ANATOMY AND

1st Year, 1st Semester

PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

NERVOUS SYSTEM (INTRO + CNS + PNS)

OUTLINE 5. Homeostasis—to detect; either stimulate or inhibit

I. The Nervous System the activities of other systems the constant activities
II. Functions of the Nervous System of the internal and external environment
III. Organization of the Nervous System
IV. Cells of the Nervous System
V. Physiology of the Nervous System ORGANIZATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
A. Potentials
B. Synapse
C. Reflex Arc
VI. Neuronal Pathways
VII. Central Nervous System
A. Brain
B. Brain Stem
C. Diencephalon
D. Cerebellum
E. Cerebrum
F. Spinal Cord
• Sensory/Afferent – conduct action potentials from
G. Nerve Tracts
sensory receptors to your cns
VIII. Peripheral Nervous System
A. Cranial Nerves • Motor/Efferent – conduct action potential from the
B. Spinal Nerves CNS to effector organs
C. Nerve Plexuses • Somatic N.S – transmit action potential from the CNS
D. Autonomic Nervous System to the skeletal muscles
• Autonomic N.S – transmitting of action potential to
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and glands
CNS- brain and spinal cord o SNS and PSNS complements each other; they
PNS- autonomic (sympathetic and para) balance
• Control center and communication network of the
body CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
o Through the brain and spinal cord u are controlling
your body
o Communication—through your action potential; it
is the n.s that would help u to react with diff. stimuli
• Work hand in hand with endocrine system to regulate
and maintain homeostasis
o Hormones—important for transmitting chemicals
o Endocrine—needed for homeostasis
•
FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Sensory reception
• Action potential—from the sensory receptor
travels along your nerves which are being
interpreted

2. Integration—brain and s.c; the input and responses

will depend on these 2 major organs
• processing of your sensory input

3. Mental Activity—thinking

4. Control of muscles and glands—n.s controls the

major movements of the body; controlling diff.
movements of muscles

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

die and would not anymore divide and

regenerate
• Nissl bodies—area of the RER that appears as
granules in your cell body

2. AXON
• Long process extending from the neuron cell
body
• (At the end) axon hillock : area where it leaves
the cell body
• The length may vary
• Axon of motor neurons : conducts a.p AWAY
from the CNS
o Motor Neurons : only has a single axon
that extends from the CNS TOWARDS the
target tissue
• Axon of sensory neurons : conducts a.p
TOWARDS the CNS
• WOULD TRANSMIT INFO (depends whether it
would be electrical impulses or chemicals)
NEURONS
o Have nerve cells 3. DENDRITES
o Structural unit • Receivers
o Receive stimuli • Branching cytoplasmic extension of your cell
o Transmit impulses body (kaya marami)
• The one that receives info from other neurons or
MAIN PARTS OF A NEURON sensory receptors and transmit info TOWARDS
your cell body

OTHER STURCTURES OF A NEURON

NODE OF RANVIER
o Promotes impulses (Mabilis na pag transmit)

MYELIN (SCHWANN’S CELLS)

o Covers the axon
o Many layers of Schwann’s Cells

1. CELL BODY MYELIN SHEATHS

• a.k.a soma or perikaryon
• each neuron would have a cell body
• source of info
• can be damaged for example if u experience
trauma or if u have high fever to the point na
nagcconvulsion na one of the nerve cells would
o Covers the myelin
o Actually speeds the transmission
o Mas mabilis ang transmission if the myelin are
more compared to other parts which have less (we
have other parts of the neurons that are
unmyelinated)

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

NUCLEUS UNIPOLAR • Unique

o One that would interpret info • Has a single process
extending from the
AXON HILLOCK cell body
o Acts as a manager, summing the total inhibitory • Sensory neurons in
and excitatory signals PNS
o The last site in the soma where membrane
potentials propagated from synaptic inputs are
summated before being transmitted to the axon

COLLATERAL AXON
o Develops side branches so that one neuron can
send info to several others TO FUNCTION
o From the cell body until it would transmit, kung ano
yung gusting reax of the body 1. SENSORY/AFFERENT

TYPES OF NEURONS
1. Structural (Shape)
2. Functional

TO STRUCTURE (SHAPE)

• From the periphery to the CNS (towards the CNS)

2. MOTOR/EFFERENT

• Conducts a.p from the CNS to the periphery

(away from the CNS)
MULTIPOLAR • Most common
• Many dendrites and 3. INTERNEURONS/INTERNUNCIAL/ASSOCIATION
single axon
• Most of the neurons
with the CNS
• All motor neurons

BIPOLAR • Has 2 processes:

o One dendrite
o One axon • Transmit a.p WITHIN the CNS ; with one another
lang
• Located in some
sensory organs • Very special bc this is what happens to our brain
• Sensory neurons • For example: If u are doing an analysis, your
interneurons are working; if we think a lot

NEUROGLIA
• a.k.a Glial cells (glial—glue cells; nakaattach)
• They have the capacity to divide and regenerate
unlike your neurons

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

PNS NEUROGLIA
• Schwann Cells (Neurolemmocytes)
- Several layers that would make up your myelin
sheaths
- Separated by the node of ranvier
- Becomes indentations bc of the several layers
o Myelin Sheath
§ Covers your myelin (which matures)
§ The more the myelin, the transmission
becomes faster (mas napapabilis pag
isip)

• Satellite Cells
TYPES OF NEUROGLIA - Protection/cushion

CNS PNS
• Astrocytes • Satellite Cells
• Ependymal Cells • Schwann Cells /
• Oligodendrocytes Neurolemmocytes /
• Microglia Neurolemma Cells

CNS NEUROGLIA
• Astrocytes
o Support tissues in the CNS
o Form the blood-brain barrier
o Major supportive tissues of your CNS

• Microglia
o Help remove bacteria and cell
ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS TISSUE
Neuron cell bodies,
• Ependymal Cells dendrites, CNS - nuclei
o Lines the cavities GRAY
unmyelinated axon, PNS - ganglion
o Fluid-filled MATTER
axon terminals and,
o Some of them produce your CSF neuroglia
Bundles of parallel CNS – nerve
• Oligodendrocytes WHITE axons with myelin tracts
o From the axon MATTER sheaths PNS – nerve
o Surrounds your axon in the n.s
o Remember: GLIAL CELLS AY MARAMI BC THEY
ARE FOR SUPPORT
ADDITIONAL INFO:
• Nissl body — would impart in your grey matter
• Grey matter — a.k.a cortex of the brain
• Myelin Sheath – responsible for the white color

