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PASSION IN EDUCATION
Theory, Research, and Applications
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Robert J. Vallerand, Tanya Chichekian,
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and Virginie Paquette
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Develop a passion for learning. If you do, you will never cease to grow.
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—Anthony J. D’Angelo (n.d.)
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According to the author of the above quote, learning should be anchored

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in passion. Presumably, when passion is at play, then learning and growth

should take place. Although such passion may already be present in the
learner, typically as pertains to educational subjects, passion needs to be
nurtured by the teacher. When seen in this light, teaching is indeed a very
important profession. What can be more rewarding for a teacher than to
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see his or her students being passionate for one or more subjects and to
grow, expand, and develop in areas that go way beyond academic subjects?
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Eventually, students who have found a passion for a particular subject are
likely to persist in education and to continue on in a profession they will
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love and eventually contribute to society. The role of passion in education

and beyond therefore cannot be minimized. Accordingly, research on
Promoting Motivation and Learning in Contexts, pages 115–142

Copyright © 2020 by Information Age Publishing
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved. 115
116  R. J. VALLERAND, T. CHICHEKIAN, and V. PAQUETTE
passion in education has generated interest over the past 15 years or so

(e.g., Day, 2004; Greenberger, 2012; Phelps & Benson, 2012; Ruiz-Alfonso
& Leon, 2016; Vallerand, 2016). However, is passion always adaptive? Can
we foresee situations where the above quote may actually be proven wrong?
In this chapter, we address the role of passion in education. After a brief
discourse on the history of the construct leading to a definition of passion,
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we present the dominant theory of passion; namely the dualistic model of
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passion (DMP; Vallerand, 2010, 2015; Vallerand & Houlfort, 2019). We then
proceed to briefly review research on outcomes, showing that passion matters
greatly for both students and teachers on a number of dimensions. It will also
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be seen that some forms of passion (i.e., harmonious) lead to more adaptive
outcomes than others (obsessive). Then follows a section on the determi-
nants of passion leading up to another one on cross-cultural and generaliza-
tion issues. Finally, applications are addressed in the final section.
ON THE CONCEPT OF PASSION
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A Brief History of Passion
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The use of the passion concept itself goes back to the Greek philoso-
phers. Over the years, three positions have emerged (see Vallerand, 2015).
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The first posits that passion entails a loss of reason and control (see Plato,
429–347 BC and Spinoza, 1632–1677). In line with the etymology of the
word passion (from the Latin word, passio, for suffering), people who have
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a passion are seen as suffering because they are slaves to their passion as it
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comes to control them. The second perspective portrays passion in a more

positive light as exemplified by the Romantic philosophers such as Kierkeg-
aard (1813–1855) who wrote: “To exist, if we do not mean by that only a
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pseudo existence, cannot take place without passion.” Hegel (1770–1831)

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even said that “nothing great in this world has ever been accomplished
without passion.” Thus, this second view portrays passion in a more positive
light as some positive outcomes are expected to follow from passion. Taken
together, these two positions highlight the duality of passion. However, a
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third position emerged at the turn of the 20th century and suggested that
some passions are “good” and others are “bad.” The work of André Jous-
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sain (1928) is important in this regard as he proposed that there were adap-
tive and less adaptive forms of passion. Joussain posited that some passions
can conflict with other passions while others can peacefully coexist with
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others. In fact, Joussain proposed that we should seek equilibrium among

our passions and the multiple consequences that they create for us and
others. Inherent in such a statement is that all passions are not equivalent
Passion in Education  117
and that while some may lead to adaptive outcomes, others may even yield
maladaptive consequences.
The construct of passion was largely neglected during the next 50 years
or so. It was research on passionate love that rekindled interest back in pas-
sion (Hatfield & Walster, 1978). Such research was important but did not
deal with the main topic at hand, namely passion for activities. Although
some psychologists have later discussed the concept of passion from an
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emotion (see Frijda, Mesquita, Sonemans, & Van Goozen, 1991) and a posi-
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tive addiction perspective (Glasser, 1976), no research was conducted on
these two positions. It was with the Vallerand et al. (2003) Journal of Per-
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sonality and Social Psychology article that a coherent definition, theory, and
empirical research on passion was first conducted thereby opening up the
scientific field of passion.
Passion Defined
Vallerand et al. (2003) proposed a definition of passion that was later

slightly expanded by Vallerand (2015):
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Passion can be seen as a strong inclination toward a specific object, activity,
concept or person that one loves (or at least strongly likes), highly values,
invests time and energy in on a regular basis, and that is part of one’s identity.
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Furthermore, two forms of passion seem to exist. The first can be seen as be-
ing in harmony with other aspects of the self and the person’s life and should
mainly lead to adaptive outcomes. The second form of passion may conflict
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with aspects of the self and life and should mainly lead to less adaptive, and
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sometimes, even maladaptive outcomes. (p. 33)
Let us highlight further the various elements of passion (see Vallerand,

2015, Chapter 2 for a more elaborate discussion). The first core element is
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that passion is experienced toward a specific activity. Thus, one may be pas-
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sionate for his or her work as a teacher but may not be if that person were to
work as a social worker. Passion is not a trait but is specific to the person–ac-
tivity interface. The second element is that passion reflects an enduring love
of the activity. If you don’t love the activity, it is not passion. Third, the activ-
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ity is meaningful and highly valued by the person. Fourth, passion is a moti-
vational, rather than affective, construct. Indeed, the writings of Immanuel
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Kant (1724–1804) are clear: “Passion is not a short-lived emotion but rather
something that is enduring and that moves one toward the beloved object or
activity.” The fifth definitional element is that passion allows the individual
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to experience high levels of energy, effort, and persistence during, and at

times after, one’s involvement with the activity. The sixth element is that the
beloved activity becomes part of one’s identity. A student passionate about
music does not merely play music; he or she feels like he or she is a musician.
Finally, the last aspect of passion worth mentioning is that passion may take
one of two forms: a more adaptive form (harmonious) and another that is
less so (obsessive). This distinction between the two types of passion allows us
to address the duality of passion documented by philosophers.
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Passion Compared to Other Constructs
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The concept of passion has some ties with a number of
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psychologi-cal concepts such as engagement (Bakker & Demerouti,
2008; Schaufeli, Martinez, Pinto, Salanova, & Bakker, 2002), activity
commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1990), and workaholism (Spence &
Robbins, 1992). An impor-tant distinction to be made here is that
being engaged, committed, or a workaholic may take place in the
absence of love for the activity. Indeed, one’s heavy engagement in the
activity may be performed because of the extrinsic rewards (such as a
hefty salary) one receives. This is not so with passion. Passion entails a
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deep love for the activity one is passionate about. Birkeland and Buch
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(2015) have empirically shown that passion is indeed different from
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these other constructs. Another related construct is that of flow
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1978). Flow is generally defined as the experience one
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has when fully immersed in the activity. Because passion affects one’s
experiences when engaged in the activity, it has been hypothesized and
empirically found that flow is a consequence of passion and especially
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har-monious passion (see Lavigne, Forest, & Crevier-Braud, 2012;

