics of junction diodes, from exe.
4.17 to 4.31.
• Section 4.3 (P221): Modeling the diode forward characteristic, from exe. 4.32 to
4.56.
• Section 4.4 (P224): Operationg in the Reverse breakdown region – Zener diodes,
from exe. 4.57 to exe. 4.64.
• Section 4.5: rectifier circuits, from exe 4.65 to exe. 4.84.
• Section 4.6. limiting and clamping circuits, from exe. 4.85 to exe. 4.95.

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 Superdiode

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