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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

o Na-K Pump — some potassium channels

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
TWO MAJOR FUNCTIONAL PROPERTTIES OF
NERVOUS TISSUES
1. Irritability – Ability to respond to a stimulus and to
convert it into a NERVE IMPULSE
2. Conductivity – Ability to transmit this impulse to
other neurons, muscles, or glands
NERVE IMPULSE
• Action potential
• A wave of electrical
fluctuate that
travels along the
cell membrane
(there would be
exchanging
chemicals and
charges)
• An impulse travels along the neuron pathways as
electrical charges move across each neural cell
membrane
• In a resting condition, the membrane potential is due
to the sodium ions found in the extracellular matrix
(outside; which are actually positively charged) and
the potassium ions found in the intracellular matrix
• The sodium ions found in the ECM are mostly
positively charged
• In the ICM, you can find here the potassium and the
charge is more negative
• A cell is “polarized” because the interior (ICF) side of
the membrane is relatively more negative than the
exterior (ECF)
• Remember: Sodium OUTSIDE ; Potassium INSIDE
• Resting Membrane Potential—refers to the difference
of charges across the membrane (between the ECM
and ICM) and these would be unstimulated cells
o Unstimulated — polarized
o ECF — sodium (higher concentration
outside than inside)
o ICF — potassium (higher concentration
inside than outside)
• This concentration is maintained by the Na-K Pump
are open while the sodium channels are
not
• The cell membrane will be more permeable to K than
to Na; would allow a few of the K to diffuse down to
their conc gradient carrying their positive charges with
them
• Larger molecules such as proteins (negatively
charged) are too large to diffuse out of the cell
• As K+ leave the cell, the char5ge inside the cell
becomes more negative (we r talking abt
polarized/unstimulated)
• There is a point of equilibrium that is reached at which
the tendency for the K to move down their conc
gradient is balanced (nagiging balance bc of the
negative charges)
• This is what we call the cell’s resting membrane
potentials
RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIALS
FACTORS:
• A higher concentration of K+ immediately inside the
cell membrane
• A high conc of Na+ immediately outside the cell
membrane
• Greater permeability of cell membrane to K+ than to
Na+
ACTION POTENTIALS
• An action potential occurs when there is a reversal
of the normal resting potential, going from negative to
positive, also called depolarization
o Depolarization/Repolarization is one a.p (just the
same)
o Depolarize/Repolarize—would constitute an a.p or
impulse
o Every time that there would be a stimuli (electrical
or chemicals neurotransmission) then nangyayari
ang depolarization/repolarization/a.p/impulse
(parepareho lang daw)
• Depolarization occurs when a stimulus causes the
voltage-gated Na+ channels to open, allowing Na+
to rapidly influx down its concentration gradient
o Influx—enter
• The sudden in-rush of positive sodium ions
reverses the membrane potential for a few
milliseconds
o Local Current – When a stimulus is applied to a
nerve cell, some Na channels open for a brief
time, the Na diffuse quickly into the cell and the
movement of the sodium into the cell
o Depolarization – The Na+ entering the cell cause
the inside of the cell membrane to become more
positive

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

o Depolarization results in local potential but if the
threshold is not reached, the Na channels would
close again
o There are instances wherein hindi nammeet yung
threshold, for example di nameet, magcclose ulit
yun pero if it reaches the threshold value, it may
cause many more Na channels to open and K
channels also begin to open
o So more Na would enter the cell, repolarization
occurs until there’s a brief reversal of charge
across the membrane
o The cell membrane becomes + relative to the
outside of the cell membrane
o This would be in a condition wherein nareach na
ung threshold value, nagcontinuously open yung
Na membrane, kung kunyari di mareach yungb
threshold magsasara ulit siya
o The depolarization and repolarization would now
be you’re a.p
• Then the voltage-gated K+ channels open, allowing
K+ to rapidly efflux due to its conc gradient. This
brings the membrane back to negative inside and is
called repolarization.
o Efflux – lumabas
o At the end of the repolarization, the charge of the
cell membrane briefly becomes more negative
than the resting membrane potential and in that
brief moment, u call that hyperpolarization—
elevated permeability to K that could last a very
very short time
–– EXPLANATION FOR THE PICTURE (RECAP)
• The Na channels would open, it would move inside
the cell by a local current
• Inside the cell, it would become from – to more + and
that would be DEPOLARIZATION
• Pag di nareach, NO ACTION POTENTIAL/IMPULSE
• Once the threshold is reached, more Na channels and
K channels would open further for depolarization
(there would be a brief reversal charges; intracellular
compartment become more + than extracellular
compartment then babalik na siya sa
refractory/resting period niya)
ADDITIONAL INFO:
• ALL OR NONE
• Pag walang cover (myelin sheaths) mabagal ang
transmission unless daw kung may nodes of ranvier
na mej magpapabilis
SYNAPSE
• The region where neurons communicate with other
neurons or effector organ
• Gap between dendrites of two adjacent cells
• May either be:

• Even though the voltage has returned to negative, the

membrane is not at resting potential because it now AXODENDRITIC
has too much Na+ inside and not enough K+ ions (axon-dendrites)
• The presence of high Na+ inside causes the Na+/K+
pumps to increase by power of 3. The faster pump
rate quickly restores the membrane back to its
steady-state resting condition

AXOSOMATIC
(axon-soma)

soma = cell body

AXOAXONIC
(axo-axon)

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

COMPONENTS

PRE-SYNAPTIC MEMBRANE / TERMINAL – membrane

of the dendrite/effector cell ; end of the axons
SYNAPTIC VESICLES – In electrical synapses, these are
the ones that contain neurotransmitters
SYNAPTIC CLEFT – space that separates presynaptic
and post synaptic
• filled with interstitial fluid
• initiation of action potential
• neurotransmitter will diffuse in the fluid that is
binding sa post synaptic cell/neuron
REFLEX ARC
• REFLEXES are rapid, predictable, & involuntary
responses to stimuli
• Applied to your periphery and transmitted to your
central nervous system
• Allows a person to react to a stimuli quickly without
conscious thought
• Happens due to the neuronal pathway by which a
reflex occurs
• Used to evaluate the condition of nervous system

