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Manuscript_6a93a53283262936b8f0f714f6d809d8

1 Solar pavements: A critical review

2 Hengwu Hua, Domenico Vizzarib, ∗, Xudong Zhaa, ∗, Ronald Robertsc

a
3 School of Traffic and Transportation Engineering, Changsha University of Science & Technology, Changsha, China
4 bUniversity Gustave Eiffe, MAST-MIT, Nantes, France

5 cUniversità degli Studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy

6 Highlights:
7 1. Working principle, research status, strengths and weaknesses of solar pavements.
8 2. The cost-effectiveness of four typical solar pavements is evaluated.
9 3. Solar pavements can provide sustainable power for smart pavements, enable decentralized
10 expansion of renewable energy sources, and reduce fuel/energy consumption of the nearby buildings.
11 4. Solar pavements could be economically attractive if the LCOE would be lower than 0.2 $/kWh.
12
13 Abstract: Resilient, smart and sustainable: these are the keywords for the next generation of road
14 infrastructures. As a renewable and environment-friendly energy harvesting pavement, the concept of a
15 solar pavement has become one of the most researched new highway transportation infrastructures with
16 a goal to transform the road system from the energy consumer to the energy provider, and eliminate or
17 alleviate pollution from the source of energy. At present, the commercial technology through
18 photovoltaic is limited by space installation requirements, which restricts its popularization and
19 application. On the other hand, applying photovoltaic power generation technology to the pavement can
20 provide sustainable power support for smart transportation in the future. This paper introduces the
21 working principle and basic features of solar cell and solar pavements, and summarizes the research
22 status of solar pavements, highlighting the strengths and weaknesses of different solar pavement
23 structures. The cost-effectiveness of four typical solar pavement structural systems is evaluated, and a
24 case study is presented. Results show that the net present value (NPV) and Levelized cost of electricity
25 (LCOE) of Hollow slab solar pavements are the lowest. Although the benefits deriving from the solar
26 pavements are not enough to cover the cost during 20 years of lifetime, and it would be economically
27 attractive if the LCOE will be lower than 0.2 $/kWh. With review and case study, the study provides a
28 thorough and needed platform for more advances of the concept of solar pavements.
29 Keywords: Solar pavement; Road infrastructures; Renewable energy; Photovoltaic
30 List of abbreviations: EPO = Expanded polystyrene polyethylene blend; GHI = Global horizontal
31 irradiance; GIS = Geographic information system; IDW = Inverse distance weighted; LCOE = Levelized
32 cost of electricity; LED = Light-emitting diode; NPV = Net present value; PIPVT = Pavement integrated

∗Corresponding author.
E-mail address: domenico.vizzari@univ-eiffel.fr (D. Vizzari); zhaxd410@163.com (X. D. Zha).
1

© 2021 published by Elsevier. This manuscript is made available under the Elsevier user license
https://www.elsevier.com/open-access/userlicense/1.0/
33 photovoltaic/thermal system; PMMA = Polymethyl methacrylate; PV = Photovoltaic; PVTR =
34 Photovoltaic-thermal road; SR = Solar roadways.

35 1. Introduction

36 With the increasing shortage of fossil energy sources and their impact on climate and environmental
37 change, as well as the increasing energy consumption, the development and utilization of renewable
38 energy to replace fossil energy sources has become one of the major challenges facing the world's
39 sustainable development. Energy harvesting is one of the most challenging processes that exists that can
40 help solve the global energy demand without consuming natural resources. The concept is harvesting
41 energy that would have been dissipated and wasted, and converting it into available electric energy [1],
42 [2], [3]. A series of promising researches has been carried out and a variety of technologies have been
43 developed to exploit energy in different fields, such as bioenergy [4], piezoelectric [5], geothermal [6],
44 sound [7], water [8], solar [9], [10] and wind [11], [12].
45 As one of the most important infrastructure, the road network system plays an important role in the
46 national production, standard of living and the growth of national economic construction. However, it
47 requires a lot of energy with high pace development in the transportation industry, which accounts for
48 about one-third of the world's total energy [13]. The International Energy Agency forecasts that global
49 transport energy use and carbon dioxide emissions will increase by about 50% by 2030 and more than
50 80% by 2050 [14]. Therefore, it is urgent to develop and apply reasonable energy harvesting
51 technologies in road systems to alleviate energy shortage and related environmental problems,
52 transforming road transportation systems from energy consumer to energy provider, and eliminating
53 pollution from the source of energy. Roads occupy vast land resources, which provide huge potential
54 for road energy harvesting due to continuous exposure to vehicle load and solar radiation [15], [16].
55 Based on previous studies, energy harvesting technologies have been developed from road
56 infrastructures, including asphalt solar collectors [17], [18], thermoelectric systems [19], [20],
57 electromagnetic systems [21], [22], piezoelectric [23], [24], [25] and photovoltaic systems (solar
58 pavement) [26], [27]. Some studies even propose multisource energy harvesting, which can generate
59 higher power by using multiple energy conversion effects [28], [29].
60 The solar pavement is a new emerging technology with the function of generating electricity and
61 providing electrical supply for transportation infrastructures and/or facilities [30]. The solar pavement
62 can effectively alleviate the heat island effect and environmental pollution while turning the pavement
63 into a new “energy farm” [31]. Due to the mature development of technology, scale economy, intensified
64 competition and other comprehensive factors, since 1992, photovoltaic power generation has increased
65 exponentially and has developed into one of the mainstream power sources from small-scale
66 applications, resulting in a sharp drop in the price of photovoltaic modules, which has reached grid parity
67 in many locations across the world [32]. The progress of photovoltaic technology promotes the
68 development of solar pavement. In the past decade, the number of research suggestions and publications
2
69 in this field has increased significantly. However, most of the work focuses on the macro assessment of
70 its power generation potential. There is less discussion on other aspects, such as the comparison between
71 different solar pavement structures and the cost-effectiveness of solar pavements. High initial cost and
72 lack of reliable design criteria are the obstacles to the implementation of solar pavements. Therefore, it
73 is necessary to complete this review report to introduce and analyze the latest development of solar
74 pavements. This will provide a clear understanding of the development processes and existing problems
75 of these technologies which are of great significance to the subsequent technological progress and
76 application.
77 This paper provides an extensive literature review of previous research on solar photovoltaic
78 pavements, and the strengths and weaknesses of different structural models of solar pavements are
79 introduced. Then, using the information collected from the literature, a case study of an existing road in
80 Italy is presented. The objective is to compare the potential of four typical solar pavement structure
81 models in terms of power output and cost-effectiveness.

