MECE 412 ENERGY CONVERSION

PROCESSES
 Introduction and Review
TODAY’S OBJECTIVES:
 Administrative matters
 Course introduction

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ADMINISTRATIVE MATTERS

 3 credit module
 Class Hours: Block 124, Room 01-02 Mon 1500-1700,
 Laboratory work: Engineering workshop Wed 0800-1000
 Tutorial sessions: Block 108, Room 044 Mon 1700-1800

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LABORATORY SESSIONS AND REPORTS

 Teaching Assistant – Mr. Keboletse

 Please adhere to submission deadlines
 Late submissions will not be marked
 Students will work in groups

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HOMEWORK, QUIZZES AND
TUTORIALS
 Unscheduled quizzes will sometimes be given during lessons
 You are expected to attend at least 90% of class, laboratory and tutorial
sessions
 Assignments will sometimes be given
 The assignments & quizzes will be graded (they contribute 5%)
 NO make up quizzes will be given, regardless of the circumstances

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ASSESSMENT
 2 Tests 20%
 Assignments & Quizzes (5%)
 Laboratory work/Report (15%)
 Final Exam (60%)

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USE OF THE BLACKBOARD
 Course material such as Learning Programme Content (Course
Outlines), Homework, Lecture Notes, Laboratory Manuals, and others
will be posted on the Blackboard

 Make sure that your name is in the list

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REFERENCE TEXTBOOKS
 Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes – Felder
 Energy Conversion Goswami & Kreith
 We shall also use Lecture Notes and other material at the library, online
resources

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INTRODUCTION
Energy in a global context
CURRENT USES FOR ENERGY BY SOURCE

EIA Monthly Energy Review (April 2017)

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF ENGINEERING
GRAND CHALLENGES
THREE ARE IMPACTED BY ENERGY
THE UNITED NATIONS GLOBAL GOALS
SEVEN DIRECTLY TIED TO ENERGY (SIX
OTHERS INDIRECTLY IMPACTED)
ITS ABOUT SUSTAINABILITY
Can we balance Economic (poverty and
affluence), Environmental (climate change and  Fossil fuels are inherently scarce
pollution), and Social (policy) considerations
while moving towards a sustainable future?  Current estimates suggest we
will run out sometime this
century
 The transition to other energy
sources will happen eventually,
but what will it look like (and
will we cook ourselves while
we wait)?
OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
WHAT ARE THE IMPACTS? WHAT ARE OUR OPTIONS?

Pollution
Conversion
Green house gas
emissions
Resource scarcity Capture
Long term health
Conserve
ENERGY CONSUMPTION: OUR FINE
WORLD
 AD 1: 300M people, all the
farmland, fish, whales,
forests we could think of
using
 1650: 500M and a whole
New World to live in
 1900: 1.7B Industrialized
civilization was going to let
us live like kings
 2018: 7.5B and we now
realize the earth in not an
unlimited resource
WORLD FERTILITY RATES (UN 2015)
WORLD POPULATION GROWTH BY
REGION (UN 2015)
HOW DO YOU SUPPLY A GROWING
POPULATION WITH MORE ENERGY?
Worldwide Energy Use

Poverty Rates
 TWO COMPETING VIEWS
Expansionist View
 Modern industrialized society is a
Good Thing
 The benefits of economic growth
can be extended to more people
 We can clean up problems like
pollution that threaten human
prosperity
 Grow the economy, more business
as usual
Limited View
• Modern industrialized society has
already overshot Earth’s ability to
sustain it
• Redirection of output and
redistribution of wealth are
urgently required to avoid
disasters
• Changes in value systems,
lifestyles and institutions are
required and can be made
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ENERGY CONSUMPTION: USA
HOUSEHOLD
USA energy use 2016 - 97.4 Quadrillion BTUs
(97,400,000,000,000,000)
USA population - 323,000,000
share of energy - 827,000 BTU/day
207,000 Calories/day - 83 people @ 2500
Calories/day
I have 83 people-power to do my bidding
You will get them away from me when you pry
them from my cold, dead fingers
PEOPLE NEED ENERGY TO CLIMB THIS
PYRAMID

Affluence

Good Life

Basic Needs
BASIC NEEDS OF A HUMAN BEING

Air
Food
Water
Shelter
Cooking
Basic Needs
WATER NEEDS ENERGY

780 million people worldwide lack improved

water sources
2.5 billion lack improved sanitation facilities
3.4 million deaths per year from water,
sanitation and hygiene-related causes
Energy is generally required in the water
systems
COOKING NEEDS ENERGY

