Computers in Human Behavior 114 (2021) 106579

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Computers in Human Behavior

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

Social media photo activity, internalization, appearance comparison, and

body satisfaction: The moderating role of photo-editing behavior
Minsun Lee a, Hyun-Hwa Lee b, *
a
Dept. of Fashion Design, Konkuk University Glocal Campus, 268 Chungwon-daero, Chungju, Chungcheongbuk-do, 27478, South Korea
b
Dept. of Fashion Design & Textiles Inha University 100 Inharo, Michuhol-Gu Incheon, 22212, South Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In this study, we examined the internalization of the ideal body and appearance comparison as mediators of the
Social media relationship between appearance-related photo activity on social media and body satisfaction, while exploring
Internalization the moderating role of photo-editing behavior in the associations among these variables. Young South Korean
Appearance comparison
female social media users (N = 385) aged 20–30 years completed an online questionnaire. The results confirmed
Body satisfaction
Photo-editing behavior
that level of appearance-related photo activity on social media is associated with increased internalization and
Korea appearance comparison, which in turn can reduce body satisfaction. The results also indicated that the associ­
ations between appearance-related photo activity on social media, internalization, and appearance comparison
differ according to the level of photo-editing behavior. Specifically, the positive relationships between
appearance-related photo activity on social media and internalization, and between internalization and
appearance comparison were greater for the group displaying a high level of photo-editing behavior.

1. Introduction Festinger, 1954). Based on these theoretical frameworks, research has

Social media use has become a common daily activity for people in
contemporary society (Villanti et al., 2017). Young people in particular
spend more time on social media than on traditional media channels,
such as television and magazines (Twenge et al., 2018). Regarding social
media penetration based on the number of active users of the top social
media platforms, South Korea (hereafter Korea) is ranked third in the
world, after the United Arab Emirates and Taiwan (We Are Social,
2019a). Therefore, social media is deeply imbued into the daily lives of
many Korean young adults. In 2018, more than 43.66 million social
media accounts, representing about 85% of the total population of
Korea, were used and the average time spent on social media was found
to be 1 h and 9 min per day (We Are Social, 2019b). In addition,
approximately 60% of social media users were reported to be young
adults aged 18–34 years (We Are Social, 2019b).
Sociocultural models of body image, such as the tripartite influence
model, indicate that the process of internalization and appearance
comparison can explain the media’s effects on users’ body image (Cafri
et al., 2005; Thompson et al., 1999). In addition, the social comparison
theory supports the linkages between the internalization of body ideals,
appearance comparison, and body satisfaction (Betz et al., 2019;
confirmed that social media use can lead to body dissatisfaction among
women by internalizing female ideals and through the comparison of
one’s appearance to others on social media (Fardouly et al., 2018; Lee,
2019; Lee & Lee, 2017). Specifically, exposure to female ideals on social
media is positively associated with the internalization of and compari­
son to those standards, which consequently decreases body satisfaction
(Feltman & Szymanski, 2018; Powell et al., 2018). In their recent
meta-analysis, Mingoia et al. (2017) concluded that appearance-related
activity on social media (i.e., frequently viewing friends’ photos) was a
stronger risk factor for the internalization of body ideals than general
social media use among women. Several studies have also identified a
positive association between appearance-related photo activity on social
media and body dissatisfaction in female adolescents and adults (Cohen
et al., 2018; Fardouly et al., 2018; McLean et al., 2015).
Appearance-related images uploaded and shared on social media
typically show an attractive female appearance because people are likely
to present their “best” physical characteristics to others (Manago et al.,
2008; Pounders et al., 2016). This behavioral tendency, which can be
explained as self-presentation on social media, might include selecting
the best photos and editing the appearance of these photos (Boursier &
Manna, 2018; Fox & Rooney, 2015; Seidman, 2013). For many female

