EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

TECHNICAL REPORT #3

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. JOSE E. ELFA JR.

SUBMITTED BY:
BENIG, GIA MYKA P.
BOGOY, LIESA JEE S.
CASIPE, JOVEN C.
1. Effects of Earthquake
The effects from earthquakes include ground shaking, surface faulting, ground failure, and
less commonly, tsunamis.

Ground Shaking
Ground shaking refers to the vibration of the ground during an earthquake, caused by body waves and
surface waves. The severity of ground shaking increases with magnitude and decreases with distance
from the fault. Body waves, such as compressional (P), shear (S), and Rayleigh and Love (L), cause
high-frequency vibrations, while surface waves, like Rayleigh and Love, cause low-frequency
vibrations. The objective of earthquake-resistant design is to construct buildings that can withstand
ground shaking caused by body and surface waves.

In land-use zoning and earthquake-resistant design, knowledge of ground shaking amplitude,

frequency composition, and time duration is needed. This can be determined from empirical data,
Modified Mercalli intensity, building distance, and soil and rock properties. The Modified Mercalli
Intensity Scale indicates the effects of ground shaking on humans, buildings, and the Earth's surface.

Seismic waves propagate in all directions, causing ground vibrations at frequencies ranging from 0.1
to 30 Hertz. Compressional and shear waves cause high-frequency vibrations, while Rayleigh and
Love waves cause low-frequency vibrations. Tall buildings located at relatively great distances from a
fault may be damaged due to slower decay of low-frequency vibrations.

Surface Faulting
Surface faulting refers to the differential movement of the two sides of a fracture at the Earth's
surface, which can be strike-slip, normal, or reverse. It is a result of deep-seated forces in the Earth,
sedimentary deposits moving towards the Gulf of Mexico, and faulting associated with salt domes.
Although death and injuries from surface faulting are rare, casualties can occur indirectly through
fault damage to structures. Surface faulting affects a long narrow zone, causing high damage to
structures, especially in intensive land use. Examples of structures damaged include houses,
apartments, commercial buildings, nursing homes, railroads, highways, tunnels, bridges, canals, storm
drains, water wells, and sewer lines. The severity of potential damage increases as the displacement
size increases. Fault ruptures on land range from less than 1 mile to over 200 miles, with most
confined to a narrow zone. The area subject to disruption by surface faulting varies with the length
and width of the rupture zone.

Ground Failure

 Liquefaction Induced

Liquefaction is a physical process that occurs during earthquakes, causing clay-free soil deposits to
temporarily lose strength and behave as viscous fluids. This occurs when seismic shear waves pass
through a saturated granular soil layer, distorting its structure and causing void spaces to collapse.
This results in the transfer of ground-shaking load from grain-to-grain contacts to pore water,
increasing pressure in the pore water, causing drainage or a sudden build-up of pore-water pressure.
Liquefaction is more susceptible to certain geologic and hydrologic environments, with younger and
looser sediment and higher water tables making a soil more susceptible. It causes three types of
ground failure: lateral spreads, flow failures, and loss of bearing strength. Liquefaction also enhances
ground settlement and sometimes generates sand boils, which can cause local flooding and silt
accumulation.

Lateral spreads involve the movement of large blocks of soil due to liquefaction in a subsurface layer,
usually developing on gentle slopes between 0.3 and 3 degrees. These spreads can cause damage that
is usually disruptive, such as the 1964 Prince William Sound earthquake, where over 200 bridges
were damaged or destroyed. Liquefaction is particularly destructive to pipelines, as seen in San
Francisco in 1906, where major pipeline breaks occurred due to lateral spreading.
  Flow Failures

Flow failures are catastrophic ground failures caused by liquefaction, often moving several tens of
feet or miles. They form in loose saturated sands or silts on slopes greater than 3 degrees and can
originate underwater or on land. Larger and more damaging flow failures have occurred underwater in
coastal areas, such as the 1964 Prince William Sound earthquake. On land, flow failures have been
catastrophic, killing an estimated 200,000 people. Loss of bearing strength can also occur when soil
supporting a structure liquefies, causing large deformations and causing structures to tip.