82 2. Principle and basic features

83 A Photovoltaic (PV) cell is able to convert solar radiation into electric power. It consists of a P-
84 type semiconductor and an N-type semiconductor. When sunlight reaches the semiconductor materials
85 of the PV cell, free electrons are forced to flow in a certain direction. The negatively charged electrons
86 move toward the N-type semiconductor, while the positively charged electrons move toward the P-type
87 semiconductor. The working principle of the PV cell is shown in Fig. 1 (a). The flow of moving electrons
88 creates an electrical current when connected to an electrical load [15].
89 The solar pavement is based on PV technology. The sunlight passes through the surface translucent
90 layer, and it is converted into direct current through the photoelectric effect of PV cells in the power
91 generation layer, and can be converted into alternating current through the inverter, which is stored in
92 the connection layer for the operation of the solar pavement itself; the surplus electricity can be stored
93 by the roadside pile or integrated into the power grid [27]. The structural type of a solar pavement from
94 top to bottom is given by the surface light transmission and anti-sliding protective layer (Surface
95 translucent layer), the middle layer containing the photovoltaic cells - (Middle-level photovoltaic layer),
96 the bottom water barrier protection connecting layer (Bottom protective layer), and the bearing layer
97 and subgrade under it, as shown in Fig. 1 (b) [33], [34], [35], [36].

3
 (a) (b)
98 Fig. 1. Working principle of photovoltaic solar cell [15] and solar pavement [27].

99 Due to the direct bearing of pedestrian and traffic load and the long-term effect of the natural
100 environment, the surface translucent layer requires sufficient structural performance such as strength,
101 stiffness, stability, durability, fatigue resistance, impact resistance, etc., to guarantee the traffic safety.
102 The surface must also simultaneously meet the functional requirements of flatness, sliding resistance,
103 wear resistance, etc, in order to ensure the generation of electricity. The surface translucent layer requires
104 a certain degree of transparency or concentration so that the sunlight can pass through the transparent
105 layer to reach the power generation layer. At present, the main materials used in the surface layer are
106 inorganic (glass, toughened glass, etc.) and high molecular polymer (polycarbonates, PMMA
107 (Polymethyl methacrylate), resin, etc.).
108 The middle-level photovoltaic layer, located under the translucent layer, is mainly used to convert
109 sunlight into electricity through the photoelectric effect, and it can integrate solar cells, LED lights,
110 diodes, heating elements, microprocessors and other components according to the demand. Among
111 them, the commonly used solar cells are crystalline silicon battery (monocrystalline silicon and
112 polycrystalline silicon) and thin-film battery (amorphous silicon, cadmium telluride, copper indium
113 gallium selenium, etc.); embedded LED lights can be used to make road markings and signs; heating
114 elements can be used for heating road surface for anti-icing. The microprocessor is used to sense the
115 surface load and control the heating, lighting, communication, monitoring and other components.
116 The bottom protective layer, located under the power generation layer, mainly plays the role of
117 protecting the power generation layer, transferring load and water-resisting, storing and distributing the
118 energy collected by the power generation layer, as well as transmitting data signals. The materials used
119 include toughened glass, concrete slab, polymer plate.

120 3. Literature review

121 For the photovoltaic effect applications in energy harvesting pavements, this literature review
122 covers results from previous studies based on a laboratory test evaluation and field test sections. The
123 existing solar pavement structures are classified and summarized, and their strengths and weaknesses
124 are analyzed.

