NPA1

LABORATORY
Anatomy and Physiology
Instructor: Shayne Verli O. Cadavedo-Novicio, RN, LPT, MD
School of Nursing
The Basics of HAP
TERMS TO REMEMBER:
• Anatomy is the study of
structures, Physiology is the study
of how these structures function,
and Pathology is the study of
disease.
• Standard Anatomical Position:
• The body is upright
• Legs close together
• Feet are flat on the floor
• Arms are close to the sides
• Head, toes, and palms of the hands
are facing forward.
 Anatomy

Gross Microscopic Developmental Radiographic Pathological

TERMS TO REMEMBER
1. Anatomical Terms of Direction
2. Anatomical Regions
3. Anatomical Planes
4. Anatomical Positions
5. Anatomical Cavities
Anatomical Terms of Direction
1. Anterior or Ventral
2. Posterior or Dorsal
3. Superior vs. Inferior
4. Medial vs. Lateral
5. Proximal vs. Distal
6. Superficial vs. Deep
7. Right vs. Left
Anatomical Regions
• Axial • Appendicular
• Abdominal • Brachial
• Axillary • Carpal
• Cranial • Cubital
• Cervical • Femoral
• Facial • Palmar
• Inguinal • Patellar
• Pelvic • Plantar
• Thoracic • Tarsal
• Umbilical
Anatomical Regions
Anatomical Regions
• Abdominal Area
• 9 Regions
• 4 Quadrants
Anatomical Planes
• Sagittal → right from left
• Transverse or Horizontal → top from bottom
• Frontal or Coronal → front from back
 SAGITTAL PLANE or
LONGITUDINAL PLANE

TRANSVERSE PLANE or
HORIZONTAL PLANE

FRONTAL PLANE or
CORONAL PLANE
Anatomical Cavities
• Dorsal Cavity
• Cranial
• Vertebral
• Thoracic Cavity
• Pleural
• Pericardial
• Mediastinum
• Abdominopelvic Cavity
• Abdominal
• Pelvic
Microscope
Definition of Terms:
• Magnification
• Ability of the microscope to enlarge an image.
• Resolution
• Ability of the lens to distinguish two points as clear and as distinct.
• The degree to which a microscope can distinguish fine details
Parts:
• Eyepiece (Ocular Lens)
• The part that is looked through at the top of the compound
microscope.
• Objective Lenses
• 3-5 optical lens objectives
• 4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x are the most common magnifying powers
• The total magnification of a compound microscope is calculated by
multiplying the objective lens magnification by the eyepiece magnification
level.
• Total Magnification
• Objective lens magnification x ocular lens magnification

• Magnifying Power of the Lenses:

• Scanner - 40X
• LPO - 100X
• HPO - 400X
• OIO - 1000X
Parts:
• Arm
• Supports the microscope head and attaches it to the base.
• Nosepiece (revolving)
• Holds the objective lenses & attaches them to the microscope
head. This part rotates to change which objective lens is active.
• Base
• Bottom base of the microscope that houses the illumination & supports the
compound microscope.
Definition of Terms:
• Stage or Platform
• The platform upon which the specimen or slide are placed.
• The height of the mechanical stage is adjustable on most
compound microscopes.
• Stage clips
• Clips on the stage that hold the slide in place on the mechanical stage.
• Iris Diaphragm
• Circular opening in the stage where the illumination from the base of the
compound microscope reaches the platform of the stage.
• Control the amount of light received by the condenser
Definition of Terms:
• Light source
• Condenser
• This lens condenses the light from the base illumination and
focuses it onto the stage. This piece of the compound
microscope sits below the stage & typically acts as a structural
support that connects the stage to arm or frame of
the microscope.
• Coarse and fine adjustment knobs
• Adjusts the focus of the microscope. These knobs increase or decrease the
level of detail seen when looking at the slide or specimen through the
eyepiece of the compound microscope.
LIGHT MICROSCOPY
• Bright-field microscopy
➢Uses ordinary light; tissue color is due to staining with dyes
LIGHT MICROSCOPY
• Fluorescence microscopy
➢Uses UV light; at specific wavelength, light excites the fluorescent molecules
emitting light
LIGHT MICROSCOPY
• Phase-contrast microscopy
➢Uses different refractive index; allow examination of cells without fixation or
staining
ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
• Based on the interaction of tissue components with beams of
electrons
• Electron-lucent areas (bright)
• Electrons pass readily
• Electron-dense areas (dark)
• Electrons were absorbed or deflected
• Transmission EM, Scanning EM
• SEM – 3D view
Others:
• Cell and tissue culture
• Cells are grown in vitro (outside the body)
• Enzyme histochemistry
• Enzyme activity observed in locations where substrates can be detected
• Enzyme classes - phosphatases, dehydrogenases, peroxidases
• Frozen tissues are sectioned with cryostat because fixation and paraffin
denatures enzymes (protein denaturation)
• Immunohistochemistry
• Reaction with antigen and antibodies labeled with visible markers (e.g.
fluorescent compounds or peroxidase in LM, gold in TEM)
CARE OF THE MICROSCOPE
1) Carry the microscope upright with two hands.
2) Inspect microscope before use.
3) Clean lenses with proper cleaning tools.
4) Do not push the microscope across the table.
5) Unplug carefully.
6) Return microscope properly.
FOCUSING THE MICROSCOPE
1) Always begin viewing every slide using the scanning power (4x)
objective.
2) When focusing with the high-powered objective, do not use the
coarse adjustment knob. It is very easy to break slides or damage
objectives by doing this. Use the fine adjustment knob at this point.
3) Adjust the iris diaphragm. This will improve contrast, providing a
clearer view of the specimen.
4) When using a binocular microscope, the distance between the two
oculars (interocular width) can be adjusted by moving the ocular
tubes toward or away from each other.
LOW POWER OBJECTIVE
1) Turn the revolving nose piece so that the LPO is in the position.
2) Use the coarse adjustment knob to raise the ocular lens or to lower the stage
3) Please slide on the stage
4) Look through the microscope then adjust the diaphragm level and condenser
knob to allow enough light to pass through and light the field.
5) Turn the coarse adjustment to lower the objective lens as close to the slide as
possible.
6) Look into the microscope and slowly turn the coarse adjustment in the
opposite direction so that the objective lens moves away from the slide.
7) Use the fine adjustment knob to bring the specimen into perfect focus.
8) Move the slide up and down, left and right, note that the inverted image
always moves in opposite direction.
HIGH POWER OBJECTIVE
9) Turn the nosepiece to move the HPO into viewing position.
Remember that the field of view will be smaller as the magnification
increases.
Four Basic Tissue Types
 Four Basic Tissue Types