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: minsunlee@kku.ac.kr (M. Lee), hyunhwa@inha.ac.kr (H.-H. Lee).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106579
Received 27 January 2020; Received in revised form 17 September 2020; Accepted 20 September 2020
Available online 21 September 2020
0747-5632/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Lee and H.-H. Lee
adolescent and young adult users, editing photos of themselves to
enhance their appearance before uploading them on social media is a
widespread practice across Western and Asian cultures (Kleemans et al.,
2018; Lee & Lee, 2017, 2019; Renfrew Center Foundation, 2014).
Additionally, Lee and Lee (2019) reported that most young adult Korean
women use photo-editing applications when uploading their selfies on
social media. Because of this trend, many young women become highly
vulnerable to the exposure of body ideals and attractive bodies on social
media, and this is associated with body image concerns (Fardouly &
Rapee, 2019; Hogue & Mills, 2019; Vendemia; DeAndra, 2018).
Given that photo-editing behavior has become prevalent among so­
cial media users, a considerable amount of research has emerged on the
topic of photo-editing behavior in recent years (Chang et al., 2019; Lee &
Lee, 2019; Lonergan et al., 2019; McLean et al., 2015; Mills et al., 2018;
Mingoia et al., 2019). Some of these studies have reported that selfie
investment and manipulation are significantly associated with greater
body dissatisfaction (Lonergan et al., 2019; Mills et al., 2018; Tigge­
mann et al., 2020); whereas others found no significant associations
between selfie manipulation and body satisfaction (Cohen et al., 2018;
McLean et al., 2015). Among young Korean women who spend more
than an hour a day on social media, Lee and Lee (2019) suggested that
the use of photo-editing applications may lessen the negative associa­
tions of internalization and media pressure relating to body satisfaction.
With the increasing prevalence of photo-editing behavior, these limited
studies to date highlight the need for further research to identify the
impact of photo-editing behavior on young women’s body image.
In sum, both the theories and empirical research suggest that for
females, appearance-related photo activity on social media, internali­
zation, and appearance comparisons are associated with body satisfac­
tion, whereas photo-editing behavior may be associated with body
image concerns. Therefore, we examined how the potential mediators of
internalization and appearance comparison could explain the relation­
ship between appearance-related photo activity and body satisfaction in
the social media environment. In addition, we examined photo-editing
behavior as a moderator of the linkages among the variables that we
explored.
1.1. Social media, internalization, and social comparison theory
Researchers have reported the considerable effects of social media on
users’ body image (Hogue & Mills, 2019; Kim, 2018; Marengo et al.,
2018). In particular, social media plays a substantial role in defining and
perpetuating an idealized body image for women (Mills et al., 2018;
Robinson et al., 2017). Through repeated exposure to female ideals on
social media, women assimilate their societies’ ideal body standards.
The internalization process of body image occurs when women perceive
those ideals as personal goals they should achieve (Fardouly et al.,
2018). Similar to traditional media, psychology and media research has
shown that social media exposure might predict levels of internalization
of body ideals (Marengo et al., 2018; Strubel et al., 2018). Among
diverse types of social media activities, appearance-related photo ac­
tivities, such as browsing photos of others’ appearances, posting selfies,
and viewing feedback on selfies, directly predicted users’ body image
concerns (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011; Meier & Gray, 2014).
The social comparison theory sustains the view that people evaluate
themselves and perceive their attributes by comparing themselves to
others (Festinger, 1954). Researchers have also used this theory suc­
cessfully to explain the linkages between internalization of body ideals,
appearance comparison, and body satisfaction (Betz et al., 2019;
Holland & Tiggemann, 2016; Myers & Crowther, 2009). As a theoretical
framework, this theory has been frequently used to effectively explain
the relationship between social media and users’ body image (Hen­
drickse et al., 2017; Holland & Tiggemann, 2016; Lee, 2019; Lee & Lee,
2017). Studies have indicated that women frequently exposed to social
media are more likely to internalize and compare their own appearance
to the female ideals displayed on social media (Chae, 2017; Fardouly
2
Computers in Human Behavior 114 (2021) 106579
et al., 2015, 2018; Kim & Chock, 2015). In a sample of young Korean
female social media users, Lee (2019) and Lee and Lee (2017) found that
women who engaged more frequently in appearance-related photo ac­
tivity on social media were more likely to compare their appearance to
female ideals. In addition, higher levels of internalized female ideals are
strongly associated with dedicating longer periods to appearance com­
parison in an online environment (Perloff, 2014).
Based on the social comparison theory and other studies, we ex­
pected that a substantial level of appearance-related photo activity on
social media would relate to higher levels of internalization and
appearance comparison. In addition, we expected that women with
higher levels of internalization would show a greater tendency to
compare their appearance to the female ideals shown on social media.
Thus, we formulated the following hypotheses:
H1. Appearance-related photo activity on social media is positively
related to internalization.
H2. Appearance-related photo activity on social media is positively
related to appearance comparison.
H3. Internalization is positively related to appearance comparison.
1.2. Body satisfaction
Body satisfaction refers to the extent to which individuals are content
with and have positive feelings about their own physical appearance