125 3.1. Development of a solar pavement

126 A solar pavement is a new multi-functional pavement that uses a solar photovoltaic power
127 generation layer to replace the traditional asphalt or cement concrete pavement or directly paves the
128 solar photovoltaic power generation layer on the existing asphalt or cement concrete pavement surface
129 as the pavement. It was first proposed by Scott and Julie in 2006, from which a company, named Solar
130 Roadways (SR) was founded. At present, four generations of products have been developed, among
131 which “SR4” is a commercial product [33]. The environment of photovoltaic cells on solar pavements
4
132 is different from traditional ones used on roofs or other typical solar power plants, and pedestrians and
133 vehicles need to be considered. The current standards used to study pavements are aimed at traditional
134 asphalt or cement pavements. There is no suitable standard for solar pavements to evaluate whether the
135 structure can withstand the load of typical pavements. Therefore, there is an urgent need to study new
136 matching Test methods, devices and technologies to accelerate the promotion and application of solar
137 roads. Nussbaum et al. [37] modified the test standards of rigid pavement standards for advanced loading,
138 structural adhesive standards for shear loading, structure-specific standards for moisture conditioning,
139 and application-specific standards for freeze/thaw cycling based on “SR3” prototypes to meet the test
140 requirements of SR panel. Engineering tests including freeze/thaw, moisture absorption, heavy vehicle,
141 and shear testing were accomplished on “SR3” prototypes by Coutu et al [38]. The results show that
142 “SR3” can resist the influence of extreme weather and humid environment; there is no physical damage
143 to the “SR3” after approximately 989457 equivalent single axle loads were continuously rolled over a
144 prototype pavement; but due to the defects and uncertainty of the manufacturing process, the electrical
145 performance of “SR3” decreases gradually, and the maximum shear stress of the panel is 1.6 ~ 2.0 MPa;
146 “SR3” prototypes to be robust, resilient, and functional when subjected to “real-world” test conditions.
147 In 2012, Northmore et al. [39] studied the structure and materials of solar pavement, designed a
148 three-layer composite structure solar pavement panel composed of a transparent layer, photoelectric
149 layer and bottom layer, and analyzed the performance characteristics of each material. In 2014, they
150 further refined the structure and materials of the solar pavement in combination with the traffic and
151 environmental conditions in Ontario, Canada. The light transmission layer is composed of two layers of
152 10 mm thick tempered glass the photoelectric layer is composed of two layers of 6.35 mm thick GPO-3
153 laminate fiberglass panels and solar panels, the base layer is 19.1 mm thick GPO-3 glass fiber board,
154 and the frame is 50.8 mm thick which is made of 6065T6 aluminum C-channel. The mechanical
155 properties of a solar panel structure under various foundation support conditions are analyzed by finite
156 element numerical simulation. The results show that solar panels can bear traffic loads, and even
157 improve the lifespan of pavements [40], [41].
158 Dezfooli et al. [42] developed two kinds of solar pavement plate models with solar panels
159 embedded between rubber and plexiglass panel and between two layers of porous rubber respectively,
160 and tested the power generation efficiency, surface safety performance and structural performance.
161 Ma et al. [43] studied the feasibility of solar pavements in Hong Kong, and they developed a square
162 walkable solar PV floor tile. The structure of which is anti-skid toughened glass + solar cell + support
163 toughened glass. The authors carried out tests in the laboratory and field, and its electrical, thermal and
164 mechanical properties were evaluated. The results show that the solar floor achieved good performance
165 in energy conversion, skid resistance, heat resistance and compressive strength.
166 The surface layer of a solar energy pavement is required to have the effect of light transmission
167 and skid resistance, and glass aggregate has this characteristic, so some scholars have applied it to solar
168 energy pavement. The Nordic e-Pavement research and development project in Estonia proposed to use
5
169 the expanded polystyrene polyethylene blend (EPO) as a binder into which crushed tempered glass is
170 filled to form a mixture that is used to coat monocrystalline 156 × 156 mm silicon solar cells to a depth
171 of 1 cm at the front and back. Glass is then added for encapsulation and epoxy resin is added as an
172 optical adhesive to complete the assembly. Experimental results have shown that the light transmittance
173 of type A solar panels can reach 82% and that they can produce 47 W of power. However, the drying
174 speed and non-uniformity of EPO resin would lead to bending deformation of the module [44]. Li et al.
175 [45], [46] carried out a similar study and they designed a light-transmitting concrete, using waste
176 tempered glass and epoxy resin. The results show that the larger is the particle size of the mixture and
177 the higher is the light transmittance. The curing time was indirectly calculated, evaluating the change of
178 strength during 5 days. The compressive strength is directly proportional to the curing time and it rapidly
179 increased from the first to the second day.
180 Vizzari et al. [47], [48], [49] proposed a composite pavement system by combining solar energy
181 pavement with permeable pavement, which is composed of semi-transparent layer + solar cells + porous
182 layer + dense-graded asphalt base. The semi-transparent top layer is made of glass aggregates bonded
183 together through a transparent polyurethane, while the porous layer works as a solar collector, for the
184 circulation of a heat-transfer fluid. The feasibility of solar energy pavements under dry and wet
185 conditions was analyzed from the perspective of road safety, and the curing time and viscoelastic
186 properties of four different types of thermosetting polyurethane were studied. The research shows that
187 when the rainfall intensity is 230 mm/h, 49 pipes with a diameter of 2 mm are needed for 1 m2 pavement
188 to adequately drain rainwater, and the strong dependency of the polyurethanes behaviour, overall
189 mechanical performance and especially glass transition temperature, on the curing temperature. Then,
190 Vizzari et al. [50] further studied the semi-transparent surface layer. They investigated the effect of
191 different variables (thickness, glue content, and glass aggregate distribution) on the mechanical and
192 optical performances of the material applying the factorial design method. It was found that the increase
193 of thickness and the glass aggregate with small particle sizes would have adverse effects on its optical
194 properties. Increasing the polyurethane content could improve the optical and mechanical properties of
195 the surface layer, but it should be less than 20%, otherwise, the skid resistance will be reduced.
196 Shadow occlusion is an important factor that affects the power generation efficiency of solar
197 pavements. Due to the particularity of the use scenario of solar pavements, in addition to the occlusion
198 of surrounding buildings and trees, it is also necessary to focus on the impact of the driving shadows
199 formed during vehicle movement on the output power of solar pavements [51]. Selvaraju [52] studied
200 the shadow influence law and load-bearing performance of solar pavements, and found that the influence
201 of driving shadow on the output power of solar pavement is dynamic, susceptible to the influence of
202 vehicle speed and vehicle length, and the load-bearing capacity is related to the thickness of the panel
203 surface material. Regarding the dynamic characteristics of traffic vehicle shadows, Wu et al. [53] also
204 believe that traditional evaluation methods do not consider spatial correlation and vehicle dynamic
205 occlusion, which leads to inaccurate evaluation of solar road power generation and affects the safety and