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Vallerand et al., 2003, Study 1). Further, flow is mainly associated with
positive outcomes and as such cannot reflect the duality of outcomes
proposed by the DMP.
Two other constructs worth discussing are intrinsic and extrinsic motiva-
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tion. Both passion and intrinsic motivation involve a love for the activity.
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However, intrinsically motivated activities are not defined as

internalized in the person’s identity (Deci & Ryan, 2000) and are best
seen as emerging from the person–task interaction at the short-term level
(Koestner & Losier, 2002). Indeed, although some forms of extrinsic
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motivation are internal-ized in the self (see below), this is not the case for
intrinsic motivation as it is theorized to directly emanate from the self
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without internalization (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Furthermore, contrary to the

concept of passion, no theory or research has hypothesized or found that
intrinsic motivation can lead to maladaptive outcomes (as it has been
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hypothesized and found with obses-sive passion). On the other hand,

extrinsic motivation entails performing an activity for reasons that lie
outside of the activity and not out of enjoy-ment. Thus, irrespective of the
type of extrinsic motivation and whether it is self-determined and
internalized in the self (i.e., identified or integrated regulation) or not, a
fundamental difference between passion and extrinsic
motivation is the lack of a love for the activity with the latter construct (see
Vallerand et al., 2003 for empirical support for this hypothesis). Thus, over-
all, passion represents a distinct conceptual construct.
THE DUALISTIC MODEL OF PASSION
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In line with the introductory quote, passion is highly prevalent in the edu-
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cation realm. Indeed, over 25 studies conducted in the sphere of educa-
tion with thousands of students from different countries and various age
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groups reveal that they are generally passionate for at least one of a variety
of educational activities such as music (Bonneville-Roussy, Lavigne, & Val-
lerand, 2011; Bonneville-Roussy, Vallerand, & Bouffard, 2013), physical ac-
tivity, dance, and sports (e.g., Mageau et al., 2009; Rip, Fortin, & Vallerand,
2006), science (Mageau et al., 2009), dramatic arts (Vallerand et al., 2007),
and their studies in general (Bélanger, Lafrenière, Vallerand, & Kruglanski,
2013b; Stoeber, Childs, Hayward, & Feast, 2011). Further, over 15 additional
studies with thousands of teachers at different levels (e.g., elementary, high
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school, college) have found that they are typically passionate for teaching
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(e.g., Carbonneau, Vallerand, Fernet, & Guay, 2008; Fernet, Lavigne, Val-
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lerand, & Austin, 2014; Houlfort, Philippe, Vallerand, & Ménard, 2013).
Because passion is present in education and in light of its role in produc-
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ing significant o u tcomes ( a s w e w i ll s e e b e low), t h ere w o uld s e em t o b e a
need to better understand the concept of passion. In addition to the general
definition of passion seen previously, the DMP (Vallerand, 2010, 2015, 2016;
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Vallerand & Houlfort, 2019) further posits that there are two types of passion,
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obsessive and harmonious, that can be distinguished in terms of how the pas-
sionate activity has been internalized. Obsessive passion (OP) results from
a controlled internalization of the activity that one loves into one’s identity,
which means that values and regulations associated with the activity are inter-
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nalized partially in the self or completely outside the integrating self (Deci &
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Ryan, 2000; Ryan & Deci, 2000). The individual feels an uncontrollable urge
to partake in the activity because the beloved activity is attached to contin-
gencies (e.g., feeling of social acceptance, self-esteem; Lafrenière,
Bélanger, Sedikides, & Vallerand, 2011; Mageau, Carpentier, &
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Vallerand, 2011). This ego-investment in the activity can be shown

by a rigid persistence toward the activity (Vallerand, 2015). While such
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persistence may lead to some benefits in the long term (e.g., improved
performance), it may also lead the person to experience conflict with other
aspects of his or her life when engaging in the passionate activity,
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and to experience negative consequences during and af-ter activity

engagement. For example, in the movie Whiplash, Andrew is a stu-dent at
an elite music conservatory who displays an OP for playing the drums.
Obsessive passion has led Andrew to improve as a drummer for sure but also
to experience a number of problems with respect to school, friendships, love

relationship, the emotions he feels when playing and even his mental health.
His OP for playing drums leads to frustration, rumination, and guilt when
prevented from playing drums. Even more, at some point in the movie, his
obsession for the music he so dearly loves comes to negatively influence his
performance to the point that he stops playing drums and drops out of music
school! Thus, OP takes away from Andrew’s life instead of contributing to
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it, by preventing him from enjoying other activities outside of music such as
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school, friends, and even love.
Conversely, harmonious passion (HP) results from an autonomous inter-
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nalization of the activity into the person’s identity and self, which means that
the individual has freely accepted the activity as important for him or her
without any contingencies attached to it (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Mageau et al.,
2011; Ryan & Deci, 2000). The activity occupies a significant but not over-
powering space in the person’s identity and is in harmony with other aspects
of the person’s life. The person fully partakes in the passionate activity with
a mindful (St-Louis, Verner-Filion, Bergeron, & Vallerand, 2018) and non-
defensive mindset and is able to fully focus on the task at hand and experi-
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ence positive outcomes both during task engagement (e.g., positive affect,
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concentration, flow) and after task engagement (e.g., general positive affect,
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satisfaction; Stenseng, Rise, & Kraft, 2011; Vallerand et al., 2003, Study 1).
Furthermore, when prevented from engaging in their passionate activity,
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people with a HP should be able to adapt well to the situation and focus their
attention and energy on other tasks that need to be done. Finally, people with
a HP have a flexible engagement and are in control of the activity. They are
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able to decide to forego activity engagement on a given day if needed or even