(Grogan, 2016). Body satisfaction is one of the principal concepts in the
body image literature because of its significant power to explain the
risks to physical and mental health, including low levels of self-esteem,
depression, and disordered eating (Benas et al., 2010; Brechan & Kva­
lem, 2015). Other studies have indicated that sociocultural factors in­
fluence women’s perceived levels of body satisfaction through the
psychological process of body image development, such as internaliza­
tion and appearance comparison (Franchina & Coco, 2018; Hendrickse
et al., 2017; Myers & Crowther, 2009). In studies across ethnicities and
cultural backgrounds, researchers have confirmed the pivotal associa­
tions between the internalization of female ideals, the tendency to
compare one’s appearance to those ideals, and lower levels of body
satisfaction (Lee & Lee, 2017; Rodgers et al., 2011, 2015; Vartanian &
Dey, 2013; Wang et al., 2019). They have also reported that, for young
women, the internalization and appearance comparison process expe­
rienced through social media activities are associated with lower levels
of body satisfaction (Fardouly & Vartanian, 2015; Lee, 2019). Therefore,
we formulated the following hypotheses:
H4. Internalization is negatively related to body satisfaction.
H5. Appearance comparison is negatively related to body satisfaction.
1.3. The moderating role of photo-editing behavior
Photo-editing behavior refers to the managing of one’s appearance in
digital photos before posting and sharing them with other users on social
media. In most, if not all, social contexts, people attempt to make pos­
itive impressions on others in pursuit of rewards such as career success
and enhanced social relationships (Brunet & Sabiston, 2019). In the
social media environment, an attractive appearance can play a pivotal
role in determining one’s popularity, which is frequently represented by
the number of followers and likes on postings. Many social media users,
therefore, manipulate the appearance of their own photos to regulate the
impressions other users form of them. Many young Korean women in
particular perceive that editing photos before uploading is an essential
process for their self-presentation on social media (Lee & Lee, 2019).
Growing attention in research has recently been directed toward
photo-editing behavior due to its significant and complex impacts on
body image concerns (Tiggemann et al., 2020). Although photo-editing
behavior can be conceptually seen as an appearance-related photo
M. Lee and H.-H. Lee
activity on social media, this particular behavior may intensify the im­
pacts of appearance-related activities on social media users’ body con­
cerns (Boursier et al., 2020). Moreover, women who edit their
appearance in photos before posting them on social media are more
likely to self-objectify (Lamp et al., 2019). The objectification theory
articulates the meaning of being female in a sociocultural context where
women are treated as objects and valued for their appearance (Fre­
drickson & Roberts, 1997). Based on this theory, researchers have
explained that frequent and repeated objectification experiences
enhance the internalization of the concept of the ideal body and com­
parisons of one’s own appearance to that of others (Fardouly et al.,
2018; Szymanski et al., 2011). Appearance objectification experiences
can explain the positive association between appearance-related photo
activity on social media and users’ body image concerns (Feltman &
Szymanski, 2018; Mingoia et al., 2019). In other words,
appearance-related photo activity makes social media users focus more
on their appearance, which consequently increases the internalization of
and appearance comparison to body ideals (Haferkamp & Krämer, 2011;
Lee & Lee, 2017).
Photo-editing behavior can further exacerbate social media users’
body image concerns (Lee & Lee, 2019). Women uploading edited
photos on social media put more time and effort into manipulating their
appearance in photos than those posting photos without appearance
manipulation. Additionally, those who engage in photo-editing are more
likely to objectify and compare themselves to an ideal standard, which
substantially increases their appearance concerns and body conscious­
ness (Boursier et al., 2020). Therefore, we may expect that photo-editing
behavior on social media may strengthen the effects of
appearance-related photo activity on individuals’ body image concerns,
such as internalization and comparison. We thus formulated the
following hypotheses:
H6a. Photo-editing behavior will moderate the relationship between
appearance-related photo activity on social media and internalization.
More specifically, the association will be greater among women who
engage in a high level of photo-editing behavior than those with a low
level of photo-editing behavior.
H6b. Photo-editing behavior will moderate the relationship between
appearance-related photo activity on social media and appearance
comparison. More specifically, the association will be greater among
young Korean women who engage in a high level of photo-editing
behavior than those with a low level of photo-editing behavior.
H6c. Photo-editing behavior will moderate the relationship between
internalization and appearance comparison. More specifically, the as­
sociation will be greater among young Korean women who engage in a
high level of photo-editing behavior than those with a low level of
photo-editing behavior.
To create the desired impression on others, many people attempt to
regulate and manipulate the way that others evaluate them by selec­
tively presenting or omitting certain personal attributes (Schlenker,
1980). Since photo-editing behavior can be understood as an impression
management strategy of online self-presentation, social media users
often believe that they can control their appearance and overall im­
pressions on others through this behavior (Boursier et al., 2020; Gioia
et al., 2020). Perceived control over online self-presentation can in­
crease users’ confidence in their social interactions (Rogers et al., 2013).
Similarly, presenting an improved appearance through photo-editing
may enhance social media users’ confidence in their appearance in