TYPES OF SYNAPSES ELEMENTS OFA REFLEX ARC

• ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES
o Impulses that conduct directly between adjacent
cells thru gap junctions
o Common in visceral smooth muscle, central
nervous system
o Allows faster communication
• CHEMICAL SYNAPSES
o Once presynaptic membrane releases the
neurotransmitter, it will diffuse in the interstitial
fluid and will bind to the receptors of the plasma
membrane of the postsynaptic cell neuron
o Neurotransmitters Interneuron / Integration Center interprets
o EX: Acetylcholine, norepinephrine, serotonin,
dopamine, gama-aminobutyric acid, glycine,
endorphins

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PHYSIOLOGY
TYPES OF REFLEXES
1. SOMATIC – Stimulates skeletal muscles
o Ex: knee-jerk reaction, direct exposure with heat
2. AUTONOMIC – Regulates the activity of smooth
muscles, the heart, and glands
o Parasympathetic and sympathetic
NEURONAL PATHWAYS
a. DIVERGING PATHWAYS
• 1 neuron diverges and synapses with more than
one post synaptic
• one to many
• one presynaptic neuron branches to affect a
larger number of post synaptic neurons
b. CONVERGING PATHWAYS
• Many presynaptic neurons converge to influence
a smaller number of postsynaptic neurons
c. REVERBERATING PATHWAYS
• have collateral branches of postsynaptic neurons
synapsing with presynaptic neurons
• parang sa paghinga (input is inhaling → sa gitna
there’s exchange of various gases → only one
output which is exhaling)
• sends impulse back
d. PARALLEL AFTER-DISCHARGE PATHWAYS
• Have neurons that stimulate several neurons
arranged in parallel that stimulate a common
output
• Consists of both diverging and converging
pathways
• Results in burst of impulses
• Complex mental processing like mathematical
calculations
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PRELIMS
• Signal stimulates neurons arranged in parallel
arrays that eventually converge on a single output
cell
• There is AFTER-DISCHARGE
• Impulses reach output cell at different times,
causing a burst of impulses
• higher order ; parang interneurons ; there would
be a precise output bc you are determining it
talaga ; single presynaptic calls a certain group of
neurons to get one common output
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
• Consists of the brain and spinal cord
• Major structural division
• In the Braincase
• Responsible for complex body functions such as our
body survival because it manages our vital organs
• Any damage in our brain can cause life threatening
problem can even cause death
• Comprise of 85 billion neurons and 10-50 trillion
neuroglia
o Neuroglia can divide; supports the body
o Neuron cannot divide for they lack centrioles
which is needed in the mitotic division
• Weight: about 3lbs/ 1.4kg
• Represents only 2% of TBW
• Consumes 20% of O2
• Uses 80% glucose in the body
• When we go under intense mental activity, it is not
good doing it without food or ingesting any food
which is a sort of glucose
BLOOD SUPPLY TO THE BRAIN
–– VERTEBRAL ARTERIES
• passes through the vertebral foramen of the
cervical vertebrae and delivers blood
–– INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERIES
• branches off from the aorta; supplies blood to the
brain
• Vertebral arteries unite to form Basilar artery
• Basilar artery unites with Internal Carotid artery to
form Cerebral arterial circle
• Cerebral arterial circle = Circles of Willis
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1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

• Blood supply in our brain is crucial because a

minute without it will cause cognitive issues
BRAIN STEM
• 4 minutes of depleted oxygen supply can result to
brain damage which is irreversible
• 7 full minutes of oxygen deprivation in the brain
can cause to brain death
• People can be in a vegetative state even if they
survive
BRAIN
• Intermediate pathway of sensorimotor info b/w
spinal cord and brain
• Passes thru the magnum foramen and will
eventually become your spinal cord
• CNS are interconnected w/ ea
• Spinal cord starts from foramen magnum to
lumbar vertebrae

MEDULLA OBLONGATA

MAJOR PARTS OF THE BRAIN

• Continuous to SC
• Contains nuclei to CN VIII to CN XII
o biggest part • CN VIII to CN XII arise from medulla oblongata
Cerebrum o CN 3 – 13 arises from the brain stem
o Forebrain
Cerebellum o Hindbrain • Cranial Nerves 1 and 2 – do not arise from the
o in the middle brain stem
• Hypothalamus • Contains substructures
Diencephalon • Thalamus o Pyramids – formed by corticospinal tracts
• Epithalamus § a descending nerve tract, contains
• Pineal gland bundles of myelinated axons that
connects from cerebrum down to spine
o most inferior part
§ Responsible for the voluntary
• Midbrain
movement of the muscles = skeletal
Brain Stem • Pons muscle
• Medulla § Cortico = cerebrum/cortex; spinal =
Oblongata spinal cord
• Nuclei – gray matter present in the CNS
• White Matter → nerve tracts → myelinated
structures that appear color white