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to terminate the relationship with the activity if it has become a permanent

negative factor in their life. Thus, an elite drummer with a HP could work
just as hard as Andrew on his drumming but would also make sure to focus
on other life activities as well. This would allow her to enjoy life outside of it,
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to develop and maintain friendships and romantic relationships, to replenish

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herself away from drumming, and, when drumming, to be fully in the mo-
ment, to experience positive emotions, to connect with other musicians, and
to reach high levels of performance and creativity.
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PASSION AND OUTCOMES IN EDUCATION

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In line with the above discussion on the DMP, one of the major hypotheses
is that HP should lead to a number of adaptive outcomes and much more
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so than OP that typically leads to less adaptive outcomes and can, at times,
yield maladaptive outcomes. A number of studies have been conducted
in education, as well as in other areas, to examine the role of passion in
different outcomes (for reviews, see Curran, Hill, Appleton, Vallerand, &
Standage, 2015; Vallerand, 2015; Vallerand & Houlfort, 2019; Vallerand
& Paquette, in press). In this section, we briefly review some of these
stud-ies focusing on those conducted in education with either teachers
or stu-dents as pertain to four major outcomes: psychological well-being,
physical health, performance and creativity, and relationships.
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Passion and Psychological Well-Being
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Does engaging in an activity that one loves and finds meaningful such as
taking courses or teaching influence psychological well-being? A number
of studies with students (e.g., St-Louis et al., 2018, Study 1; Stoeber et al.,
2011) and teachers (e.g., Carbonneau et al., 2008; Castillo, Álvarez, Esteva,
Queralt, & Molina-García, 2017; Fernet et al., 2014; Houlfort et al., 2013;
Moè, 2016; Prates, Both, & Rinaldi, 2019; Trépanier, Fernet, Austin, Forest,
& Vallerand, 2014) reveal that it does. Indeed, research has shown that HP
for studying or teaching positively contributed to positive indices of psycho-
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logical well-being such as life and work satisfaction, purpose in life, happi-
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ness, while protecting against indices of ill-being (e.g., anxiety, depression,
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burnout). Furthermore, longitudinal studies with teachers have shown that
HP also predicted increases in well-being over periods ranging from three
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months to two years (e.g., Carbonneau et al., 2008; Houlfort et al., 2013)
whereas OP positively predicted ill-being and was either negatively related
or unrelated to life satisfaction, happiness, and vitality in students (e.g., St-
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Louis et al., 2018; Saville, Bureua, Eckenrode, Maley, 2018). Moreover, OP

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for teaching predicted increases in burnout and depression over time in

teachers (e.g., Fernet et al., 2014; Houlfort et al., 2013) whereas HP pro-
tected teachers against burnout (Carbonneau et al., 2008).
If HP contributes to well-being, then how do such effects take place? Re-
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search has revealed that HP contributed to well-being by providing access

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to adaptive self-processes while one engages in the activity. Such processes

included positive affect (e.g., Rousseau & Vallerand, 2008), flow (Carpen-
tier, Mageau, & Vallerand, 2012; Lavigne, Forest, & Crevier-Braud, 2012),
mindfulness (St-Louis et al., 2018), and adaptive coping strategies (Schel-
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lenberg, Gaudreau, & Crocker; 2013; Verner-Filion et al., 2014). For in-
stance, research has shown that HP for an activity led to repeated experi-
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ences of positive affect (see Rousseau & Vallerand, 2008) and flow (Lavigne
et al., 2012) while engaging in the activity that over time provided a recur-
rent positive effect on psychological well-being. Such was not the case for
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OP that typically led to the absence of flow and positive affect, but to high
levels of negative affect that, in turn over time, undermined psychological
well-being and even promoted ill-being.
Passion and Physical Health
Can passion for one’s studies affect one’s physical health? It appears to
be the case. For instance, research with undergraduate students by Stoeber
et al. (2011) revealed that being passionate for one’s studies (both HP and
OP) positively predicted increases in energy (i.e., vigor and intensity) during
engagement in educational activities. In addition, HP was positively related
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to autonomous motivation for studying and negatively related to burnout,
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while this was not the case for OP. In another Study with college students,
Bureau et al. (2017) showed that OP for academic activities was positively
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associated with poor health as indexed by excessive drinking, exercise ad-
diction, and disordered eating but unrelated to sleep deprivation. Harmoni-
ous passion for academic activities, in contrast, was negatively associated with
excessive drinking and sleep deprivation but unrelated to the other health
measures. Thus, passion for one’s studies can drastically affect one’s health.
Other studies have looked at activities that students engage in on a reg-
ular basis and the effects that passion for such engagement can have on
their health. One such activity is computer games. Research with college
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students revealed that both HP and OP led to high energy during engage-
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ment in computer games (similar to the Stoeber et al., 2011 Study above)
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whereas only HP provided one with high energy after gaming (Lafrenière,
Vallerand, Donahue, & Lavigne, 2009; Przybylski, Weinstein, Ryan, & Rigby,
2009). However, gaming is also of interest because people, and especially
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students and young adults, may engage in these activities for excessively
long periods of time which may hinder physical health (e.g., Chuang,
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2006). Once more, because of the rigid persistence in the activity that it
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entails, OP may positively predict health problems whereas HP should not

as it allows one to remain mindful during activity engagement (St-Louis et
al., 2018) and to stop activity engagement if necessary. The above hypoth-
eses have been supported in a number of studies on gaming (e.g., Przybyl-
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ski et al., 2009), including some with massively multiplayer online gaming
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that involves ongoing gaming, 24 hours a day (Lafrenière et al., 2009) as

well as other types of games such as Pokemon Go (Orosz, Zsila, Vallerand,
& Böthe, 2018) and TV and computer series watching and Facebook use
(Orosz, Vallerand, Böthe, Tóth-Király, & Paskuj, 2016).
Research suggests that physical activity has important health benefits
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(Wells, 2012). Does passion contribute to engagement in this healthy activ-

ity? Research has shown that both HP and OP predicted heavy engagement
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in physical activity with students (e.g., Gustafsson, Hassmén, & Hassmén,