digital photos, which may be positively associated with body satisfac­
tion (Lee & Lee, 2019; Pelosi et al., 2014).
Recent studies on the associations between photo-editing behavior
and social media users’ body satisfaction have not reported consistent
results. More importantly, most of these studies have focused on the
samples of Caucasians (Cohen et al., 2018; Lamp et al., 2019; Lonergan
et al., 2019; McLean et al., 2015; Tiggemann et al., 2020; Veldhuis et al.,
3
Computers in Human Behavior 114 (2021) 106579
2020), while very limited studies have investigated Asian samples
(Chae, 2017; Chang et al., 2019; Lee & Lee, 2019). For example, Lone­
rgan et al. (2019) specifically examined the effects of photo investment
(i.e., time spent choosing a selfie to post on social media) and editing on
body dissatisfaction among Australian men and women and found that
photo editing was positively associated with greater body dissatisfac­
tion, controlling for photo investment. In their experimental study,
Tiggemann et al. (2020) reported that selfie taking and editing can cause
increased levels of facial dissatisfaction among female Australian un­
dergraduate students. With a sample of Singapore adolescent girls,
Chang et al. (2019) found that both selfie browsing and editing were
negatively and indirectly associated with body esteem. However, in
their study of Australian women aged 18–29 years, Cohen et al. (2018)
found that photo investment, but not photo editing, was negatively
associated with body satisfaction. Similarly, using a sample of
seventh-grade females, McLean et al. (2015) reported that photo-editing
behavior did not meaningfully predict body dissatisfaction when they
controlled for photo investment. To our knowledge, only one study by
Lee and Lee (2019) examined the moderating effect of photo-editing
behavior on the relationship between internalization, media pressure,
and body satisfaction using a sample of Korean women aged in their 20s
who engaged with social media for more than 1 h per day. In their study,
they found significant negative associations between internalization and
body satisfaction only at low levels of photo-editing application use.
Both internalization of and appearance comparison to body ideals on
social media are associated with lower body satisfaction (Betz et al.,
2019; Wang et al., 2019). Female social media users experience this
process of body image perception because they aware of the differences
between their own appearance and body ideals and these discrepancies
can cause body dissatisfaction (Chae, 2017). Social media users may
perceive reduced discrepancies between their own bodies and an ideal
appearance by improving their own image in photos through
photo-editing behavior, which is consequently associated with increased
levels of body satisfaction (Lee & Lee, 2019). Therefore, the negative
effects of internalization and appearance comparison on body satisfac­
tion may differ according to the use of photo-editing applications. Based
on this rationale, we proposed the following hypotheses regarding the
role of photo-editing behavior on the associations between internaliza­
tion, appearance comparison, and body satisfaction among young
Korean women.
H7a. Photo-editing behavior will moderate the relationship between
internalization and body satisfaction. More specifically, the association
will be lower among young Korean women who engage in a high level of
photo-editing behavior than those with a low level of photo-editing
behavior.
H7b. Photo-editing behavior will moderate the relationship between
appearance comparison and body satisfaction. More specifically, the
association will be lower among young Korean women who engage in a
high level of photo-editing behavior than those with a low level of
photo-editing behavior.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Participants and procedure
We adopted a cross-sectional, self-administered online survey
method to collect data and recruited young female social media users
aged in their 20s and 30s through a survey company. After agreeing to
participate in this study through an online consent form, users
completed the online questionnaire, including measures of appearance-
related photo activity on social media, internalization, appearance
comparison, body satisfaction, and photo-editing behavior. We also
gathered data on the participants’ social media usage patterns and be­
haviors, as well as their demographic information.
Among the 541 qualified female who were interested in participating
M. Lee and H.-H. Lee
in this study and read the description and consent form, 385 agreed to
participate and completed the questionnaire, yielding a 71.16%
response rate. The mean age of the participants was 29.83 years (SD =
4.93) with the age ranging from 20 to 39 years. The participants re­
ported that they currently used Instagram (n = 330, 85.7%), YouTube (n
= 275, 71.4%), blogs (n = 240, 62.3%), Facebook (n = 229, 59.5%),
Kakao Story (n = 83, 21.6%), Tumblr (n = 12, 3.1%), and MySpace (n =
3, 0.8%). Most participants responded that they currently used at least
one photo-editing application (n = 351, 91.2%). Participants reported
whether they were single (n = 270, 70.1%), married (n = 110, 28.6%),
divorced/separated (n = 4, 1.0%), or bereaved (n = 1, 0.3%). Most
women (n = 361, 93.8%) reported having completed at least a year of
college. The median monthly household income fell in the KRW
3,000,000–5,000,000 (corresponding to USD 2547–4246) range. The
average reported body mass index (BMI) was 21.22 (SD = 3.08), rep­
resenting a normal weight range.
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Appearance-related photo activity on social media
The six-item SNS (social networking service) Appearance-Related
Photo Activity scale (Lee & Lee, 2017) measured participants’
appearance-related photo activity on social media. Participants indi­
cated the extent to which they engaged in each appearance-related
photo activity on social media (e.g., “Post a photo of me, waist and
above visible” and “Viewing comments on a photo of me”). Each item
was rated on a five-point scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always) and