For the bottom billion people, cooking energy

is typically from biomass in a small wood or
dung fire inside the home

Poverty Respiratory
Infections

Biomass
More Time Use
Collecting

Environment
Degraded
THE LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN ENERGY

Gathering wood, water, and crops requires

physical labor and time
This is a serious brain drain on society
The #1 item to get a family from $1/day to
$10/day: a bicycle
 GOOD LIFE
 Variety in food
 milk, meat, poultry, fish, grains,
vegetables, etc.
 Material conveniences
 stoves, refrigerators - food is safer,
less spoilage loss
 heating in winter, cooling in summer
– more time to spend on other
things
 transportation – more time
 communication Good Life
 lighting
 Protection from diseases
 Refrigeration of medicines
 Sterilization
 Relaxation and enjoyment
Basic Needs
 radio, TV, internet
 For businesses, automation
 AFFLUENCE
 Meat once a week is good.
Meat every day is better.
 A comfortable home is good.
A comfortable palace is Affluence
better.

Good Life

Basic Needs
WHY ENERGY?

 Roughly a third of the people on Earth just get by

 Roughly another third are well on their way to achieving the
Good Life - various energy and material resources are required.
 The final third have achieved the Good Life and are working on
Affluence – much more energy and material resources are
required.
GDP VS. ENERGY USE

Data:
UNDP Human
Development
Report, 2007
ENERGY AND WELFARE
 Fossil fuel energy has provided
the developed world with the
lifestyle it currently enjoys Affluence
 Cheap transportation
 Cheap electricity
 Good jobs Good Life

Basic Needs
PARIS CLIMATE AGREEMENT
 December 2015
 Ratified by 159 countries
 Sets targets for GHG reduction
through the first half of the 21st
century
 Members are obliged to submit a plan
every five years to the United
Nations stating how they intend to
achieve their “nationally determined
contributions” (NDCs)
 NDCs are voluntary pledges to limit
national greenhouse-gas emissions
and to help developing countries
cope with climate change.
…IN SUMMARY
 Role of an Energy Engineer
 deal with fuel (appropriate technology) selection
 how to use the fuel efficiently / energy conversion
 Recycling and cleaning up the mess after using the fuel.

 This class looks at the principles that underlie most major energy
conversion processes
 We will explore the following subjects:
 Fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, natural gas, biomass/biofuels
 Non-fossil fuels: nuclear
Energy exists in different forms e.g.:

▪ Potential
▪ Kinetic
▪ Gravitational
▪ Elastic strain
▪ Thermal
▪ Chemical
▪ Electrochemical
▪ Electromagnetic
▪ Electrostatic
▪ Nuclear fission and fusion
▪ Etc.
We know from our Secondary School days that:
➢ Energy cannot be created or destroyed
➢ Energy can be converted from one form to another

You may also remember being told that:

All forms of energy on earth are from the sun, except nuclear energy.

We need energy in a variety of forms depending on the particular prevailing

circumstance or intended use.

Hence, the need for energy conversion

 ENERGY CONVERSION
ENGINEERING
Energy Conversion Engineering is concerned with the transformation of
energy from sources such as fossil and nuclear fuels and the sun into
conveniently used forms such as:

 Electrical energy
 Mechanical energy
 Heating and cooling

Needless to say, this conversion has to be done in an efficient and safe manner.
CHALLENGES OF ENERGY
CONVERSION
Entrepreneurs and investors in the energy sector are often interested in short-
term goals as they want rapid payback of their investment.

However, our awareness of the earth’s limited resources and the impact of our
activities on the environment necessitate that energy conversion be done in a
prudent and efficient manner.

In tackling these challenges and conflicting interests, it is necessary that we

understand the pertinent basic principles.
Let us look …..
……at the facts …..
1. ENERGY IS A PHYSICAL QUANTITY THAT
FOLLOWS NATURAL LAWS
Energy is neither created or destroyed.

Hence, the amount of energy in a system is always equal to the difference

between the amount of energy transferred in, and the amount transferred out.

This means that the total amount of the energy in the universe is finite and
constant.

Points to ponder:
What are the repercussions of the above statement on the fate of our
universe?
A few questions……..
➢ How do we convert energy from one form to another?

➢ What is WORK?

➢ What is HEAT?

➢ What form of energy is work? And heat?