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206 coordination of the power system. The traffic flow and spatial correlation must be considered at the
207 same time when calculating power generation. Liu et al. [54] proposed a new method to calculate the
208 available solar radiation in an urban street environment based on street view, solar radiation and traffic
209 volume models, and they verified the feasibility of this method in Boston, USA. It was found that the
210 roads in Boston can meet the demand of 763100 electric vehicles driving in the urban area every year,
211 indicating that the road power generation potential is huge, and the traffic volume is only reduced by 5%
212 solar radiation on the right.
213 Finn et al. [55] analyzed the efficiency of solar roads in Bensheim (Germany) and they developed
214 a model which takes into account the slope of the road, its exposure respect to the solar radiation, the
215 orientation of the street section (presence of surrounding buildings, vegetation or other obstacles), the
216 presence of parking area and the sky view factor, which represents the ratio of sky hemisphere visible
217 from the ground. Assigning a certain point for each parameter, the authors classified the efficiency of
218 the solar road; the score ranges from 57 (ideal rating for the installation of the pavement) to -9 (not
219 suitable).
220 In order to enhance the comprehensive utilization efficiency of solar energy and improve the
221 service life of photovoltaic cells, Xiang et al. [56] combined the road flow tube heat collection
222 technology into the solar pavement, and proposed a novel photovoltaic-thermal road (PVTR) system.
223 The system can reduce the temperature of photovoltaic cells of solar pavement by 4.15 ℃, and its total
224 energy efficiency is 3.95 times that of a single solar pavement, which can improve the photoelectric
225 conversion efficiency of solar pavement and prolong the service life of the system. Khan et al. [57]
226 studied the influence of concrete floors on the volt-ampere characteristics of conventional solar cells
227 under the action of moisture and heat, and they found that the concrete floor can reduce the power loss
228 of photovoltaic modules caused by the thermal cycle. Yang et al. [58] discussed the research method of
229 using phase change materials to change the temperature of solar pavements and asphalt pavements. Li
230 et al. [59] proposed a pavement integrated photovoltaic/thermal system (PIPVT) which combines a solar
231 pavement and a thermal energy harvesting pavement to solve the heat dissipation problem of solar
232 pavements They established a mathematical model for performance evaluation, analyzed the parameters
233 of influencing factors, and verified the feasibility of this new technology through a case study. At the
234 same time, Zhou et al. [60] also theoretically discussed the feasibility of PIPVT technology based on
235 the research of solar and thermal energy harvesting pavements. Studies have shown that piezoelectric
236 technology can also be applied to the solar pavement surface, as an auxiliary energy acquisition system,
237 and it can improve the efficiency of the entire energy acquisition system [52], [61].
238 Settou et al. [62] investigated the integration between electric vehicles EVs supplies with solar
239 roads. They proposed a GIS model for the calculation of the electrical output of the solar road, based on
240 the following data: road information including length, location and traffic volume and the solar radiation,
241 obtained using the inverse distance weighted (IDW) method. This latter is able to interpolate and obtain
242 the solar radiation in the entire Algeria, using a database of about 40 cities. In their case study of the E-
7
243 O road in Algeria, the authors estimated a production of 804 GWh/year and a reduction of greenhouse
244 gas emissions of 216 tons per year.
245 In addition to the above theoretical research, some researchers have built relevant outdoor
246 experimental projects. In 2014, as shown in Fig. 2(a), the SR company built the world’s first parking lot
247 with a solar pavement. In the same year in the Netherlands, the TNO built a 70 m long solar road, which
248 was assembled consisting of 27 2.5 × 3.5 m modules, as shown in Fig. 2(b) [63]. Shekhar et al. [64]
249 established a theoretical model of the solar cycle lane’s sunshine amount, operation temperature of the
250 solar panel, power generation efficiency and power generation capacity, and he made a comparison with
251 the measured power generation. The results show that according to the module with the best performance,
252 the predicted annual power generation is 93 kWh/m2, while the measured value is 78 kWh/m2. It is
253 believed that this deviation is caused by the mismatch of the theoretical model hypothesis conditions,
254 the irradiance prediction error of the test site, and the failure to consider the dynamic shadow caused by
255 bicycle movement and the loss during operation. It is found that the annual power generation of a solar
256 road can reach 150 kWh/m2 by using the best performance modules and single crystal silicon batteries.
257 In 2016, the world’s first solar road “Wattway” was built, which is 1 km long along the rural road of
258 Tulufur in Normandy (Fig. 2(c)), and costs 5 million euro [65]. Its structure is to wrap the solar cell in
259 a multilayer matrix composed of resin and polymer, and use transparent silicone resin and glass particles
260 with small particle size to form a coating. They claimed that the composite material can adapt to the
261 thermal expansion of the pavement and the action of driving load, it can be directly laid on the pavement
262 without damaging the existing pavement structure and it can bear 1 million truck wheel loads without
263 damage. In 2017 in China, Shandong Qilu Transportation Development Group built a 1080 m long
264 demonstration project road (Fig. 2(d)), able to generate 1 million kWh per year [66], [67]. Its structure
265 is high-strength transparent resin and toughened glass particle coating + solar cell + composite material
266 bottom plate. At present, these test projects have appeared varying degrees of damage under the
267 comprehensive influence of traffic loads, material performance degradation, temperature change,
268 humidity and dust and other factors, which failed to achieve the desired effect. For example, the solar
269 road in the Netherlands has a separation phenomenon between the layers due to the poor bonding
270 between the surface layer and the photovoltaic panel and the underlying concrete. The cracking problem
271 of Wattway solar cells occurs, and the peeling between the solar pavement module and the original
272 asphalt pavement occurs. The solar expressway in China has been mostly demolished due to vehicle
273 impacts and improper maintenance measures.
274 The Platio company in Hungarian developed a pavement system for sidewalks using solar cells and
275 recycled plastics (Fig. 2(e)) [68]. Solmove GmbH developed a kind of solar carpet with the structure of
276 anti-slip recycled glass + solar cell + anti-cracking safety glass + rubber. The special geometric design
277 of the surface anti-skid glass can make the sunlight better shine on the panel, and the nano-coating on
278 the surface and the hydrophobicity of the glass can make it have a self-cleaning ability. A 90 m long
279 (total surface 200 m2) solar cycle track has been laid in Erfurtstadt (Fig. 2(f)), with an estimated annual
8
280 power generation of 16000 kWh [69], [70]. But the application effects of these test roads have not been
281 reported yet, and long-term follow-up observations are needed in the later period.
282 However, most of the studies are based on the solid plate solar pavement, and mainly from the
283 structural strength and anti-fatigue performance of solar pavement, anti-sliding performance and light
284 transmittance of transparent materials, drainage performance and electrical performance. The solar
285 pavement using a solid plate, however, has several issues:
286 1) driving load may fracture the PV panels;
287 2) function of adjusting the tilt angle of photovoltaic panels can't be realized;
288 3) Heat dissipation may not be good;
289 4) The cost is high.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