2011) and the general population (Parastatidou, Doganis, Theodorakis, &
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Vlachopoulos, 2012). However, research with college students in a kinesiol-

ogy program revealed that OP for exercise predicted exercise dependence
while it was much less the case for HP (e.g., Paradis, Cooke, Martin, & Hall,
2013). Moreover, in a research with mostly college students enrolled in a
dancing program, Rip, Fortin, and Vallerand (2006) showed that the more
one was passionate (either harmonious or obsessive), the less one was se-
verely injured. Thus, being passionate (HP and OP) for some form of physi-
cal activity served to protect from acute injuries while engaging in the activity.
This is because being passionate led one to dance regularly and thus being in
great physical shape. However, what about when one is already injured? Can
one stop dancing in order to heal or is one so passionately obsessive that he
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or she cannot stop, thereby leading to chronic injury? As hypothesized, Rip
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and her colleagues (2006) found that OP predicted chronic injuries, whereas
HP was unrelated to such injuries. Stephan et al. (2009) has also found OP
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to be a risk factor for injuries in runners. In sum, it appears that passion does
affect one’s health and the type of passion matters in the process.
Passion and Performance and Creativity
One would expect individuals who are passionate for a given activity to
engage in this activity regularly, to work hard to improve, and eventually
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over time to reach high levels of performance. Thus, the DMP (Vallerand,
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2010, 2015) posits that both types of passion provide the necessary fuel to
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persist in difficult times and to engage in demanding practice exercises
aimed at developing expertise in one’s activity (i.e., deliberate practice;
Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Römer, 1993) and to reach high performance
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levels. A number of studies have provided support for this long-term pro-
cess involved in the pursuit of excellence, including one’s academic stud-
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ies. For instance, research with student athletes (Vallerand, Mageau et al.,
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2008, Study 1) and dramatic art students (Vallerand et al., 2007, Study 1)
has shown that, indeed, both types of passion positively contributed to per-
formance through deliberate practice. Additionally, in line with research
seen previously, only HP led to psychological well-being while engaged in
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the pursuit of excellence.

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Other studies also focusing on long-term performance focused on iden-

tifying the processes leading one to commit to deliberate practice. Using
achievement goals (Elliot & Harackiewicz, 1996) as a mediating construct,
such research with students who were passionate about their academic stud-
ies in psychology (Vallerand et al., 2007, Study 2), music (Bonneville-
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Rous-sy, Lavigne, & Vallerand, 2011), or in sports (Vallerand, Mageau et al.,

2008, Study 2) replicated and extended the above findings. Specifically,
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results showed that HP and OP both predicted mastery goals (a focus

on the develop-ment of competence and task mastery) that, in turn,
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predicted deliberate practice that positively predicted performance. In

addition, OP also posi-tively predicted performance approach goals (a
focus on doing better than others) as well as performance-avoidance
goals (a focus on avoiding do-ing worse than others). The latter goal
predicted performance decrements
over time. Whereas OP positively predicted performance through adaptive

(mastery) goals and negatively through the adoption of maladaptive perfor-
mance avoidance goals, HP only positively predicted performance through
adaptive mastery goals. Once more, HP also positively predicted subjective
well-being over time during activity engagement.
Other studies have looked at the role of passion in short-term perfor-
mance, or performance at a specific point in time (e.g., Dubreuil, Forest, &
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Courcy, 2014). Such research showed that HP typically led to better perfor-
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mance by triggering some adaptive processes. For instance, in a Study with
high-school students, Ruiz-Alfonso and León (2017) found that HP for one’s
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studies positively predicted motivation to learn math that, in turn, positively
predicted actual math performance. Obsessive passion was not assessed in
that study. Research conducted in other fields such as work has found that
HP led to better performance through the impact it had on adaptive cogni-
tive processes such as concentration and attention (e.g., Ho, Wong, & Lee,
2011). It should also be noted that Ruiz-Alfonso and Léon (2019) found that
HP for one’s studies facilitated adaptive cognitive processes such as deep
learning strategies and epistemic curiosity toward the materials to learn.
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Other research has shown that HP (but not OP) facilitated creativity
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both at school (Luh & Lu, 2012) and work (Shi, 2012; Liu, Chen, & Yao,
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2011, Studies 1 and 2). St-Louis and Vallerand (2015) also found that high
levels of creativity are facilitated by positive emotions. Finally, whereas OP
seems to undermine short-term performance and creativity, Bélanger et al.,
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(2013a, Study 4) showed that there was an exception. These researchers
showed that OP for one’s academic studies led to enhanced performance
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when one’s ego was threatened and fear of failure was triggered. They also
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replicated these findings for nonacademic tasks (Bélanger et al., 2013a).
Passion and Interpersonal Relationships

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Wouldn’t it be great if positive relationships and even friendships could

develop and be the norm at school? Can passion foster positive relation-
ships at school? Research reveals that it can. For instance, Philippe et al.
(2010, Study 3) found that high school students enrolled in a basketball
camp with other players that they had never met before developed new
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friendships to the extent that their passion for basketball was harmoni-
ous. In fact, the more harmonious their passion, the more positive were
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these new friendships! Such was not the case for OP. Similar findings were
obtained with university students who interacted together each week in
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Study groups over a whole 15-week semester (Philippe et al., 2010, Study 4).

Harmonious passion for one’s studies led to improvement in relationships
throughout the semester but not OP. Furthermore, informant reports led
to the same results as self-reports! Research has replicated these findings
in other fields such as work, sports, online gaming, and so forth (see Val-
lerand, 2015, Chapter 11; Vallerand & Carbonneau, 2016).
Why does HP facilitate the development and the maintenance of high-
quality relationships, while OP prevents people from connecting positive-
ly with others? Research has revealed that with HP, people experienced
positive affect (Philippe et al., 2010) that, in turn, allowed them to open
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up to their surroundings, to smile openly, and to positively connect with
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others. Conversely, because OP mainly led to negative affect (Vallerand,
2015), it led people to close down, and hindered relationship quality. Re-
search in a variety of areas, including education, has supported this analysis
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(e.g., Lafrenière, Jowett, Vallerand, Donahue, & Lorimer, 2008, Study 2;
Philippe et al., 2010, Studies 1 to 4).
There is a second way through which passion can affect our relationships.
Specifically, according to the DMP, passion toward an activity can also positive-
ly or negatively influence our relationships in other areas of our lives through
the synergy or conflict i t m ight c reate. F or i nstance, O P f or a g iven a ctivity
such as sports or the Internet has been found to create conflict with one’s love
life and to undermine the quality of one’s romantic relationship, while this
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was not the case for HP (e.g., Séguin-Lévesque, Laliberté, Pelletier, Blanchard,
& Vallerand, 2003; Vallerand, Mageau et al. 2008, Study 3). Interestingly, other
re
research revealed that engaging in a passionate activity (e.g., tennis) out of
HP with the loved one strengthened the quality of the romantic relationship
2
as it promot-ed positive emotions experienced with the partner (Rapaport,
Carbonneau, St-Louis, & Vallerand, 2018). Such was not the case with OP.
In closing this section on passion and outcomes, it should be under-
s
scored that the research has been largely correlational in nature. Thus, a
r 0
caveat is in order as pertains to causality. However, research using other