we averaged the responses. Higher scores indicated greater
appearance-related photo activity on social media. This scale has shown
convergent validity and evidence of internal consistency among Korean
women aged in their 20s (Lee & Lee, 2017). Cronbach’s alpha was .898
in our sample.
2.2.2. Internalization
We used the Internalization-General Attractiveness subscale from the
Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-4-revised
(SATAQ-4R; Schaefer et al., 2017) to measure the extent to which par­
ticipants internalized the sociocultural standards of ideal appearance
regarding general attractiveness. The seven items (e.g., “It is important
for me to look good in the clothes I wear”) were rated on a scale ranging
from 1 (definitely disagree) to 5 (definitely agree). We reverse-coded the
appropriate items and then averaged the item responses. Higher scores
indicated greater internalization of general attractiveness. This subscale
has demonstrated high internal consistency among Korean women aged
in their 20s (Lee & Lee, 2019). Cronbach’s alpha was .894 in our sample.
2.2.3. Appearance comparison
We adopted three items of appearance-related comparisons on
Instagram (Hendrickse et al., 2017) to assess the extent to which par­
ticipants compared their appearance to others on social media. Items
such as “When using social media, I compare my physical appearance to
the physical appearance of others” were rated on a five-point scale
ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). We averaged all item responses.
Higher scores indicated greater levels of appearance comparison on
social media. This scale evidenced internal consistency among Korean
women in their 20s (Lee, 2019). Cronbach’s alpha was .909 in our
sample.
2.2.4. Body satisfaction
We assessed body satisfaction using the Multidimensional Body-Self
Relations Questionnaire-Appearance Evaluation scale (MBSRQ-AE;
Cash, 2000). This scale consisted of seven items, such as “I like my looks
just the way they are” to which participants responded using a five-point
scale ranging from 1 (definitely disagree) to 5 (definitely agree). We
reverse-coded the appropriate items and then averaged responses.
Higher scores indicated higher levels of body satisfaction. This scale
4
Computers in Human Behavior 114 (2021) 106579
shows internal consistency reliability, 1-month test-retest reliability,
and construct validity among females across various age categories
(Cash, 2000). Lee and Lee (2019) showed high internal consistency
reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = .87) among Korean female social media
users aged in their 20s. Cronbach’s alpha was .864 in our sample.
2.2.5. Photo-editing behavior
We measured the participants’ photo-editing behavior by assessing
the self-reported frequency of using photo-editing applications. We
adopted the question “How often do you use photo-editing applications
when you post your appearance-related photos on social media?” from
Lee and Lee’s (2019) study because this has been confirmed to measure
the photo-editing behavior of young Korean women. The response op­
tions ranged from 1 (never) to 5 (always). Based on this photo-editing
behavior score, we split the sample into low (never, rarely, and some­
times) and high (often and always) photo-editing behavior groups.
2.2.6. Demographics
Participants reported their age, marital status, education level,
monthly income, weight, and height. The latter two variables were used
to calculate their BMI (kg/m2).
2.3. Data analysis
Preliminary analyses included descriptive statistics of sample char­
acteristics and bivariate correlations between major research variables.
In our primary analyses, we examined the indirect effect of appearance-
related photo activity on social media (predictor) on body satisfaction
(criterion) through both internalization and appearance comparison
(mediators). Furthermore, we examined the moderating role of photo-
editing behavior on these relationships. Using IBM’s SPSS Amos 20.0
statistical software module, we examined the measurement and struc­
tural models by first using a maximum likelihood estimation. Then, we
performed a multi-group structural equation model (SEM) analysis to
test the moderating effect of photo-editing behavior. For the multi-group
SEM, we split the dataset, based on the participants’ self-reported fre­
quency of using photo-editing applications, into low- (n = 224) and
high-level photo-editing behavior (n = 161). We performed a boot­
strapping analysis to test the significance of the indirect effects. We
assessed the model fit using a chi-square goodness of fit index statistic, a
comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker Lewis Index (TLI), and the root
mean squared error of approximation (RMSEA). We considered the
models with fit statistics greater than 0.95 for CFI, TLI, and below 0.08
for RMSEA a good fit (Marsh et al., 2004).
3. Results
3.1. Preliminary analysis
Table 1 shows the means, SDs, correlations, skewness, and kurtosis of
the principal research variables (i.e., appearance-related photo activity
on social media, internalization, appearance comparison, body satis­
faction, photo-editing behavior, and BMI). We checked the skew value
(ranging from − 0.211 to 1.764) and kurtosis (ranging from − 0.754 to
5.597) of all research variables in the hypothesized model for the
assumption of univariate normality, which met the recommended cut-
off for both skewness (less than 3.00) and kurtosis (less than 10.00)
(Kline, 2016). The results of the bivariate correlations between the
major research variables confirmed that appearance-related photo ac­
tivity on social media could be a critical predictor of the internalization
of body ideals and appearance comparison. Photo-editing behavior was
significantly and positively correlated with appearance-related photo
activity on social media, internalization of body ideals, and appearance
comparison. Since BMI was significantly and negatively correlated with
body satisfaction, it was included as a covariate to account for body
satisfaction in our research model.
M. Lee and H.-H. Lee Computers in Human Behavior 114 (2021) 106579