290 Fig. 2. Solar pavement test projects in the world [33], [63], [65], [66], [68], [69].

291 To avoid these issues, Zha et al. [36], [71] proposed a solar pavement structure model based on a
292 hollow slab. The bottom waterproof protective connection layer is replaced with a relatively low-cost,
293 durable and high-performance concrete precast hollow slab base, and the photovoltaic cells (including
294 electronic components and wiring) are placed in the hollow slab, and then the high-strength surface light
295 transmission protection plate (in PMMA) is fastened on it, so as to form a hollow plate solar pavement
296 structure of sufficient bearing capacity, good sealing performance, convenient maintenance and
297 replacement, and moderate cost. Through the analysis of finite element numerical simulation and
298 comparison of material properties of each structural layer, the hollow plate structure of solar pavement
299 is optimized, the solid model is prepared and its mechanical properties and power generation efficiency
300 are tested. It is found that the structure can meet the functional requirements of driving and power
301 generation. Furthermore, the protective layer of light guide concrete hollow slab is designed to improve
302 its bearing capacity [72]. Zhou et al. [73] investigated the mechanical properties of two types of solar
303 pavement unit block structures, namely a grid unit block and a hollow unit block based on the literature

9
304 [36] and [41]. The results suggested an optimal size for each structure wherein the size of the grid
305 structure should be 120 cm (length) × 120 cm (width) × 8 cm (bottom plate thickness) × 2 cm (grid
306 thickness) and the size of the hollow structure should be 60 cm (length) × 60 cm (width) × 6 cm (bottom
307 plate thickness) × 10 cm (sidewall thickness). However, it is necessary to study the packaging
308 technology of hollow slab solar pavement structure to improve its waterproof and drainage ability.

309 3.2. Strengths and weaknesses

310 At present, the research of solar pavement is still in its infancy, and its system composition and
311 structure are still being researched. According to the theoretical research and engineering application of
312 the existing solar pavement, combined with the materials used in each structural layer, the solar
313 pavement structure and its strengths and weaknesses are summarized in Table 1.
314 It can be seen that the researchers have proposed different solar pavement structures. Although the
315 materials used are different, which will lead to differences in the performance and cost of the structures,
316 they can be mainly divided into solid and hollow structures. The solid plate structure has good bearing
317 capacity and stability, but the panel is flat, and the high-efficiency monocrystalline silicon cell is not
318 suitable for use, otherwise, it is easy to have fracture failure. The hollow plate does not need to worry
319 about the fracturing failure of the battery panel, and the placement angle can be adjusted. However, the
320 hollow plate has higher requirements for packaging technology.

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321 Table 1.
322 Strengths and weaknesses of different solar pavement.
Reference Schematic diagram Structure Strengths Weaknesses

High requirements for the base and

Tempered glass + Solid plate, strong bearing capacity, subgrade, crystalline silicon solar
Brusaw S et
solar cell + tempered good stability, small structure size, easy panels are easy to be fractured and
al. [33]
glass installation and maintenance unable to adjust the placement angle,
poor heat dissipation

Solid plate, strong bearing capacity, Crystalline silicon solar panels are
Northmore Tempered glass +
good stability, small structure size, easy easy to be fractured and cannot be
AB et al. [41] solar cell + fiberglass
installation and maintenance placed at an adjustable angle

It is not necessary to consider the

compression problem of the battery
PMMA panel + solar Bearing capacity is general, need to
Zha X et al. panel and its placement angle can be
cell + precast do internal waterproof or drainage
[36] adjusted. The concrete has a cooling
concrete hollow slab measures
effect, small structure size and easy
installation and maintenance

Resin and glass The light transmission effect is

SolaRoad. particle coating + Good skid resistance, flatness, bearing general, the weight is very large, large
[63] solar cell + concrete capacity and stability machinery is needed for auxiliary
floor construction, and the cost is high

11
 The anti-noise effect is poor, easy to
Resin and glass dust, crystalline silicon battery board
Wattway [65];
particle coating + Lightweight, good skid resistance, easy is easy to be fractured and can not
Shandong,
solar cell + resin and to install adjust the angle of placement, the
China. [67]
polymer substrate bottom plate and road surface are easy
to separate
Resin glass The diffuse reflection of sunlight
Waste utilization, economic and
aggregate mixture + easily leads to poor light
Li et al. [45], environmental protection, small
solar cell + resin transmittance, and the resin is easy to
[46] structure size, easy installation and
glass aggregate age and turn yellow, and has general
maintenance
mixture adhesion with glass

Crystalline silicon solar panels are

Polyurethane and The system can generate electricity
easy to be fractured and cannot be
Vizzari et al. glass aggregate + thanks to the PV cells and, at the same
placed at an adjustable angle, the
[50] solar cell + porous time, harvest heat energy thanks to the
porous layer could have a bad impact
concrete water flowing in the porous layer
on the bearing capacity of the system