designs such as cross-lagged panel (Carbonneau et al., 2008; Lavigne et al.,
2012) and experimental designs where OP and HP were experimentally
2
induced (e.g., Bélanger et al., 2013b; Lafrenière, Vallerand, & Sedikides,

ig
2013), has replicated the findings of the correlational studies using the Pas-
sion Scale. Thus, one can feel confident that passion causes a number of
important outcomes in education.
©
ON THE INITIAL DEVELOPMENT OF PASSION

IN EDUCATION
ll
The DMP proposes that to the extent that activities contain at least some
A
interesting elements, then most new activities have the potential to initially
develop into a passion. The DMP posits that there are at least three process-
es involved in how an interest for a specific activity transforms into a pas-
sion: activity valuation, identification with the activity, and internalization of
the activity in one’s identity (Vallerand, 2010, 2015; Vallerand & Houlfort,
2019; Vallerand et al., 2003).
In line with past research (Aron, Aron, & Smollan, 1992; Deci, Eghrari,
Patrick, & Leone, 1994), an activity is likely to be internalized when it is high-
ly valued and meaningful thereby facilitating the development of passion.
Therefore, teachers play an important role in students’ valuation of a given
activity either by being themselves passionate about it, by positively engaging
er P
with students in the context of the activity, or by encouraging activity spe-
d
cialization (e.g., Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Identification with the activity is a
second important process in the development of passion (Schlenker, 1985).
ve
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Students are more likely to become passionate when an enjoyable activity,
like sciences, becomes so central that it contributes to their identity such that
they have the perception of potentially becoming scientists later on (Markus
& Nurius, 1986). Finally, in line with self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci,
2000), the type of passion (i.e., harmonious vs. obsessive) that will develop
depends on the type of internalization that takes place. Depending on the ex-
tent to which one’s social environment (e.g., parents, teachers, coaches, prin-
cipals) is autonomy-supportive (supporting the student’s right to make some
s
choices), an autonomous internalization is likely to take place (e.g., Valle-
ht 0
rand, 1997; Vallerand, Fortier, & Guay, 1997), leading to the development of
re
a HP. Conversely, when the social environment is controlling (pressuring one
to behave in a certain way), a controlled internalization takes place thereby
2
leading to the development of an OP for the activity.
Research by Mageau et al. (2009) with high school students has provided
support for the above three developmental processes of passion. Specifi-
s
cally, these authors showed that students who had never touched a musical
r 0
instrument before the beginning of their first term in high school, eventu-
ally became passionate for music over the course of the semester. This was
more likely to take place if they felt that they identified as a potential musi-
cian, if they valued music, and if they experienced autonomy support from
2
their music teacher and parents. Furthermore, among those who became
ig
passionate for music (around 30%), autonomy support led to HP while

feeling pressured to engage in music activities facilitated OP. This Study is
the only one that we are aware of that looked at the initial development of
passion, that it is how passion develops from the very first time one tries
©
an activity (from time zero). So, there is a need to replicate these findings.
ll
ON THE ONGOING DEVELOPMENT OF PASSION

AND ITS DETERMINANTS
A
The DMP posits that once developed, a passion continues to evolve. Al-
though the internalization process leads to the initial development of a
predominant type of passion, where in general one type of passion will be

more prevalent than the other one, both types of passion are neverthe-
less present within the individual to different degrees. This is because both
types of internalization processes (autonomous and controlled) initially
took place to different degrees. Because both types of passion are internal-
ized, it is then possible to trigger either one through the impact of various
er P
determinants. Vallerand (1997) proposed that the determinants of motiva-
d
tional processes reside largely in three groups of variables: the person (P),
the environment (E), and the task (T). So, using PET as a structure, we
briefly review the determinants of passion.
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IA
Person Variables
Several person variables have been found to affect passion (see Valle-
rand, 2015, Chapter 5). For instance, research has explored the role of
broad personality variables such as those of the Big 5 in passion (Dalpé,
Demers, Verner-Filion, & Vallerand, 2019). Overall, results revealed that
s
ht 0
the conscientiousness, openness to experience, agreeableness, and extra-
version traits (and most of their facets) were all positively related to HP,
re
while neuroticism was negatively related to it. A mirror image was obtained
with OP where all traits (and most of their facets) were negatively related
2
except for extraversion (unrelated) and neuroticism (which was positively
related). Similar results were obtained by Balon, Lecoq, and Rimé (2013)
s
with the traits (they did not measure the facets).

r 0
Other studies with students have looked at another personality variable,

namely perfectionism and showed that the more adaptive form of perfec-
tionism (self-oriented perfectionism) predicted mostly HP for one’s stud-
ies (and OP to a lesser extent). Conversely, a less adaptive form of perfec-
2
tionism (socially prescribed perfectionism) predicted OP for one’s studies

ig
(Verner-Filion & Vallerand, 2016, Studies 1 and 2) as it was experienced as

social pressure to excel. Thus, seeking to reach excellence can sway one
toward either form of passion depending if such disposition deals with a
more autonomous quest for excellence or social pressure to do so. Finally,
©
it would be expected that individuals who have a propensity to engage in

activities in general out of choice and interest (an autonomous personality
ll
style as assessed by the Global Motivation Scale; Guay, Mageau, & Vallerand,
2003) should be more likely to develop a HP. Conversely, OP should result
from a controlled personality style (engaging in activities out of internal
A
or external pressure). These hypotheses were upheld in two studies (Valle-