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PHYSIOLOGY
WHITE MATTER
• Ascending Tracts - transmit sensory info from SC
to brain; integration processing
• Descending – motor info from brain to SC;
controlling voluntary muscle control
SITE OF DECUSSATIONS
• Crossing of nerve tracts from both sides resulting to
contralateral control of the body
o Corticospinal tract that originates from the left
hem of the brain, crosses to the right part of the
body
o Corticospinal tract that originates from the right
side of the brain, crosses to the left
o If na stroke daw, if left ang affected, right part ng
body ang di magfu-function & vice versa
• The corticospinal tract which is responsible for the
voluntary muscle control from the left to right they
cross in a certain area called DECUSSATION OF
PYRAMID
o Decussation of Pyramid - Marks the border
between the SC and the Brain Stem Specifically
Medulla
TWO MAJOR NUCLEIS
1. Cardiovascular Center – rate and force of the
heartbeat
2. Medullar Respiratory Center – rhythm and pattern
of your breathing
• Vomiting Center – emesis – forceful compulsion
of G.I contents thru d mouth
• Swallowing center – transfer of food from the
mouth down to your pharynx – deglutition
• Sneezing center – a reflex when our body wants
to expel foreign bodies/substances; there is cilia -
sternutation
• Coughing center – strong exhalation from the
respiratory tract to remove foreign materials (a
reflex also)
• Hiccupping center – spasmodic contractions of
diaphragm specially when we inhale it produces
forceful compulsion of air which results to
enclosure of vocal folds
o Considered to be okay
o Drink water to relax muscle
o Hiccupping can tell if a pt has an underlying
condition
§ Irritation or damage of the vagus nerve
• Relays impulses for proprioception to cerebellum
• Proprioception – sense of self/limb-movement
and body position
• Pyramids: involved in the conscious control of
skeletal muscles
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PONS
• Anterior bulge
• Pons = Bridge (Bridge b/w cerebellum and
cerebrum)
• Anterior to cerebellum
• Directly superior to medulla and inferior to midbrain
• Pneumotaxic – regulating respiratory rate
• Apneustic – responsible for inhibiting inhalation
o Unconscious control of breathing is because of
the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic areas
o Typical manifestations of sleep apnea – you
wake up tired, not refreshing sleep, snoring very
loud
• Point of origin for CN V-VIII
• Relay info between cerebellum and cerebrum
• Regulation of breathing, swallowing and balance,
chewing & salivation
MIDBRAIN
• Superior portion ; Smallest region
• Inferior to diencephalon
• With ascending tracts from the SC to the cerebrum
and descending tracts from the cerebellum to the SC
or cerebellum
• With substantia nigra (black substances)
o responsible for the release of dopamine
o Dopamine is a naturally occurring
neurotransmitter in our body which have a
generally excitatory state; regulate our
movements, feeling of reward ; plays a role in
the control of motor functions
• Point of origin of CN III and IV
• BS – CN 3-12; 1&2 only ones who doesn’t originate
in the BS
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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

o Reticular Activating System – w/ sensory &

motor neurons
- RAS – Circadian Rhythm

MAINTENANCE OF:
o Arousal – awakening from sleep (sleep-wake
cycle)
o Consciousness – state of awareness
o Attention – focus to stimuli
o Prevention of sensory overload
1. CEREBRAL PEDUNCLES o Cynical motor functions: breathing walking,
• top part of the mid brain chewing
• anchors which connect the BS-MB to the rest of
the cerebrum • Inactivation of RAS = sleep
• contains axons of motor neurons and axons of • Damage of RAS = coma
sensory neurons
• comprise of white matter DIENCEPHALON
2. TECTUM • A central core of nervous tissue
• inferior part • Completely surrounded by cerebrum
• 4 colliculi: • Superior to brainstem, inferior and medial to
cerebrum
• 2 superior colliculi – visual reflex
o tracking moving objects • Surrounds the 3rd ventricle
o scanning stationary images
o pupillary reflex
o accommodation reflex – ability to focus
on an object – test for visual capabilities
o coordinated turning of eyes, head & trunk
to visual stimuli
o constrict – requires less light
o dilate – wants more light
• 2 inferior colliculi – auditory reflex
o startle reflex
o from inner ear to cerebrum

MAJOR COMPONENTS:
1. Thalamus – major relay
center
2. Hypothalamus
RETICULAR FORMATION
3. Epithalamus
4. Pineal gland

1. THALAMUS
• Major relay station for most sensory and motor
impulses from lower to upper brain and vice-
versa
• Influences and detects pain
• network of interconnected nuclei • Paired oval masses of gray matter organized into
• scattered throughout the brainstem, upper part of nuclei at the center if diencephalon
SC and lower part of diencephalon • Largest part of the diencephalon
• MAJOR COMPONENT: RAS

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PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

• Nerve tracts transmit from the SC to the thalamus 5. Circadian Rhythm regulations
and thalamus will deliver it to the cerebral cortex 6. Control of pituitary gland and production of
for further recognition of stimuli hormones (oxytocin and ADH)
• Thalamus everything converges here - Oxytocin – hormone responsible for the
• Thalamus directs where the stimuli goes thru contractions of the uterus, expulsion of milk in the
mammary glands
2. HYPOTHALAMUS - ADH – Antidiuretic hormone – diuresis – it
• Small group of nuclei at the floor of diencephalon prevents the development of dilute urine, stops
, inferior to thalamus, superior to pituitary gland urination
• Mamillary body – structure responsible for
emotional responses to odor 3. EPITHALAMUS
• Infundibulum – connects hypothalamus to
pituitary gland
• Hypothalamus has a direct relationship with the
pituitary gland because they are connected to ea
• Hypothalamus makes hormones and pit. Gland
stores it

• Emotional and Visceral responses to odors

• Above thalamus
• Comprise the pineal gland
• Superior and inferior portion of thalamus
3. PINEAL GLAND
• Secretes melatonin
o Promotes sleepiness
–– FUNCTIONS OF HYPOTHALAMUS: o Contributes to our body’s biological clock
• Melatonin – natural occurring hormone in our body
1. Control of ANS (Autonomic N.Sys.)
• Pea-sized protrusion from the 3rd ventricle
o contractions of smooth and cardiac muscles
o involuntary
o peristalsis – wavelike movement for the food to
move in the Digestive tract
o Heart rate
o Voiding
o Glandular Secretion

2. Regulation of emotional and behavioral patterns

o Pain, Pressure, Rage, Aggression
o sexual arousal
o emotional responses to odors
3. Regulation of eating and drinking
o Feeding center – sensation of hunger
o Thirst center – osmotic shit; when the cells
are dehydrated it will send signals to the
CEREBELLUM
hypotha that it needs water in order to dilute • Little brain / Hind brain
the concentration of the solute in the IC • 2nd largest part of the brain
o Satiety center • Posterior to the brainstem and inferior to cerebrum
• Attached to the brainstem by the cerebellar peduncles
4. Body temperature regulation • GYRI – the folds that increase surface area; form
o Vasodilation and perspiration; heat loss grooves (sulci)
(flushing)
o Vasoconstriction and shivering; heat
production (pale)