323

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324 4. Case study

325 Based on the literature review, in this section, the benefits from four full-scale solar pavements
326 (Solar Roadways, SolaRoad, Wattway and Hollow slab solar pavement) are evaluated based on the
327 investment cost per unit of electricity generated from the four kinds of pavements over their lifetimes.
328 The objective is to carry out a case study for an existing road and compare the systems in terms of
329 electrical output, environmental impacts (CO2 mitigation) and LCOE.
330 The main characteristics of the solar pavements are listed in Table 2:

331 Table 2
332 Main technical performances for different test projects of solar pavements.
Solar Roadways Hollow slab
SolaRoad [63] Wattway [65]
[33] [36]
Module unit size (m)
0.66×0.76 2.50×3.50×0.21 1.398×0.69×0.007 0.50×0.50×0.25
(length ×width ×thickness)
Cell type Polysilicon Polysilicon Polysilicon Polysilicon
Efficiency of the solar
15.6 12.1 14.8 13.2
pavements ηm (%)
Laying area (m2) 41 120 2800 3
First year generation
70.5 78.0 53.4 34.9
(kWh/m2)
Manufacturing cost ($/m2) 9000~12000 13000~15000 1500~2000 400~800

333 The case study refers to a 1 km road section (428 km-429 km; 38°13'46.7"N 15°39'27.6"E) of the
334 highway A2 Salerno-Reggio Calabria (Italy). The road has two travel lanes in each traffic direction,
335 with an average width of 3.75 m per line, equivalent to a total surface A of 14 km2. The location of the
336 case study is due to the following considerations: i) the Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) intercepted
337 from the road section in 1 year is 1646 kWh/m2 [74], which is more than the average GHI in Europe
338 (800-2100 kWh/m2 [75]), ii) the section has no galleries or structural elements next to the shoulders,
339 which could interfere with the solar radiation, iii) the section is in an highway, so that the users can’t
340 park overshadowing the solar cells.
341 The electrical output E of the solar road is calculated according to the model proposed by
342 Colagrande and D’Ovidio [76]:

= ∙ ∙ 1− (1)

∙ ̅
=
1000
(2)

= (3)

′ ∙
= 3600
2∙ ∙
(4)

13
343 where: ηm = efficiency of the solar pavement [0-1]; A = surface of the solar pavement (m2); G = Global
344 Horizontal Irradiance (GHI), defined as “the total amount of shortwave radiation received from above
345 by a surface horizontal to the ground” (kWh/m2); Ε = vehicular traffic effect parameter, which takes into
346 account the shadows due to the passage of a vehicle [0-1]; D(φ) = vehicular average density; ϕ =
347 vehicular flow (veh/km); L = average length of the vehicles (m); V = average vehicular speed; ϕmax =
348 the maximum vehicle flow; a'm = average deceleration (m/s2); n = number of vehicle per convoy; k = a
349 safety coefficient; S = the average spatial spacing between cars.
350 Assuming a'm = 3 m/s2; n = 1; k = 1.2; S = 6 m; than φmax is 1643 veh/hour. Considering v = 90
351 km/h, D(φmax) = around 18 veh/km. This latter corresponds to the level of service C, which is a parameter
352 used to qualitatively describe the operating conditions of a roadway based on factors such as speed,
353 travel time, maneuverability, delay, and safety. More in detail, the level of service C, corresponds to
354 “stable operations with somewhat more restrictions in making mid-block lane changes than the level of
355 service B. Motorists will experience appreciable tension while driving” [77].
356 Taking into account the degradation d of the solar cells, the electrical output after N years is given
357 by:
&'(

!"! =# ∙ ∙ 1− 1−$ % (5)

%)*

358 In addition to the electrical output, the CO2 mitigation due to the generation of renewable power
359 using the solar cells instead of fossil sources is also calculated considering a rate of 0.522 kgCO2eq./kWh
360 [78] and multiplying this value by the Etot/m2 in 20 years.
361 Appling the Eq. (5), the results are listed in Table 3:

362 Table 3
363 The electrical output and avoided CO2 emissions of different solar pavements based on the case study.

Solar Roadways SolaRoad Wattway Hollow slab

E1_year (kWh/m2) 233 181 221 197

Esection_ year (kWh) 3266699 2533786 3099176 2764130

ETOT_20 years (kWh/m2) 4249 3296 4031 3595

ETOT_section_20 years (kWh) 59484328 46138485 56433850 50332893

Avoided CO2 emissions in
2218 1720 2104 1877
20 years (kgCO2eq/m2)
364 Comparing the actual power generation during the first year (Table 2) with the estimated power
365 generation of the case study (Table 3), the model overestimates the electrical output for all the solar
366 pavements. This result is not surprising because the model doesn’t take into account the
367 presence/accumulation of dirt/dust and the reduction of transparency of the top layer because of aging.
368 Furthermore, this case study refers to a location characterized by high exposure to solar radiation.

14
369 The LCOE is the cost of generating energy for a particular system. It is defined as the ratio between
370 the total life cycle cost and the total lifetime energy production. The total cost includes initial investment,
371 operations and maintenance (O&M), cost of fuel, and cost of capital [79]. Assuming a constant value
372 per year of LCOE, this latter can be expressed as [80]:
,%
∑!%)*
1+0 %
+,- = (6)
∑!%)* %
1+0 %

373 where: T = lifetime of the system (years), t = 0, 1, 2… T years; Ct = Net annual cost of the system in a
374 given year ($); Et = energy generated in a given year (kWh); r = discount rate (%).