EPITHELIAL CONNECTIVE MUSCLE NERVOUS

Image from Junqueira's Basic Histology, Text and Atlas, 16th edition
The Cell
Cellular Components
 Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

• Oldest cell type DNA • Evolved from prokaryotes

• Small and simple Ribosomes • Larger and more complex
• Lack nucleus Cytoplasm • Contain nucleus
• Lack organelles • Contain organelles
Plasma membrane
• Single-celled • Single-celled or
• Single circular chromosome multicellular
• Multiple linear
chromosomes
Major Regions
•Nucleus
•Plasma membrane
•Cytoplasm
Nucleus
• Control center of the cell
• Cell division or cell replication
• houses and protects the DNA (genetic material)
• Chromatin
• Chromosomes
Nucleus
• Nucleoli (singular: nucleolus)
• assembly sites for ribosomes – actual protein-synthesizing
“factories”
• Nuclear envelope/membrane
• Similar to cellular membrane
• large nuclear pores - permit large molecules such as
protein and RNA molecules to pass easily
Plasma Membrane
• Protects cell
• Separates cell contents
• Phospholipid bilayer - stabilization
• Contain some proteins – allows cell adhesion, cellular
transport and communication
Plasma Membrane
• Determines which substances may enter or leave the
cell and in what amount
• Microvilli
• small fingerlike projections that greatly increase the
surface area of the cell
• allows the cell to have greater absorption or secretion.
Cytoplasm and Organelles
• major site of most activities carried out by the cell
• Organelles – tiny structures suspended in the cytosol,
the fluid part of the cytoplasm
• metabolic machinery of the cell, and they are highly
organized to carry out specific activities for the cell as a
whole
Cytoplasm and Organelles
• other substances and structures
• stored foods (glycogen granules and lipid droplets),
pigment granules, crystals of various types, water
vacuoles and ingested foreign materials
• not part of the active metabolic machinery of the cell -
inclusions
Cell Parts and Functions
CILIA CENTRIOLE
Cell Specialization
Somatic Cell Division
Somatic
• Somatic (soma- = body) cell division occurs when one
cell divides to produce two genetically identical cells.
• Cell division is needed for growth of the individual,
wound healing, and replacement of old and dying
cells.
 Cell Cycle

Mitotic
Interphase
Phase

Prophase Metaphase

Anaphase Telophase
 INTERPHASE
(inter = between)
Phases of Somatic Cell Cycle
•INTERPHASE
• Period between cell divisions; cells are
metabolically active and growing;
• DNA, organelles, and other cell components
replicate;
• chromosomes cannot be seen with a light
microscope
 MITOSIS
(mitos- = thread)
Phases of Somatic Cell Cycle
•MITOTIC PHASE
• Somatic cell division.
• MITOSIS
• Nuclear division.
• PMAT (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase)
 PROPHASE
(pro- = first)
Phases of Somatic Cell Cycle
•Prophase
• Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear;
chromatin condenses into chromosomes; centrioles
move to opposite poles; spindle fibers form
 METAPHASE
(meta- = next)
Phases of Somatic Cell Cycle
•Metaphase
• Chromosomes line up at metaphasal plate; spindle
fibers attach to centromeres of chromatids
 ANAPHASE
(ana- = apart)
Phases of Somatic Cell Cycle
•Anaphase
• Chromatids of chromosomes separate; move to
opposite poles
TELOPHASE
(telo- = end)
Phases of Somatic Cell Cycle
•Telophase
• Cell reverses prophase activities
Phases of Somatic Cell Cycle
•Cytokinesis (cyto- = cell; kinesio- = movement
• Cytoplasmic division into two genetically identical
daughter cells; begins during anaphase with
formation of cleavage furrow; ends with completion
of telophase
Thank you for listening!