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–– MAJOR FUNCTIONS
1. Proprioception – position sense
2. Posture
3. Balance
4. skilled motor activities
5. comparator – corrects the action being done
CEREBRUM
• largest and most superior part of the brain
• forebrain
• substructures
o cerebral hemisphere (left and right)
o cerebral cortex – gray matter
o cerebral white matter – ascending and
descending nerve tracts
o nuclei group – responsible for reaction to stimuli
• cognition, emotion, personality, memory
• deepest grooves are fissures
• acc to some researchers, the more gyri you have, the
smarter you are (started sa brain ni Einstein)
CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
• left and right half of cerebru,
• connected internally by corpus callosum (this is
how they communicate)
o c.c is the largest commissure (nerve
tracts that connect)
• hemispheric lateralization: specialized function
of each hemisphere
• Left
o Reasoning numerical scientific skills
o Spoken and written
o Controls right side of the body
• Right
o Musical and artistic awareness
o Three-dimension/spatial and pattern
perception
o Generation mental images of special
sensations
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PRELIMS
o Controls left side of the body
GYRI & SULCI = increases surface area of neurons
FISSURES = separates cerebrum into major areas
LOBES = performs highly specialized mental function ;
based sa cranial nerve
* fissures are very deep grooves and sulci are less deep than
fissures
CEEBRAL LOBES
• Subdivision of cerebral cortex separate by
fissures and sulci named after the
• Performs highly specialized function: perception
integration, transmission
FRONTAL
• anterior portion; anterior to central sulcus
• Reasoning, judgement, calculation, mood,
olfactory reception, control of voluntary motor
function, motivation, aggression
• Ppl who have head trauma which causes severe
damage to the frontal lobe will experience
residual motor deficit because the primary motor
area is found in the frontal lobe
• People who have an altered personality traits
because of head trauma likely has a damaged
frontal lobe
PARIETAL
• Middle portion; from central sulcus to parieto-
occipital sulcus
• General somatosensory area
• Perception and interpretation of most sensory
information: touch, pain, pressure,
temperature, balance & taste
OCCIPITAL
• Posterior portion; from parieto-occipital sulcus to
transverse fissre
• cranial nerve II (optic nerve) starts from the eyes
and terminates here for processing of visual input
• Reception and integration of visual input
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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

TEMPORAL FUNCTIONAL AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX

• “temple”
• Inferior and lateral portion; separated by lateral
fissure
• Perception and interpretation of auditory and
olfactory input
• Memory, ability to think and remember concepts

INSULA
• Inferior and medial
portion; deep to
frontal, parietal, and
temporal lobes
• Responsible for SENSORY AREAS
self-awareness, Primary Somatic sensation / general
empathy, and Somatosensory Area sensory area (pain,
passive listening (parietal) pressure, temp)
Primary Visual Area Image perception
CLINICAL CONDITION: ANENCEPHALY (occipital)
• Absence of a portion of the brain, skull, and scalp Primary Auditory Sound perception
that occurs during embryonic development Area (temporal)
• Babies are born dead Primary Gustatory Taste perception
• May be caused by genes, comorbid conditions Area (parietal)
(diabetes), environment exposure to poison, Primary Olfactory Smell perception
gases, etc. Area (temporal)

CEREBRAL CORTEX MOTOR AREAS

Primary motor area Controls voluntary
(frontal) contraction of specific
muscles
Premotor area Where motor functions are
(frontal) organized before initiation
Prefrontal area Motivation and foresight to
plan and initiate
Broca’s Area Planning and production of
• Outer rim layer of cerebrum made up of gray matter speech
• Comprises of diff functional areas (SAM)
o SENSORY ASSOCIATION AREA
§ Perception of stimuli Somatosensory Tactile discrimination
§ Perceive (process of being aware) the
Association
stimuli
Visual association Image recognition and
o MOTOR
comparison
§ Movement initiation
Facial Recognition Stores detailed information
o ASSOCIATION
abt people’s faces
§ Interactive functions (memory, emotions,
reasoning, will, judgement, personality, Auditory association Recognition of a particular
traits, and intelligence) ; involved in sound, noise, voice
recognition Elicits a response (irritation,
§ They check if the stimuli is significant or not calmness)
to trigger a motor response Orbitofrontal Identification and
§ Integrative functions discrimination of odors
Wernicke’s Interpretation of speech by
translating words into
thoughts

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

Common integrative Combines gustatory and

area olfactory perception
Prefontal Motivation & regulation of
emotional behavior & mood
Premotor Memory bank for motor
skills; staging area
** complex sequential movement

–– SPEECH
• Mainly in left hemisphere
• Sensory Speech (Wernicke’s Area) LIMBIC SYSTEM
o Parietal lobe • Part of the nuclei groups
o Where words are heard and • A ring structure of nuclei encircling the brainstem,
comprehended corpus callosum, and diencephalon
• Motor Speech (Broca’s area) • “emotional brain” ; “seat of emotions”
o Frontal lobe • Formulation of emotion like: pain, pleasure, love, and
o Where words are formulated anger
• Formulation of memory
• Visceral responses to odor – it triggers feelings of
hunger if you smell food (the olfactory bulb is present
kasi)

• Amygdala – center of emotional integration and

emotional behavior
• Hippocampus – responsible for learning and
memory
• Smells invoke specific emotions
HOW THE FUNCTIONAL AREAS WORK :
–– LIMBIC SYSTEM AND EMOTIONS
• A major source of sensory input to the limbic
system are the olfactory nerves
• The L.S is connected to and functionally
associated with the hypothalamus
• Lesions in the limbic system can result in
voracious appetite, increased (often perverse)
sexual activity, and docility (including loss of
normal fear and anger response)

–– MEMORY
Ø ENCODING
NUCLEI GROUPS • Brief retention of sensory input received by brain
• Masses of gray matter deep within each cerebral while something is scanned, evaluated and acted
hemisphere up
• Also called “sensory memory”
• In temporal lobe