375 Taking into account the degradation of the solar cells, Et can be written as:

% = 1 1−$ %
(7)

376 where: Ep = the electric output of the solar cell during the first year; d = degradation factor.
377 In the case of a pavement, the economic evaluation can be assessed by means of the Net Present
378 Value (NPV) [81], which is given discounting all the project cost to the present year (year of
379 construction).
&
1
234 = 5 676 ,897 + # :;ℎ = ,897% > A
1+0
(8)
?@
%)(
380 Eq. (6) can be written as:
1
5 676 ,897 + ∑&
%)( :;ℎ = ,897% > ?@ A
1+0
+,- =
1−$ %
(9)
∑&'( 1
%)* 1+0 %
381 Eq. (9) has been applied based on the data from Table 3. All properties and characteristics influence
382 the real and perceived economic value of the pavement at a given time [82], [83]. If N is an infinite
383 number, the serviceability of the pavement and the operating condition of the solar cells may not be
384 guaranteed by rehabilitation, restoration, and resurfacing projects. This is due to the degradation of the
385 solar cells, which dramatically reduces their efficiency along their lifetime. This requires the
386 replacement of the entire electrical layer. Furthermore, the access to the layer containing the solar cells
387 is often an invasive operation, which could damage the top layer. It follows that the total reconstruction
388 of the pavement may be mandatory once the solar cells are at the end-of-life (i.e. N > 35 years). For the
389 comparison, the authors assumed a design life of 20 years (N = 20), two pavement rehabilitations at 7
390 and 14 years, and a rehabilitation cost corresponding to 30% of the initial cost. The discount rate r and
391 the degradation rate of the solar cell d are 4 and 1%, respectively. The results are summarized in Table
392 4:

393

394

15
395

396 Table 4
397 LCOE and NPV of different solar pavements.

Solar Roadways SolarRoad Wattway Hollow slab

2
Initial cost ($/m ) 10500 14000 1750 600
1st rheab ($/m2) 2394 3192 399 137
2nd rheab ($/m2) 1819 2425 303 104
NPV (t=20 years) ($/m2) 14713 19617 2452 841
LCOE (t=20 years) ($/kWh) 3.46 5.92 0.61 0.23

398 From Table 4, it can be noticed that the NPV and LCOE of the Hollow slab are the lowest of the
399 four solar pavements and this could be attributed to the hollow cement concrete structure, which greatly
400 reduces the cost of materials and production. Due to the space in the structure of the hollow slab, if high-
401 efficiency monocrystalline silicon solar cells are used and the tilt angle is adjusted, the NPV and LCOE
402 can reach even lower values in the future.
403 At present, the cost of electricity in Italy for industrial consumers is 0.1036 $/kWh [84]. Comparing
404 the NPV with the benefits deriving from the sale of the electricity, Fig. 3 is obtained.
405 As can be seen from Fig. 3, the benefits deriving from the solar pavements are not enough to cover
406 the cost during 20 years of lifetime. This is because the current research on solar pavements is still in its
407 infancy. Although there are some pilot projects, the cost does not represent the cost of installing roads
408 on an industrial scale. Nevertheless, in terms of current costs, the solar pavement would be economically
409 attractive if the LCOE will be lower than 0.2 $/kWh. This value derives from the following
410 considerations: the best solar pavement in terms of electrical output is Solar Roadways (4249 kWh/m2
411 in 20 years), while the less expensive is the Hollow slab (NPV = 841 $/m2). Under the hypothesis of
412 coupling the best electrical output and the lower NPV, the LCOE would be 0.2 $/kWh. This latter is
413 comparable with the LCOE of other energy sources such as the combustion turbines (0.107 $/kWh), the
414 wind offshore (0.115 $/kWh) or the battery storage (0.122 $/kWh) [85].
100000

NPV Solar Roadways

10000 Benefits Solar roadways
NPV SolarRoad
[$/m2]

1000 Benefits SolaRoad

NPV Wattway
Benefits Wattway
100
NPV Hollow slab
Benefits Hollow slab
10
0 5 10 15 20
415 Years
416 Fig. 3. NPV and benefits of different solar pavements over the lifetimes.
16
417 In summary, the solar roads are not yet economically attractive. Based on the case study, the
418 efficiency ranges between 12.1 and 15.6 %. This is due to the low efficiency of the solar cells technology
419 and the opacity of the top layer. The costs are very high, because of the materials, (solar cells, resins,
420 tempered glass, concrete plates etc.), the electrical connections and the complexity for the installation.
421 In terms of electrical output, the performance of the four solar pavements have the same order of
422 magnitude. For example, during 20 years, it ranges between 4249 and 3296 kWh/m2. In the same way,
423 the avoided CO2 emissions in 20 years range between 2218 and 1720 kgCO2eq/m2. On the contrary, the
424 LCOE moves from 0.23 $/kWh of the hollow slab to 3.46 of Solar Roadways and 5.92 $/kWh of
425 SolarRoad. This variability is justified by the high initial cost of Solar Roadways and SolarRoad. Both
426 pavements are the older prototype and probably they required a high project investment. It is worth
427 noting that the LCOE would be higher if the location of the solar road would be placed in areas with
428 lower exposition to the solar radiation.