THERMAL ENERGY TRANSPIRES AS A RESULT
OF A TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
Heat transfer (energy transfer by heat) happens through conduction,
convection and radiation.
It can only flow from a hot body to a cold body.(spontaneously)
ENERGY AVAILABLE FOR USEFUL WORK
DECREASES AS IT IS TRANSFERRED FROM
SYSTEM TO SYSTEM
During energy transfer processes, some energy is invariably lost to the
surroundings.
As you are converting heat (high entropy less ordered to Work low entropy
and higher ordered)

Note that this energy is “lost” as far as the purpose of doing work is concerned,
but it has not been destroyed – only transferred to the surroundings.

A more efficient system losses less energy, up to a theoretical limit.

Question: What is the upper theoretical limit for the efficiency of

a heat engine?
CHEMICAL AND NUCLEAR REACTIONS
INVOLVE TRANSFER AND TRANSFORMATION OF
ENERGY
Chemical reactions are pervasive in living and non-living earth systems.

Nuclear reactions take place at the center of stars, in nuclear bombs, and in
fission and fusion-based nuclear reactors.

The energy associated with nuclear reactions are much larger than that
associated with chemical reactions for a given amount of mass.
 2. PHYSICAL PROCESSES ON EARTH RESULT IN
ENERGY FLOW THROUGH THE EARTH
SYSTEM
Sunlight, gravitational potential, decay of radioactive isotopes, and rotation of the earth are
the major sources of energy driving physical processes on Earth.

Sunlight and tidal energy are external to the earth while radioactive isotopes and
gravitational energy are internal.

Radioactive isotopes and gravity together produce geothermal energy beneath the
earth’s surface. The earth’s rotation influences circulation of air and water.
HUMANS TRANSFER AND TRANSFORM ENERGY
FROM THE ENVIRONMENT INTO FORMS
USEFUL FOR HUMAN ENDEAVOURS
Energy sources include fuels like coal, oil, natural gas, uranium, and biomass. All of
these are non-renewable except biomass.

Primary renewable energy sources include sunlight, wind, moving water, and geothermal
energy.

Fossil and biofuels are organic matter that contain energy captured from the sun.

Electrical energy:
is very versatile, hence humans generate electricity in multiple ways.
 DIFFERENT SOURCES OF ENERGY, WAYS OF
TRANSPORTATION, CONVERSION AND
STORAGE HAVE DIFFERENT BENEFITS AND
DRAWBACKS
An energy system, from source to sink, will have inherent levels of efficiency,
monetary cost, and environmental repercussions.

Each system will also have other implications like national security, access, equity,
etc.

The quality of life of humans and other organisms on earth, present and future, can be
significantly affected by these energy conversion activities.
3. ENERGY DECISIONS ARE INFLUENCED BY
ECONOMIC, POLITICAL,
ENVIRONMENTAL, AND SOCIAL FACTORS
Decisions on use of energy resources are made at many levels.

Humans make individual, community, national and international decisions.

Decisions made beyond individual level often involve formally established

processes of decision-making.
The decisions are influenced by economic, political, environmental as well
as social factors.
 ENERGY USE?

Human average daily requirement 100 W

Human heart 2W
757 jet plane 1 – 10 MW
Automobile 100 – 160 kW
Space shuttle 1 GW
Typical electricity generating plant 1000 MW
USALaptop
energy consumption per year: 3.5 TW 10 W
Cellphone
Worldwide energy consumption per year: 15 TW 2W
 PERTINENT FACTS ON ENERGY CONVERSION
……..
➢ Laws of thermodynamics provide limits

➢ Maximum work output (or minimum work input) only occur in idealized reversible
processes

➢ All real processes are irreversible

➢ Losses occur and reduce the efficiency of energy conversion hence reducing work/power
producing potential.

Therefore ..
…You cannot win or even break even in the real world!!
THEREFORE, OPTIMUM MAXIMIZATION OF
ENERGY CONVERSION PROCESSES
REQUIRE KNOWLEDGE OF THE
FOLLOWING:
❑ The laws of thermodynamics
❑ Work transfer – compressive, electrochemical, etc
❑ Heat transfer – conduction, convection, radiation
❑ Mass transfer – diffusive and convective
❑ Energy balances – conservation laws
❑ Momentum transfer – KE-PE energy exchange
❑ Chemical reaction transfer – enthalpy and free energy
FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMODYNAMICS
As a preamble to this course, you have to revisit, - and it will be assumed that
you are well versed in, the following terminologies and concepts:
➢ System, surroundings, and the Universe.
➢ State
➢ Thermodynamic properties
➢ Thermodynamic equilibrium
➢ Heat and Work
➢ Zeroth, First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics
➢ Thermodynamic processes
➢ Reversible and irreversible processes
➢ Fundamentals of Fluid Flow
ENERGY CLASSIFICATION

As mentioned earlier, energy exists in a variety of forms.