Table 1
Means, standard deviations, and correlations.
Measure 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. Appearance-related photo activity on social media 1

2. Internalization .420*** 1
3. Appearance comparison .412*** .616*** 1
4. Body satisfaction .132** -.095 -.189*** 1
5. Photo-editing behavior .506*** .370*** .386*** .003 1
6. BMI -.108* .007 .043 -.387*** -.048 1
Mean 2.669 3.833 3.060 2.805 3.099 21.224
SD .919 .641 1.004 .668 1.364 3.082
Skewness -.011 -.158 -.211 .024 -.174 1.764
Kurtosis -.754 .276 -.731 -.054 − 1.210 5.597

*p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

3.2. Measurement model testing
The examination of the measurement model revealed a good fit to
the data: χ 2 (193) = 402.947, p < .001, χ 2/df = 2.088, CFI = 0.960, TLI
= 0.952, RMSEA = 0.053). The relative chi-square (chi-square and de­
grees of freedom ratio) was substantially below the criteria (Kline, 2016;
Marsh & Hocevar, 1985). The standardized factor loadings for all items
ranged from 0.588 to 0.945 at p < .001 level, and the composite reli­
ability of all constructs exceeded 0.70 (ranging from 0.89 to 0.94),
confirming convergent validity (Hair et al., 2010). The average variance
extracted (AVE) of each latent variable ranged from 0.48 to 0.77. The
AVE of one variable, body satisfaction, was slightly below the threshold
of 0.50. However, the AVE of each variable was higher than the squared
intercorrelations (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Thus, we also confirmed
discriminant validity.
3.3. Structural modeling analysis and hypothesis testing
A structural equation model assessed the hypothesized relationships
among appearance-related photo activity on social media, internaliza­
tion, appearance comparison, and body satisfaction. We established the
magnitude of the effects of the entire sample. Overall, the model fit
statistics indicated an acceptable fit of the hypothesized model to the
data: χ 2(214) = 479.163, p < .001 (χ 2/df = 2.239), CFI = 0.951, TLI =
0.942, RMSEA = 0.057.
Fig. 1 shows the standardized path coefficients for the relationships
between variables. Appearance-related photo activity on social media
(β = 0.445, t = 6.949, p < .001; supporting H1) predicted 19.8% of the
variance in internalization. Appearance-related photo activity on social
media (β = 0.166, t = 3.438, p < .01; supporting H2) and internalization
(β = 0.599, t = 8.964, p < .001; supporting H3) accounted for 47.4% of
the variance in appearance comparison. Internalization (β = 0.048, t =
0.642, p = .521; rejecting H4) and appearance comparison (β = − 0.214,
t = − 2.804, p < .01; supporting H5) contributed 19.8% to the variance
in body satisfaction. BMI had a significant and negative association with
body satisfaction (β = − 0.410, t = − 7.343, p < .001).
We performed the bootstrapping procedure to examine the signifi­
cance of the indirect paths in this model. Appearance-related photo
activity on social media had significant and positive indirect relation­
ships with appearance comparison through internalization (β = 0.266, p
< .01). Internalization had a significant and negative indirect relation­
ship with body satisfaction through appearance comparison (β =
− 0.128, p < .01). Appearance-related photo activity on social media had
a significant and negative indirect relationship to body satisfaction
through internalization and/or appearance comparison (β = − 0.071, p
< .05).
3.4. Multi-group analysis: low versus high levels of photo-editing behavior
To investigate the moderating roles of photo-editing behavior, we
examined the comparison between low and high levels of photo-editing
behavior through a multi-group analysis. We examined the invariance of
the structural model through the following procedures: (1) testing a
baseline model with unconstrained path parameters between groups; (2)
testing a fully constrained model with all path parameters assumed to be
equal across groups; and (3) testing differences in individual path pa­
rameters between groups if the variation in path parameters between the
baseline and constrained models was significant.
We tested a baseline unconstrained model against a model with
constrained parameters by conducting a scaled chi-square difference test
(Byrne, 2004). The results reflected significant differences between the
unconstrained and constrained models, Δχ2 (6) = 13.810, p < .05.
Therefore, we concluded that the model varied across groups. When
each individual path was constrained to be equal, we found significant
group differences in the two paths. Significant χ2 differences existed
between the base model and the partially restricted models in which the
path coefficients from appearance-related photo activity on social media
to internalization (Δχ2 = 6.708, Δdf = 2, p < .05; supporting H6a) and
from internalization to appearance comparison (Δχ2 = 6.312, Δdf = 2, p
< .05; supporting H6c) were constrained to be equal. A significant group
difference was not found for the remaining paths from
appearance-related photo activity on social media to appearance com­
parison, from internalization to body satisfaction, or from appearance
comparison to body satisfaction. Therefore, H6b, H7a, and H7b were not
supported.
Table 2 shows the standardized path coefficients in the models for

Fig. 1. Overall results of the research model. **p < .01; ***p < .001.