429 5. Conclusions and future research recommendations

430 Solar pavements can not only meet the requirements of developing new clean renewable energy,
431 but also provide a wide range of energy conversion applications such as traffic engineering technology,
432 intelligent road equipment and electric vehicle power supply, and could achieve a sustainable balance
433 between limited resources and social and environmental needs, and achieve the goal of “carbon peak”
434 and “carbon neutrality”. Through the analysis of the literature related work and the case study the
435 following main conclusions can be drawn:
436 (1) The solar pavement structure is mainly composed of three layers: surface translucent layer, middle-
437 level photovoltaic layer, bottom protective layer. In order to make the solar pavement work
438 normally, the three layers need to be coordinated. The widespread adoption of solar pavement
439 structure is mainly for the solid plate and hollow plate structure. The former has good bearing
440 capacity and stability, but the panel is flat, and the high-efficiency monocrystalline silicon cell is
441 not suitable for use, otherwise, it is easy to have fracture failure. The latter does not need to worry
442 about the fracturing failure of the battery panel, and the placement angle can be adjusted. However,
443 the hollow plate has higher requirements for packaging technology and water proof and drainage
444 performance.
445 (2) Solar pavements can provide sustainable power for smart pavements, enable decentralized expansion
446 of renewable energy sources, avoid long power lines and energy losses, promote the development
447 of smart transportation and electric vehicles, effectively alleviate road ice and snow melting, reduce
448 greenhouse gas emissions, mitigate urban heat island effects, and create jobs while reducing
449 fuel/energy consumption of the project or nearby buildings. However, traffic loads, material
450 performance degradation and environmental (temperature, humidity, dust) factors have led to test
451 projects that have not survived or been as durable as expected. At present, there appears to be a
452 lack of suitable technology to construct solar pavements that can withstand the effects of traffic
17
453 loads while providing efficient electricity. The durability and safety of structures, materials, and
454 collection circuits are still challenging.
455 (3) Case studies on four existing solar pavements in terms of environmental impact, cost, efficiency
456 showedanother obstacle to the extensive application of solar pavements is the prohibitive cost.
457 However the current cost does not represent the cost of road installation on an industrial scale, and
458 as materials and technology develop and economies of scale come into play, costs will decrease in
459 the future. The NPV and LCOE of the Hollow slab are the lowest of four solar pavements with the
460 low cost of materials and production. In terms of current costs, the benefits deriving from the solar
461 pavements are not enough to cover the cost during 20 years of lifetime. However, the solar
462 pavement would be economically attractive if the LCOE will be lower than 0.2 $/kWh. For the
463 Hollow slab solar pavement, this is not difficult to achieve.
464 In view of the current development of solar pavements, the following research recommendations
465 are suggested for future research:
466 (1) It is necessary to have sufficient surface roughness to meet the requirements of skid resistance of
467 road surface, and at the same time, to have good light transmittance, the surface must have sufficient
468 smoothness. Therefore, there is an obvious contradiction between the skid resistance and light
469 transmittance, and a balanced design should be made for the light transmission effect and skid
470 resistance of the surface. Future research on light transmittance and antiskid structure design and
471 material selection of surface textures, such as Fresnel lens and recycled materials, can be
472 strengthened. Due to insufficient compressive capacity and insufficient protection, photovoltaic
473 cells will fail due to fracturing or crystal silicon cracking under the action of vehicle load. At the
474 same time, the problem of heat dissipation in the structure should be considered. However, the
475 research and development and production of special photovoltaic cells that meet the solar road
476 surface have not yet received attention. Therefore, the photovoltaic cell power generation layer
477 meeting the performance requirements of solar pavement should be developed in cooperation with
478 the solar cell manufacturing industry. The photovoltaic pavement will be affected by various kinds
479 of water, such as atmospheric precipitation, surface water, groundwater and interlayer stagnant
480 water, so the waterproof and drainage problems on the surface and bottom surface of photovoltaic
481 pavement should be considered.
482 (2) The power generation of solar pavements not only depends on location and climate, but is also
483 affected by uncertain factors such as environment and traffic, resulting in instability. Therefore, in
484 order to adapt to changing operating conditions, further research can optimize the circuit design of
485 the solar pavements based on the characteristics of the road environment, and at the same time
486 develop appropriate energy storage technology to enable the power generation of the solar
487 pavements to meet the load demand, so as to increase the flexibility of load management.
488 (3) For solar pavements, there is a lack of corresponding test methods and evaluation standards.
489 Therefore, it is necessary to develop new test methods and formulate unified evaluation standards
18
490 to evaluate the bearing capacity, durability, long-term road performance and stability of power
491 generation efficiency of solar pavements. Moreover, the key points of solar pavements test projects
492 are focused on the key issues during the construction period. Solar pavements cover a wide range
493 and the working environment is different from the past, making the existing road management and
494 maintenance mode no longer applicable. It is necessary to study and explore how to maintain and
495 repair the damaged solar pavement, including surface cleaning, bearing structure and power
496 generation system, in the operation process.
497 (4) Although the solar pavement is a promising road energy production mode, it is not suitable for all
498 roads at present. Heavy traffic will increase the probability of structural damage, increase the cost
499 and reduce durability. At the same time, it will increase the shielding area and shielding time of the
500 solar pavement. Therefore, in order to avoid uncontrollable factors and major economic losses, it
501 is necessary to conduct a comprehensive feasibility assessment of the paving site before the
502 construction of the test project, which can include, but is not limited to, on-site solar resource
503 assessment, traffic environment screening, and benefit analysis. In addition, in order to improve
504 the power generation efficiency of the system, the solar pavements with only a single energy
505 collection method may not be able to meet its development needs, so future research should also
506 focus on the integration of solar pavements and other forms of energy collection technology.
507 (5) Environmental friendliness is an important incidental goal of solar pavements. At present, there is
508 still a lack of complete life cycle cost-benefit analysis of solar pavements. It can be said that the
509 installation of solar pavements may increase CO2 emissions in the initial stage (mainly due to solar
510 cells and surface layer light-transmitting materials produced during the original preparation
511 process). In addition, it will also be an important research work to comprehensively evaluate the
512 carbon footprint of solar pavements from raw materials, construction, operation and recycling
513 stages.

514 Acknowledgments

515 This work was supported by National Natural Science Funds of China [grant number 51878077];
516 Transportation Standard (quota) Program of the Ministry of Transport of China [grant number 2019-17-
517 077]; Research and Innovation Project for Graduate Students in Hunan Province, China [grant number
518 CX20190645]; SMARTI ETN project under the H2020-MSCA-ETN-2016 [grant number 721493].
519 Thanks to the anonymous reviewers for many comments that have notably helped us improve the
520 manuscript.

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