rand, Rosseau, Grouzet, Dumais, & Grenier, 2006, Studies 1 and 3) with stu-
dent athletes, including a short prospective Study over a 4-month period.
Other research has started to look at the role of identity in passion de-
velopment. According to the DMP, a passion for an activity develops when
the latter is integrated in identity. Thus, identity processes should be a key
determinant of passion. However, the identity search may lead to HP or OP
depending if it is conducted in a more autonomous or controlled fashion,
respectively. This is what Bouizegarène et al. (2018, Studies 1 and 2) found
in research with undergraduate students. Specifically, HP for one’s studies
er P
resulted from an informational identity style (i.e., seeking and integrating
d
identity information in an autonomous fashion; Berzonsky & Kuk, 2000).
On the other hand, OP resulted from a normative identity style (i.e., a more
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controlled form of seeking and integrating identity information that comes
from others; Berzonsky & Kuk, 2000).
A final personal variable that has been studied lately is signature strengths
(e.g., Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Signature strengths use refers to identify-
ing what we do best through the use of validated questionnaires (e.g., con-
necting with others, using humor, being creative) and then using such forces
in activities such as school or even in one’s life in general. For instance, a
teacher could use his signature strengths of sense of humor and creativity
s
in order to make his courses more interesting, whereas a student could use
ht 0
her strengths of connectivity with others and sense of autonomy in choosing
re
to work on a term paper with her best friends. Much research in positive
psychology has shown that signature strengths use led to several adaptive out-
2
comes in a variety of areas, including education (see White & Waters, 2015
for a review in education). For instance, in a Study with 347 Year 9 American
students, Seligman et al. (2009) showed that students in an intervention edu-
s
cational program increased the use of their signature character strengths in

r 0
daily life and reported greater enjoyment and engagement in school than
those in a control group. Of course, enjoyment and engagement are not
the same as passion. However, research in the work domain by Forest et al.
(2012) has shown that a strengths-use intervention program did augment
2
HP. Specifically, Forest et al. showed that the more one used his or her sig-
ig
nature strengths at work (traits that would characterize someone like humor
or being extraverted), the more he or she experienced HP for work that, in
turn, led to increases in psychological well-being over time. Similar findings
were obtained by Dubreuil et al. (2014, 2016) as pertains to the mediating
©
role of HP in signature strengths use and performance at work.

ll
The Environment
A
In an interesting Study on the determinants of passion, Moeller et al.

(2017) found that only about 20% of the variance in passion came from the
person, the rest came from environmental factors. This finding reinforces
the fact that passion is not a trait and, as such, it should be affected by envi-
ronmental variables. We now turn to some of these variables.
Autonomy Support
A first variable deals with autonomy support. Autonomy support refers
to allowing individuals to make choices and self-initiated decisions (Ryan
& Deci, 2017). On the contrary, psychologically controlling environments
er P
place value on authority, where pressure and control are used to make in-
d
dividuals behave in a specific way. The DMP posits that autonomy support
should help facilitate the ongoing development of HP once it has been
ve
IA
initially developed. Conversely, controlling behavior should facilitate the
further development of OP. Several studies have supported the above hy-
potheses, including some in education. For instance, in a Study with stu-
dents enrolled in a music college program, Bonneville-Roussy et al. (2013)
found that students who felt that their music teachers provided them with
autonomy support experienced higher levels of HP toward their music
whereas those who perceived their teachers to be controlling led them to
experience an OP for music. These findings have been replicated in a num-
s
ber of studies in education (e.g., Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2011), including
ht 0
some where the measure of autonomy support was completed by teachers
re
or parents themselves and not the students (Mageau et al., 2009, Study 2),
as well as in a number of other fields such as work (see Vallerand &
2
Houl-fort, 2019) and sports (see Vallerand & Verner-Filion, 2020).
Positive Structures
s
Another variable of importance is that of positive structures. Research

r 0
conducted in organizational settings has shown that environments that

fostered positive relationships and caring for the individual promoted HP
whereas an organizational culture that encouraged a more competitive
environment fostered OP (see Houlfort et al., 2013). Other research also
2
revealed that structures that facilitated autonomy at the group and com-
ig
pany levels (Liu et al., 2011) as well as cohesion (Paradis, Martin, & Carron,
2012) promoted HP. No such research seems to exist in education and thus
future research in this area would be important. Of course, teachers can
greatly influence the type of structure that exists in their classrooms. How-
©
ever, one should not underestimate the role that school principals play as
well. For instance, research with over 4,500 high school students revealed
ll
that students who perceived the school administration to provide autono-

my experienced higher levels of need satisfaction at school that, in turn,
facilitated adaptive forms of motivation (self-determined) toward school
A
(Vallerand et al., 1997) and reduced high school dropout. Future research
on the role of administrators in creating adaptive structures that should
foster HP for school is badly needed.
Teacher Quality
Teaching quality refers to teachers’ behaviors that promote positive
educational outcomes in students (Cochran-Smith & Fries, 2005). An in-
teresting framework to consider is that of Ruiz-Alfonso and Léon (2019).
It includes three elements: providing optimal challenge, focusing on the
process, and offering positive feedback. The provision of optimal challenge
refers to teaching students at the appropriate level of difficulty. Focusing on
er P
the process encourages students to find joy and usefulness in what they’re
d
doing, and not to focus exclusively on the end result (grades). Finally, pro-
viding positive feedback entails providing appropriate guidance so that
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students improve and become successful in their own attempts to master
the educational material. In a Study with over 1,000 Spanish high school
students, Ruiz-Alfonso and Léon (2019) showed that teaching quality pro-
moted students’ HP toward their studies that, in turn, led to intellectual
curiosity and deep learning strategy (OP was not assessed).
The Task
s
ht 0
Task variables are important as they directly impact the object of one’s
re
passion. Educational relevance, or why a given academic subject matters, is
one such task variable. We have seen that valuing the task that one is doing
2
helps develop passion (Mageau et al., 2009). Thus, underscoring the value
and usefulness of an educational subject should further promote the devel-
opment of passion. In a large-scale Study with high school students in Spain,
s
Ruiz-Alfonso and Léon (2017) showed that teachers who promoted useful
r 0
math content and exercises managed to instill HP for math that led to higher
interest in learning math and higher final grades in the math course!
Other research has looked at task factors as determinants of teachers’ pas-
sion for teaching. In two studies with novice teachers, Fernet et al. (2014,
2
Study 1) found that experiencing higher levels of autonomy as to how to per-

ig
form one’s teaching positively predicted HP for teaching and negatively pre-
dicted OP. These findings were replicated and extended with seasoned teach-
ers (Fernet et al., 2014, Study 2) using a longitudinal design over a 12-month
period. Of major importance, results from structural equation modeling
©
showed that task autonomy predicted an increase in HP for teaching and a