5
M. Lee and H.-H. Lee Computers in Human Behavior 114 (2021) 106579

Table 2 photo-editing behavior group compared to the low-level group. These

Standardized path coefficients of the final models in low and high levels of photo- findings indicate that photo-editing behavior may intensify young adult
editing behavior. women’s body image concerns. In accordance with the objectification
Paths Low level of photo-editing High level of photo-editing theory, photo-editing behavior may foster social media users’ overall
behavior behavior concerns about their appearance, including internalization of and
β S.E. t В S.E. t comparisons to body ideals (Lamp et al., 2019).
Our analysis did not reveal significant group differences in the paths
Appearance-related .287*** .054 3.716 .447*** .064 4.125
photo activity on between internalization, appearance comparison, and body satisfaction
social media → (rejecting H7a and H7b). However, we should also note that the sig­
Internalizationa nificance of the path from appearance comparison to body satisfaction
Appearance-related .148* .112 2.320 .097 .127 1.314 differed according to the level of photo-editing behavior. That is,
photo activity on
social media →
negative associations of appearance comparison with body satisfaction
Appearance were significant only in the low-level of photo-editing behavior group.
comparison Since we found an insignificant relationship between appearance com­
Internalization → .543*** .210 6.449 .645*** .339 5.556 parison and body satisfaction in the high-level of photo-editing behavior
Appearance
group, we suggest further studies investigating the concomitant conse­
comparisona
Internalization → .023 .124 .258 .035 .223 .300 quences of appearance-related photo activities on social media should
Body satisfaction be conducted in this particular group. What we can clearly conclude
Appearance -.314*** .053 − 3.357 -.134 .076 − 1.159 from the findings of this study is that photo-editing behavior plays a
comparison → significant role in determining young Korean female social media users’
Body satisfaction
body perceptions.
a
Represents significant group differences. *p < .05; ***p < .001. The use of photo-editing applications can enhance one’s appearance
in digital photos and this also means that an individual spends more time
the low- and high-level groups of photo-editing behavior. For the low- on and puts more effort into managing her online appearance. Similarly,
level photo-editing behavior group, all paths in the model were signif­ McLean et al. (2015) and Cohen et al. (2018) specified that those who
icant except the path from internalization to body satisfaction. For the engage in photo activity on social media engage in photo investment and
high-level group, we found only two paths (appearance-related photo photo-editing and they found that photo investment negatively pre­
activity on social media → internalization and internalization → dicted body satisfaction, whereas photo-editing behavior did not predict
appearance comparison) to be significant. When each individual path body satisfaction. Although the current study can help to clarify the
was constrained to be equal, we found significant group differences in current disparate results in terms of the effects of photo-editing behavior
the two paths. Specifically, for the paths from appearance-related photo on social media users’ body image, research on this topic remains scant
activity to internalization and from internalization to appearance com­ and need expansion.
parison, the positive relationships were greater for the high-level photo- An unanticipated finding was that the internalization of an ideal
editing behavior group. body image was not directly associated with body satisfaction. However,
the indirect effect of internalization on body satisfaction remained
4. Conclusions negative, which concords with other research (Fardouly et al., 2018;
Feltman & Szymanski, 2018). We may conclude that the process of
In this study, we investigated the effect of appearance-related photo appearance comparison plays a crucial role in the association between
activity on social media on young adult women’s body image regarding internalization and body satisfaction. However, as an inconsistent result
the moderating effect of photo-editing behavior. Overall, the results compared to those of previous studies (Nerini et al., 2019), the associ­
confirmed the significant negative associations between social media ations among internalization, appearance comparison, and body satis­
activities and female users’ body image that have been found in other faction among Korean social media users should be further explored.
studies (Feltman & Szymanski, 2018; Mingoia et al., 2017; Powell et al., Identifying the influence of social media on users’ body image is
2018). As expected and consistent with other studies (Haferkamp & essential in contemporary society. This study advances our theoretical
Krämer, 2011; Lee, 2019; Lee & Lee, 2017), appearance-related photo understanding of how appearance-related photo activity on social media
activity on social media was positively related to higher levels of is related to body image concerns and body satisfaction among young
internalization of body ideals and appearance comparison. Women who Korean women. Importantly, the findings of this study provide a
were more engaged in appearance-related photo activity showed higher framework for future research regarding the effects of photo-editing
levels of internalization and a higher tendency to compare their behavior on social media users’ body image perceptions. We suggest
appearance to that of others. The findings of this study on the positive that future research may consider the “two-faced” effects of photo-
association between internalization and appearance comparison and on editing behavior in terms of its moderating effects. The current study
the negative associations between appearance comparison and body confirmed that photo-editing behavior plays a significant role in the
satisfaction are also consistent with previous research (Fardouly & associations between appearance-related photo activity on social media,
Vartanian, 2015; Perloff, 2014). In sum, H1 through H5 but not H4 were internalization, and appearance comparisons. Women who edit their
supported. Regarding H4 indicating a negative association between appearance in photos are more likely to internalize and compare their
internalization and body satisfaction, a direct path was not supported in physical selves to ideals. This finding indicates the negative effects of
our analysis. However, we should note that the significantly negative photo-editing behavior on women’s body image concerns. Meanwhile,
indirect effect of internalization on body satisfaction through appear­ the findings of this study indicate the possibility that the negative as­
ance comparison was confirmed. sociations of appearance comparison with body satisfaction can be
As one of the most notable findings of this study, distinct associations lower for those Korean women who enhance their digital appearance
between variables emerged when we considered photo-editing behavior using photo-editing options. A recent experimental study on Korean
as a moderator. Significant group differences between low and high female college students also reported that adding virtual makeup before
levels of photo-editing behavior with regard to the associations between posting their photos on social media reduced the negative effects of
appearance-related photo activity on social media and internalization selfie behaviors on women’s mood states and body satisfaction (Yu &
(H6a), and internalization and appearance comparison (H6c), were Lee, 2020).
confirmed. These two path associations were greater for the high-level of Additionally, women, health counselors, and educators may consider