All human activities involve conversion of energy from one form to another.

The human body gives typical examples of how energy is converted.

Can you give examples of how the human body convert energy?
The table below shows some of the major energy converters of interest to
mechanical and energy engineers.

Table 1: Energy Transformation Matrix

FROM TO (ENERGY FORM):

(ENERGY Thermal Energy Mechanical Electrical Energy
FORM): Energy
Chemical Energy Furnace Diesel Engine Fuel Cell
Thermal Energy Heat Exchanger Steam Turbine Thermocouple
Mechanical Refrigerator, Heat Gearbox Electrical
Energy Pump Generator
Nuclear Energy Fission Reactor Nuclear Steam Nuclear Power
Turbine Plant
 EFFICIENCY
One of the major criteria guiding the design of energy conversion
systems is efficiency.
Efficiency is a measure of the quality of an operation or of a
characteristic of a device.
In considering the efficiency of a device, it is important to know the
intended outcome together with availability limits.
We have considered efficiencies of the following devices:
➢ IC Engine
➢ Air Compressor
➢ Refrigerator
➢ Heat Pump
 ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy resources exist in many primary forms e.g.:

❑ Fossil fuels
❑ Biomass
❑ Nuclear
❑ Solar
❑ Wind
❑ Hydro
❑ Geothermal
 PRIMARY ENERGY
Primary energy (PE) is an energy form found in nature that has not been
subjected to any conversion or transformation process.

It is energy contained in raw fuels, and other forms of energy received as input to a
system.

They can be non-renewable or renewable, although most of them are non-

renewable.

Primary fuels can be extracted, captured, cleaned, or graded without any sort of
energy conversion or transformation process.
Types of non-renewable primary fuels include:
 Coal
 Crude oil
 Bitumen
 Natural gas
 Uranium
 Thorium

Note that these energy resources are “consumed” while energy resources like
solar and wind are “utilised”.
 SECONDARY FUELS
Secondary fuels are derived from primary fuels through chemical or physical
processes. They are not found as a natural resource. Their energy comes initially from
primary energy sources.

Gasoline is the best example of a secondary fuel, as it must be made from

oil through distillation processes.

While many of the actual chemicals in Gasoline(petrol) are found in crude oil, they
must be separated out in order to put the hydrocarbons in the most useful form.
Molecular hydrogen can be a secondary fuel as well, but this is often made in a
fuel cell.

Secondary fuels are often made to maximize the ability for combustion to get
energy into an engine.

This means that secondary fuels are often an intermediate form of energy between
the primary energy and the energy service.

This intermediate form is also known as an energy currency (Energy from primary
energy sources being transformed into different forms to make it easier to use,
transport, or store).
Energy currencies also include electricity.
Electricity is particularly useful since it has low entropy (is highly ordered) and
can be converted into other forms of energy very efficiently
Conversion Efficiency
According to the laws of thermodynamics, primary energy sources cannot be
produced. They must be available to society to enable the production of energy.

Conversion efficiency varies. Thermal energy electricity and mechanical energy

production is limited by Carnot’s theorem, and generates a lot of waste heat.

Other non-thermal conversions can be made more efficient.

In principle, solar photovoltaic conversions could be very efficient, but current
conversions can only be done well for narrow frequency ranges, whereas solar
thermal is also subject to Carnot efficiency limits.

Hydroelectric power is also converted very efficiently.

The amount of usable energy in a system is the exergy of the system.

NUCLEAR FUELS
A nuclear fuel is a substance that can produce heat by undergoing nucleic
reactions.

Nuclear fuels have the highest energy density of all practical fuel sources.

There are three types of nuclear reactions:

Nuclear Fission, where unstable nuclei of the atoms are hit by slow-moving
neutrons and splits producing two daughter nuclei and two or more neutrons,
and heat is produced in the process.
Nuclear Fusion, where two or more atomic nuclei fuse to form one or more
different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles, and in the process producing large
amounts of energy.

Cold Fusion, a yet-to-be-fully-understood type of nuclear reaction that takes place at

room temperatures.

Both nuclear fusion and cold fusion are still in their infancy of development, and it is
nuclear fission that is currently used for energy conversion.

Hence, only nuclear fission will be dealt with in this course.

END OF INTRODUCTION