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

Ø CONSOLIDATED it extends from the medulla oblongata (contains the

• Data that has been encoded pyramids)
• Temporal lobe • Acts as a superhighway because it contains a lot of
• Short term memory tracts and nerves that expands to the rest of the body
o for sensorimotor nerve impulses from brain to
Ø STORAGE body and vice versa
• Long term memory o nerves from your upper limbs and lower limbs
• Few minutes or permanently (depends on converge sa spinal cord
retrieval) • PNS arise from CNS
Ø RETRIEVAL • Protected by vertebral column
• How often information is used • If damaged, paralysis can occur
o Damaged s.c will cut off communication signals
TYPES OF MEMORY to and from the area it impacted
Working • Information is retained for a few • Cauda equina
Memory seconds of minutes o Most inferior portion of the s.c
• Bits of info (usually 7 characters) o Resembles a horse’s tail
• Easily forgotten if your attention is o Wala na dito yung spinal cord
deviated • 31 spinal nerves
Short- • Can last for a few days • Intervertebral foramina
Term • Working memory can become a short o Sensory and motor pathways
Memory term memory
Long- • Significant memory
Term • Declarative
Memory o Facts
o Ideas we recall on a long-term
basis
o Declarative Episodic Memory
§ Places or events
§ You correlate a memory to an
event of place
o Declarative Semantic Memory
§ General facts
§ Ex. Past presidents of the
Philippines
• Reflexive/Procedural
o Muscle memory
o The more you encounter/practice
it, you become more familiar with it
o Something you learn on a long-
term basis because it’s part of the
skills that you do (ex. Nurse
procedures)
Learning • Utilizing past memories
Memory

SPINAL CORD
• Oblate tubular mass of nervous tissue
• Contained within the vertebral column
• Extends from medulla oblongata down to L2
vertebrae
• Border that marks between the brainstem and the
spinal cord is the decussation of pyramids that’s why

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

o consists primarily of myelinated axons of

neurons and is organized into white columns
** the nerve comprises of both § SENSORY (ASCENDING) TRACTS
sensory and motor pathways • consist of axons that conduct nerve
** signals go to the SC up to the impulses toward the brain
brain for integration and § MOTOR (DESCENDING) TRACTS
processing of sensory input • consist of axons that conduct nerve
** motor output is transmitted impulses away from the CNS
from the brain, down to the SC,
exiting to the spinal nerves for
actions

Cervical enlargement
Ø extends from C4 to T1
Ø for upper limbs

Lumbar Enlargement
Ø extends from T9 to T12
Ø for lower extremities
DORSAL SPINAL NERVE – present and dorsal root
Length (adult) ganglion (swelling ; collection of PUTA NAG LAG AKO)
Ø 16 to 18 inches ANTERIOR – motor
POSTERIOR – sensory

CLINICAL APPLICATIONS – [ LUMBAR PUNCTURE /

SPINAL TAP ]
• You get fluid (thru injection) to diagnose specific
nervous system conditions / infection that affects
CNS
• Subarachnoid space – where you get
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE SPINAL CORD

• GRAY MATTER
o contains neuronal cell bodies, dendrites,
unmyelinated axons, axon terminals, and
neuroglia NERVE TRACTS
o subdivided into HORNS (regions)
§ POSTERIOR (DORSAL) GRAY HORNS
• contain the cell bodies of incoming
sensory neurons and the (i didn’t hear
na lol hehe)
§ ANTERIOR (VENTRAL) GRAY HORNS
• contain cell bodies of somatic motor
neurons
§ LATERAL GRAY HORNS
• contain cell bodies of autonomic motor
neurons

• WHITE MATTER

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

SENSORY ASCENDING TRACTS CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM PROTECTION

• Ascending pathways are sensory tracts carrying
impulses up the spinal cord to specific areas of the
brain.
• Each tract is involved with a limited type of sensory
input, such as pain, temperature, touch, position, or
pressure.
• Tracts are usually given composite names that
indicate their origin and termination.
• The names of ascending tracts usually begin with the
prefix spino-, indicating that they begin in the spinal
cord, such as the spinothalamic
• Sensory tracts typically cross from one side of the
body in the spinal cord or brainstem to the other side
of the body.
Spinothalamic • from the spine terminates sa
thalamus
• pain, light touch, temp,
pressure
Spinocerebellar • spine to cerebellum
• proprioception
Dorsal Column • for vibrations, deep pressure
and touch
MOTOR DESCENDING TRACTS
• Descending tracts are motor tracts carrying impulses
down the spinal cord, either terminating there or in
the brainstem.
INDIRECT DESCENDING
• Some tracts are considered indirect because they
originate in the brainstem but are indirectly controlled
by the cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, and cerebellum.
AXIAL SKELETON
• Cranium
• Vertebral Column
MENINGES
• Triple layer of connective tissue membranes
• Directly covering and attached to the brain and
spinal cord
• Protects the brain and spinal cord against physical
trauma
• Dura Mater → outermost (most superficial)
meningeal layer; toughest out of all the meninges
o The dura mater forms two layers around the
brain and only one layer around the spinal cord.
o Periosteal layer – in contact w the periosteum
of the skull bone
o Meningeal – attached to the dura mater itself
o They function as one but it becomes clinically
significant bc there is an area where the two
layers separate, producing sagittal sinus
• Arachnoid Mater → weblike; wispy and very thin
o The space between the dura mater and the
arachnoid mater is the subdural space, which is
normally only a potential space containing a
very small amount of serous fluid.
o CSF and blood vessels are found in the
subarachnoid space.
• Pia Mater → very tightly bound to the surface of the
brain and spinal cord
Dura → Subdural→ Arachnoid → Subarach. → Pia

Rubrospinal • Movement coordination

Reticulospinal • Movement adjustment when
moving
• Remain balanced while
moving
Vestibulospinal • Balance
Tectospinal • Visual stimuli

DIRECT DESCENDING
• They extend directly from upper motor neurons in the
cerebral cortex to lower motor neurons in the spinal
cord.