decrease in OP over time. On the other hand, the two types of passion did not
ll
predict changes in task autonomy, suggesting that the direction of causality is

from task autonomy to passion and not the other way around.
Another task element of importance deals with the task demands and
A
resources while performing a given task (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Task
demands refer to imposed pressure or restrictions while engaging in the ac-
tivity. As such, they should be experienced as controlling and should prime
elements that have been internalized in a controlled fashion and therefore

foster OP. In addition, experiencing pressure to get the job done could
even undermine HP, as such pressure should disrupt harmony among one’s
various life domains. Conversely, task resources can be seen as affordances
allowing one to efficiently perform the task as one chooses to do so. Thus,
they should trigger elements that have been internalized in an autonomous
fashion, thereby facilitating HP. Trépanier et al. (2014) conducted research
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with over 2,000 teachers and nurses that supported these exact hypotheses.
d
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GENERALIZATION ISSUES
So far in this chapter, we have seen that several studies in education fo-
cused on the determinants and consequences of passion and have shown
that passion mattered greatly. One important question becomes: To what
extent do these findings generalize? The available research suggests that
they do. For instance, the Passion Scale has been successfully translated and
validated in a number of languages including French, English, Chinese,
s
Russian, Japanese, Spanish, Portuguese, Hungarian, Arabic and others
ht 0
(for a review see Vallerand, 2015; Vallerand & Rahimi, in press). For
re
instance, in a Study by Chamarro et al. (2015) with over 1,000 Spanish
participants, results of confirmatory factor analyses supported the validity
2
of the Passion Scale in Spanish and its invariance across gender, types of
activity, and age. In addition, the scores on the Passion Scale in these
studies are generally quite high indicating that the passion construct
s
would appear to be mean-ingful in research conducted in other cultures.

r 0
Furthermore, the correla-tions involving HP and OP and outcomes have

replicated those obtained in the North American culture (see Burke,
Aztakhova, & Hang, 2015; Liu et al., 2011) across gender, age groups,
various populations, and a variety of different tasks (see Marsh et al.,
2
2013; Schellenberg, Gunnell, Mosewich, & Bailis, 2014). For example, in

ig
the Zhao et al. (2015) study, Chinese uni-versity students completed the
Passion Scale toward their studies, as well as the level of flow and
positive and negative emotions experienced when engaging in their
studies. In line with past findings in the Western culture, the results with
©
the Chinese students showed that HP was more strongly related to flow
and positive emotions than OP whereas OP was strongly and positively
ll
related to negative emotions and HP was not.

In light of the above, it can be safely concluded that the theoretical
framework of the DMP generalizes quite well to culture, gender, and a
A
num-ber of sociodemographic variables. As such, these findings are

encouraging with respect to the Study of passion in education worldwide
and, hence, can be translated into strategies or interventions seeking to
promote passion across educational contexts.
APPLICATIONS AND INTERVENTIONS
Research on the determinants and outcomes of passion provides us with

some blueprints of the potential applications that can be used to promote
HP. Please remember that these suggestions apply equally to students,
teachers, and even school principals and professional staff. A fi rst one
could be summarized by the very words used by Socrates centuries ago:
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“Know Thyself.” Indeed, it is hard to find passion in a given area such as
d
education without knowing oneself. Thus, completing a scale providing
information on one’s signature strengths such as the Value In Action
ve
IA
(VIA) (e.g., Peterson, Park, & Seligman, 2005) is a good start to better
know oneself. However, in addition, teachers should also gently
encourage their students to try out different activities while using such
strengths, and then encourage them to reflect on their experiences to see
if such activities trigger some excitement and enthusiasm and, eventually,
plant the seed of a passion toward certain academic subjects related to
these activities. Similarly, novice teachers are encouraged to identify their
strengths and to use them at school. Doing so should facilitate their HP
s
for teaching and lead them to flourish at school.
ht 0
A second suggestion deals with creating a positive learning environment.
re
This can be done through several means. Using a “teaching quality” ap-
proach is one. We have seen previously that teaching quality leads to HP
2
and positive learning outcomes (Ruiz-Alfonso & Léon, 2019). Similarly,
provid-ing students with autonomy support ensures that their
psychological needs (of autonomy, competence, and relatedness) are
s
satisfied and, in turn, these needs facilitate HP for learning (Lalande et al.,
r 0
2017). Creating a supportive classroom structure where cooperation is

predominant, and pressure and ego-involvement are minimized, is also
another way of facilitating HP. So, making subject presentations fun and
tailoring students’ exercises so that students are provided task autonomy
2
and content relevance should go a long way in promoting HP for a given

ig
subject. One is reminded that it is not es-sential that students be passionate

for all subjects. As long as they experience passion for at least one subject,
this should be enough for them to want to go to school in the morning to
engage in this passionate subject. Eventually, such passion for a given
©
subject may even generalize to other subjects.

A third important applied issue with respect to the above deals with some
ll
intervention studies to increase HP for academics. We have seen

previously, that the research team of Dubreuil and Forest has
implemented an inter-vention program where workers were
A
encouraged to use their personal strengths at work (Dubreuil et al.,