6
M. Lee and H.-H. Lee
using this research to develop programs to prevent negative conse­
quences from social media use. In most Westernized societies, female
beauty ideals emphasizing unrealistic standards are already deeply
embedded in people’s perceptions (Jackson et al., 2020; Lee & Lee,
2020; MacCallum; Widdows, 2018). Numerous women are under sub­
stantial pressure from social media to comply with their societies’
standards and often suffer negative psychological consequences as a
result (i.e., body dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, and disordered eating).
Even though most of the current literature, though limited, on
photo-investment and -editing behavior has focused on its negative
impacts on users’ body image (Cohen et al., 2018; Lonergan et al., 2019;
McLean et al., 2015), an increasing number of women prefer to edit their
photos before uploading them on social media. The current study
highlights the importance of understanding the complex ways in which
photo-editing behavior can influence young female social media users’
body concerns and perceptions. Specifically, the moderating role of the
use of photo-editing applications found in this study may suggest the
importance of acknowledging both the negative and positive impacts of
photo editing behaviors on female social media users’ body concerns.
4.1. Limitations and suggestions for future research
Readers should be cautious when interpreting the results of this
study because of its possible limitations. The findings of this study may
apply only to young Korean women and may not be generalizable to
other ethnicities. Given that the available research on the topic of photo-
editing behavior on social media is extremely limited and that each
culture has its own beauty standards, further research is needed to
investigate the possible differences in the functions of photo-editing
behavior on one’s own photos between women in Western and Korean
cultures. The continued and expanded exploration of cultural differ­
ences in the effects of photo-editing behavior by using samples of diverse
ethnicities and cultural backgrounds is warranted.
Additionally, appearance-related photo activity on social media in­
cludes various types of activities, such as selfie posting, investment, and
editing, and each activity may influence users’ body image differently
(Cohen et al., 2018). Further research considering diverse and separate
appearance-related photo activities will enhance our understanding.
Another limitation is the fact that, to date, the research investigating
the role of photo-editing behavior in the body image development
process in a social media environment is extremely limited. Moreover,
understanding photo-editing behavior from the uploaders’ perspective
has only recently received scholarly attention. The very fact of the
ubiquity of young women’s use of photo editing applications when
uploading photos of their appearance on social media makes this
particular behavior worthy of further investigation.
We suggest investigating the direction of appearance comparison in
detail. When women confront the images of body ideals on social media,
appearance comparison can occur either in upward or downward di­
rections (Festinger, 1954; O’Brien et al., 2009). In this study, we
assumed that the appearance comparison “normal” women experience
on social media might be an upward comparison. This is quite reason­
able because the body ideals presented on social media are unachievable
for most women. However, women may feel better about their bodies
when they perceive that the bodies they see on social media are less
attractive than their own (Feltman & Szymanski, 2018; Wills, 1981).
Thus, further research differentiating appearance comparison of upward
from downward directions is necessary to advance our understanding of
how social media relates to body image.
We should acknowledge the limitations of a one-time cross-sectional
study. We cannot interpret the results of this study as representing
causal relationships between variables. Future research adopting
experimental and longitudinal research designs is warranted to identify
the causal mechanisms behind the potential associations between social
media and users’ body image. The examination of causal relationships is
especially critical because body satisfaction can both precede and follow
7
Computers in Human Behavior 114 (2021) 106579
appearance-related photo activity on social media. A positive correla­
tion between appearance-related photo activity on social media and
body satisfaction may indicate that women who have higher body
satisfaction to begin with are likely to engage in higher levels of
appearance-related photo activity on social media (Ridgway & Clayton,
2016). Longitudinal research involving the consideration of pre-existing
body satisfaction is needed to further confirm the direction and causa­
tion of the effects of appearance-related photo activity and photo-editing
behavior on body satisfaction.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Minsun Lee: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis,
Investigation, Writing - original draft. Hyun-Hwa Lee: Conceptualiza­
tion, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Project administra­
tion, Writing - review & editing.
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