Corticospinal • Control skeletal muscle

movement
• Lateral → hands/skilled
movements
• Anterior → trunk

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
• An extracellular fluid that circulates throughout the
subarachnoid space and craniospinal cavities (brain
MYELIN SHEATHS ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord)
- Covering for the axons of nerve cells • CHOROID PLEXUS - lined with ependymal cells (the
cells produce csf)
MENINGES • The CSF flows from the lateral ventricles into the
- Covering for bigger structures ; in contact with third ventricle and then through the cerebral
skull periosteum and vertebral column aqueduct into the fourth ventricle.
periosteum • A small amount of CSF enters the central canal of
the spinal cord.
SUBDURAL HEMATOMA • The CSF exits the fourth ventricle through small
- Head trauma that causes the subdural space to openings in its walls and roof and enters the
be filled with blood which can create pressure subarachnoid space.
with ur skull and impact the function of the brain ; • ARACHNOID GRANULATIONS - Masses of
they need to do craniectomy arachnoid tissue
o Penetrate the superior sagittal sinus, a dural
EPIRDURAL SPACE venous sinus in the longitudinal fissure, and
- Space between periosteum of skull and dura CSF passes from the subarachnoid space into
mater of the brain ; epi = above the blood through these granulations.
- Epidural anesthesia is injected here for women
who is about to give birth –– FUNCTIONS
• Protection : mechanical shock absorber against
SUBDURAL SPACE trauma
- Space under the dura mater • Homeostasis : pH of CSF affects ventilation &
blood flow
SAGITTAL SINUS
• Circulation : exchange of nutrients & wastes in
- Allows for blood to be collected and will easily be
brain tissue
drained through the jugular veins of your cranium
–– CHARACTERISTICS
BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER
• Clear and colorless
• 150 ml (15 to 25 ml per ventricle)
• Specialized layer of tight
junctions formed by • Contains the following :
astrocytes surrounding the
brain capillaries Albumin 150 to 30 mg/dl
• Filters the passage of Glucose 50 to 75 mg/dl
material from blood to brain lgG (Immunoglobulin G) 0 to 6.6 mg/dl
WBC 0-5/mm3
PERMEABLE IMPERMEABLE
Glucose Proteins
O2 and CO2 Antibiotics
Alcohol
Anesthesia

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ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

–– FLOW OF CSF VENTRICLES

• Aqueduct of Sylvius = cerebral aqueduct or

mesencephalic aqueduct
• Foramen of Luschka - lateral apertures of the 4th
ventricle are opening
• Foramen of Magendie - medial aperture of the 4th
ventricle ; central opening
• Arachnoid granulations = villi of your arachnoid
tissue that collects your CSF and brings them back
to the blood
• It’s a circulation which is why it must go back to the
blood
CLINICAL APPLICATIONS – HYDROCEPHALUS
• Hydrocephalus is the buildup of fluid in the cavities
(ventricles) deep within the brain. The excess fluid
increases the size of the ventricles and puts pressure
on the brain.
• Cerebrospinal fluid normally flows through the
ventricles and bathes the brain and spinal column.
But the pressure of too much cerebrospinal fluid
associated with hydrocephalus can damage brain
tissues and cause a range of impairments in brain
function.
• Hydrocephalus can happen at any age, but it occurs
more frequently among infants and adults 60 and
over.
• Surgical treatment for hydrocephalus can restore
and maintain normal cerebrospinal fluid levels in the
brain. Many different therapies are often required to
manage symptoms or functional impairments
resulting from hydrocephalus

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

NERVES I Olfactory S smell

- Bundles of neuron fibers/axons found outside the II Optic S vision
CNS III Oculomotor M Extraocular eye
- 2 Types movement; pupillary
o Cranial reaction
o Spinal
Parasympathetic
STRUCTURE AND COVERINGS responses to how your
1. Each axon is covered by a connective tissue pupils dilate/constrict
called endoneurium. IV Trochlear M Upward & downward
2. Axons are arranged in bundles called fascicles, eye movement
each of which is covered by perineurium. V Trigeminal B Sensation from the
3. Fascicles are bundled to form a nerve, which is face & mouth;
surrounded by epineurium. mastication

Greatest sensory
innervation out of all
the nerves
VI Abducens M Lateral eye movement
VII Facial B Taste;
Saliva and tears
production
(parasympathetic yung
2 na yan)

Facial expression
VIII Acoustic S Hearing and balance
IX Glossopharyngeal B Taste; swallowing;
tongue movement
Salivation
X Vagus B Swallowing; digestive /
respiratory /
cardiovascular
activities

Most imp parasympa

nerve
XI Accessory M Head & shoulder
movement
XII Hypoglossal M Tongue movement
- Resembles a phone cable ** read book for more info

CRANIAL NERVES CN 1&2 – does not originate @brainstem

- 12 pairs Optic chiasm – crossing of optic nerves (doesn’t
- Originate or terminate in the brain necessarily cross tho unlike decussation of pyramids)
- Primarily innervate the head and neck except for CN
X which extends to the thorax and abdomen These cranial nerves thru the decussation of pyramids
- Functions:
o Sensory "On Old Obando Tower Top A Filipino Army Guards
o Motor (Somatic) Villages And Houses.
o Parasympathetic
"Some Say Marry Money But My Brother Says Big
Business Makes Money.

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

SPINAL NERVES
- 31 pairs (named based on the region where they are
found)
- Formed by dorsal and ventral roots of the spinal cord
- Each spinal nerve is divided into dorsal and ventral
rami which contain both motor and sensory fibers
- Named according to segment of spinal cord they are
attached
- Dorsal root= sensory (afferent)
- Ventral root= motor (efferent)