2014, 2016; Forest et al., 2012). Using one’s strengths at work led to an
increase in HP for work and, in turn, to some adaptive outcomes
including psychological well-being and work per-formance. Such an
intervention pertained to work and took place in Can-ada. Although
interventions on strengths have been found to be effective
in education (White & Waters, 2015), they did not include HP. Future re-
search should do so. In addition, other intervention programs focusing
on proactive entrepreneurship training in Kenya (Gielnik, Uy, Funken, &
Bischoff, 2017) and mindfulness training in nurses in Australia (Craigie et
al., 2016) have been found to respectively promote HP and reduce OP for
work. Future research should replicate these findings with teachers and as-
sess whether positive ripple effects take place with students as well.
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A fourth area for application entails creating an environment where stu-
d
dents feel that going to school means so much more than going to the class-
room. In this vein, allowing students to engage in extracurricular activities
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that they are passionate about at recess, lunchtime, and even after school
goes a long way in nurturing HP in the school and subsequently in the class-
room (Fredricks, Alfeld, & Eccles, 2010). One case in point is specialized
schools such as sports-Study programs (Chichekian & Vallerand, 2018) or
other streamed programs (e.g., arts, dance, music, robotics). Such schools
allow students to be passionate for their specialized activity (sports). Such
passion, to the extent that it is harmonious in nature, can lead to positive
activity experiences that can facilitate friendships (Philippe et al., 2010)
s
as well as autonomous motivation and even passion for some of their pre-
ht 0
ferred academic subjects (Lafrenière, Donahue, & Vallerand, 2007).
re
Finally, we also wish to suggest that we need to keep alive our teachers’
passion for teaching. At least 50% of novice teachers leave the profession
2
in the first 5 years because of the harsh conditions that they experience
(Luft, 2009). Similarly, seasoned teachers (Carbonneau et al., 2008) as well
as principals (Riley, 2019) are prone to burnout. So, school administrators
s
are encouraged to dream of a school where not only students, but all per-
r 0
sonnel, run to in the morning knowing that something they are passionate
about calls for them. Teachers should be able to teach the subjects that they
love and have been trained to teach while having the necessary resources
to deal with the demands that they face. One can only wonder why incom-
2
ing teachers are often given the most difficult classrooms to teach while
ig
seasoned teachers seemingly have the best classrooms. Finally, principals

should be provided with the necessary resources to ensure that the school
that they are dreaming about can be achieved without succumbing them-
selves to burnout (Riley, 2019).
©
ll
CONCLUSIONS
In the present chapter we sought to review research on the construct of pas-

A
sion and its relevance for the field of education. Using the DMP (Vallerand,
2015) as a theoretical foundation, we have reviewed impressive empirical
evidence for the existence of HP and OP. Whereas HP entails control over
the activity and leads to a number of adaptive outcomes in education and

the person’s life (e.g., psychological well-being, physical health, meaning-
ful relationships, and performance and creativity), OP reflects a relative
lack of control over the passionate activity and leads to less adaptive, and
at times maladaptive, outcomes. Of note, scientists have started to uncover
important determinants of passion. Furthermore, such research has been
supported in a variety of countries and cultures thereby providing cross-
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cultural validity of the passion construct and the DMP. Finally, the research
d
reviewed provides blueprints for promising interventions on how to pro-
mote HP and minimize OP.
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We started this chapter with a quote that suggested that passion for learn-
ing ensures growth. As the reader knows by now, this quote is incomplete
and should read “Develop a harmonious passion for learning. If you do,
you will never cease to grow.” We believe that future research on how best
to promote HP while keeping OP at a minimum should help all those in-
volved in education, from administrators to teachers and students, to make
this quote a reality!
s
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Passion in Education- Theory, Research, and

Chapter · April 2021

Robert J Vallerand Tanya Chichekian

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According to the author of the above quote, learning should be anchored

in passion. Presumably, when passion is at play, then learning and growth

love and eventually contribute to society. The role of passion in education

Promoting Motivation and Learning in Contexts, pages 115–142

passion in education has generated interest over the past 15 years or so

ON THE CONCEPT OF PASSION

comes to control them. The second perspective portrays passion in a more

pseudo existence, cannot take place without passion.” Hegel (1770–1831)

others. In fact, Joussain proposed that we should seek equilibrium among

Vallerand et al. (2003) proposed a definition of passion that was later

sometimes, even maladaptive outcomes. (p. 33)

Let us highlight further the various elements of passion (see Vallerand,

to experience high levels of energy, effort, and persistence during, and at

har-monious passion (see Lavigne, Forest, & Crevier-Braud, 2012;

However, intrinsically motivated activities are not defined as

without internalization (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Furthermore, contrary to the

hypothesized and found with obses-sive passion). On the other hand,

THE DUALISTIC MODEL OF PASSION

Vallerand, 2011). This ego-investment in the activity can be shown

and to experience negative consequences during and af-ter activity

to experience a number of problems with respect to school, friendships, love

able to decide to forego activity engagement on a given day if needed or even

to terminate the relationship with the activity if it has become a permanent

to develop and maintain friendships and romantic relationships, to replenish

PASSION AND OUTCOMES IN EDUCATION

Louis et al., 2018; Saville, Bureua, Eckenrode, Maley, 2018). Moreover, OP

for teaching predicted increases in burnout and depression over time in

search has revealed that HP contributed to well-being by providing access

to adaptive self-processes while one engages in the activity. Such processes

Passion and Physical Health

entails, OP may positively predict health problems whereas HP should not

that involves ongoing gaming, 24 hours a day (Lafrenière et al., 2009) as

(Wells, 2012). Does passion contribute to engagement in this healthy activ-

in physical activity with students (e.g., Gustafsson, Hassmén, & Hassmén,

Vlachopoulos, 2012). However, research with college students in a kinesiol-

Passion and Performance and Creativity

the pursuit of excellence.

Other studies also focusing on long-term performance focused on iden-

Rous-sy, Lavigne, & Vallerand, 2011), or in sports (Vallerand, Mageau et al.,

results showed that HP and OP both predicted mastery goals (a focus

predicted deliberate practice that positively predicted performance. In

over time. Whereas OP positively predicted performance through adaptive

replicated these findings for nonacademic tasks (Bélanger et al., 2013a).

Passion and Interpersonal Relationships

Wouldn’t it be great if positive relationships and even friendships could

Study groups over a whole 15-week semester (Philippe et al., 2010, Study 4).

caveat is in order as pertains to causality. However, research using other

induced (e.g., Bélanger et al., 2013b; Lafrenière, Vallerand, & Sedikides,

ON THE INITIAL DEVELOPMENT OF PASSION

passionate for music (around 30%), autonomy support led to HP while

ON THE ONGOING DEVELOPMENT OF PASSION

predominant type of passion, where in general one type of passion will be

with the traits (they did not measure the facets).

Other studies with students have looked at another personality variable,

tionism (socially prescribed perfectionism) predicted OP for one’s studies

sometimes, even maladaptive outcomes. (p. 33)

in physical activity with students (e.g., Gustafsson, Hassmén, & Hassmén,

Study groups over a whole 15-week semester (Philippe et al., 2010, Study 4).

In an interesting Study on the determinants of passion, Moeller et al.

Study 1) found that experiencing higher levels of autonomy as to how to per-

man (Ed.), International review of studies on emotion (Vol. 1; pp. 187–225). New

A two-Study test of the mediating role of flow experiences. European Journal of

(pp. 171–196). New York, NY: Cambridge.