Grey Matter —patient osterior horn (where dorsal roots

originate)
Pseudo-unipolar neurons—for sensory functions
Anterior root—connect neurons from anterior and lateral
horn
Neurons that arise in the lateral horn—autonomic yata
COMPONENTS WITHIN A TYPICAL SPINAL NERVE
- Somatic Sensory Neuron = innervate the skin
overlying skeletal muscles
- Visceral Sensory Neuron = pertains to internal
organ; for example: pain
o Internal
o You feel the sensations within
- Autonomic Motor Neuron = involuntary ; (smooth
and cardiac, effector glands/organs for secretion
o checks if we respond to the stimuli properly (if
we need sympa / parasympa response)
- Somatic Motor Neuron = voluntary ; skeletal
DERMATOME
- Area of skin supplied with sensory innervation by a
pair of spinal nerves
o They carry both sensory + motor signals
- The nerves arising from each region of the spinal
cord and vertebral column supply specific regions of
the body
- Each of the spinal nerves except C1 has a specific
cutaneous sensory distribution
- Doctors use this for assessment
NERVE PLEXUSES
- Complex networks of nerves
- Give rise to specific spinal segments
- Serve the motor and sensory needs of the
extremities
- Classifications
o Cervical
o Brachial
o Lumbosacral (Lumbar and Sacral)
o Coccygeal
CERVICAL PLEXUS
- Spinal nerves C1-C4
- Innervates muscles attached to hyoid bone and
neck (expand to posterior head)
o Cutaneous distribution so there are
signals sent sa neck + head
- Phrenic nerve – innervating diaphragm ; very
important bc diaphragm helps us to breathe
o Hiccups are triggered if there is irritation
here OR if there is an underlying
condition
o Quadriplegic ppl have trouble breathing
bc the nerve may be compromised
- Contains phrenic nerve which innervates
diaphragm
BRACHIAL PLEXUS
- Originates from spinal nerves C5-T1
- Supply nerves to upper limb, shoulder, hand
- Axillary nerve
o crutches

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

- Radial Nerve THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

- Median Nerve - Under motor/efferent
o Innervates intrinsic nerve (?) - The autonomic neurons innervate smooth muscle,
§ Compression of median nerve = Numbing cardiac muscle, and glands.
sensation / carpal tunnel syndrome - Autonomic functions are largely controlled
- Ulnar Nerve unconsciously.
- Musculocutaneous nerve - In the autonomic nervous system, two neurons in
series extend from the CNS to the effector organs.
** thoracic nerves do not form a plexus ; they just extend - The first neuron is called the preganglionic neuron;
thru your thorax innervating thru the ribs the second neuron is the postganglionic neuron.
- The neurons are so named because preganglionic
LUMBOSACRAL PLEXUS neurons synapse with postganglionic neurons in
- Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4 autonomic ganglia within the PNS.
- Provides innervation to the lower limbs • Arise from lateral horn (motor nerve fibers)
- Obturator = thigh (adductor)
o Range of motion SOMATIC VS. AUTONOMIC SYSTEM
• Towards the midline (adductor)
• Laterally (abductor)
- Femoral = extensor
o Standing up
o Raising one foot, hop on one foot
- Fibular
- Tibial
- Sciatic ANS GANGLIA
o Longest nerve
o Connects spinal cords that innervate
your lower body
o Babies injection = if you inject it here it
can lead to paralysis
- Fibular + Tibial are combined within the same
sheath (sciatic nerve)

Kegel’s exercise = to strengthen pelvic muscles ;

contracting pelvic floor muscles alternately

PLEXUSES REGIONS SUPPLIED

Cervical Plexus • neck, shoulder & diaphragm
C1-C4 - phrenic nerve
• upper extremity- shoulder,
Brachial Plexus forearm, wrist & hand
C5-C8 ; T1 - axillary, radial, median,
musculocutaneous, & ulnar
• lower abdomen, buttocks,
Lumbar Plexus anterior/ medial thigh, medial leg Cholinergic = para
L1-L4 & hip Adrenergic – sympathetic
- femoral & obturator nerve
• lower trunk, posterior thigh & ANS DIVISIONS
lateral and posterior leg, foot,
Sacral Plexus
buttocks & external genitalia –– SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
L4-L5; S1-S4
- sciatic (peroneal & tibial), - ON ALERT ; fight or flight ; anxiousness
pudendal nerve - Increased activity in sympathetic neurons generally
prepares the individual for physical activity
- The sympathetic division cell bodies of sympathetic
preganglionic neurons are in the lateral horn of the
spinal cord gray matter between the first thoracic

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

(T1) and the second lumbar (L2) segments. This is

why it is also called the thoraco-lumbar division of
the ANS.
- Sympathetic chain ganglion – junction of pre and
post ganglionic ; this is where they synapse (@
thoracic cavity)
o Enables the fight of flight
o Splanchnic nerve – some converge as one nerve
and synapse at collateral ganglia
- Collateral ganglia – synapse (abdomen and pelvic
region)
- The axons of the preganglionic neurons exit through
ventral roots and project to either sympathetic chain
ganglia or collateral ganglia.

–– PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

- Rest or digest ; relax
- generally, activates involuntary functions, such as
digestion, that are normally associated with the body
at rest.
- CN 3, 7,9 10
- Some preganglionic cell bodies of the
parasympathetic division are located within the
lateral part of the central gray matter of the spinal
cord in the regions that give rise to spinal nerves S2
through S4.
- Other preganglionic cell bodies of the
parasympathetic division are located within
brainstem nuclei of the oculomotor, facial,
glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves. Thus, its
name, cranio-sacral division.
- Axons of the preganglionic neurons extend through
spinal nerves or cranial nerves to terminal ganglia
either located near effector organs in the head or
embedded in the walls of effector organs in the
thorax, abdomen, and pelvis.
- Most of the thoracic and abdominal organs are
supplied by preganglionic neurons of the vagus
nerve extending from the brainstem
• If vagus nerve is compramised, maaffect ang • HCW give epinephrine when you get a heart attack
parasympathetic division kasi andami niyang sakop
• Terminal ganglia
o @ outside – yung tatlong may circle sa pic
o if vagus nerve , @ target organs agad

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 ANATOMY AND
1st Year, 1st Semester
PHYSIOLOGY PRELIMS

SNS AND PSNS STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCE PARASYMPATHETIC INNERVATION

Parasympathetic
- longer preganglionic axons bc walang chain like
deretso agad siya sa organ

Sympathetic
- preganglionic ang shorter kasi it junctions to the
chain
- post ganglionic are longer bc they are the ones
that activate ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
- Consists of plexuses within the walls of the digestive
SYMPATHETIC INNERVATION tract:
a. sensory neurons - connect the digestive tract to
the CNS
b. sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons -
connect the CNS to the digestive tract
c. enteric neurons – located entirely within the
enteric plexus
- Monitor and control the digestive tract independently
of the CNS thru local reflexes
- Reason why we get stomachache when we get
anxious

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