 Landslides

Earthquake-induced landslides can occur in various types, including rock falls, debris slides, soil and
rock slumps, and block slides. Large earthquake-induced rock avalanches, soil avalanches, and
underwater landslides can be destructive, with rock avalanches originating on over-steepened slopes
in weak rocks, soil avalanches in weakly cemented materials like loess, and underwater landslides in
deltas. The size of the affected area depends on the magnitude of the earthquake, focal depth,
topography, geologic conditions, and ground shaking intensity.

Tsunamis

Tsunamis are water waves that are caused by sudden vertical movement of a large area of the sea
floor during an undersea earthquake. Tsunamis are often called tidal waves, but this term is a
misnomer. Unlike regular ocean tides, tsunamis are not caused by the tidal action of the Moon and
Sun. The height of a tsunami in the deep ocean is typically about 1 foot, but the distance between
wave crests can be very long, more than 60 miles. The speed at which the tsunami travels decreases as
water depth decreases. In the mid-Pacific, where the water depths reach 3 miles, tsunami speeds can
be more than 430 miles per hour. As tsunamis reach shallow water around islands or on a continental
shelf; the height of the waves increases many times, sometimes reaching as much as 80 feet. The great
distance between wave crests prevents tsunamis from dissipating energy as a breaking surf; instead,
tsunamis cause water levels to rise rapidly along coast lines.

Tsunamis and earthquake ground shaking differ in their destructive characteristics. Ground shaking
causes destruction mainly in the vicinity of the causative fault, but tsunamis cause destruction both
locally and at very distant locations from the area of tsunami generation.

2. Earthquake occurrence and how it affects the three (3) faces of human; physiological and
emotional, economic and financial and mental and social.

1976 August 17 Mw8.1 Moro Gulf Earthquake

A few minutes after the last stroke of midnight on August 17, 1976, a violent earthquake occurred in
the island of Mindanao spawning a tsunami that devastated more than 700 kms of coastline bordering
Moro Gulf in the North Celebes Sea. This offshore event generated by Cotabato trench, a less
prominent trench system in the Philippines, was the largest tsunamigenic earthquake to have occurred
in Mindanao in the last two decades. It was an earthquake that resulted in massive destruction of
properties and great loss of lives. The tsunami generated contributed immensely to the devastation.
The cities and provinces of Cotabato took the brunt of the earthquake while the tsunami generated
cast its doom on the provinces bordering Moro Gulf especially on the shores of Pagadian City.
According to surveys during the event, the tsunami was responsible for 85% of deaths, 65% of
injuries and 95% of those missing. After the sea spent its fury and rolled back to its natural flow,
thousands of people were left dead, others homeless or missing and millions of pesos lost with the
damages of properties. Properties lost not only include establishments for residential and commercial
use, but also bancas that, as a whole, represents the livelihood of hundreds of families.
 
Date of Event 17 August 1976
Time 12:11 A.M. (Local)
Epicenter 06.3° N, 124.0° E
Magnitude 8.1

(a) Physiological and Emotional Effects:

Physiologically, the quake resulted in injuries and casualties due to collapsing structures, impacting
the physical health and well-being of the affected population. Emotionally, fear, shock, and trauma
were prevalent reactions, with survivors experiencing heightened anxiety and distress in the
aftermath.
(b) Economic and Financial Impact:
Economically, the earthquake disrupted local industries, disrupting trade, commerce, and
infrastructure, leading to financial losses for businesses and individuals. Reconstruction efforts
required significant financial resources, straining the region's economy. Financial vulnerabilities were
further exacerbated by the quake's impact on local livelihoods.
(c) Mental and Social Consequences:
Mentally, the earthquake had enduring consequences, contributing to post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) and psychological distress among survivors. Socially, communities were displaced due to
damaged homes, leading to temporary homelessness and increased social vulnerability. However, the
disaster also fostered a sense of solidarity as individuals and communities came together to support
one another.

3.

The vital significance of safety and serviceability in structural design strongly influences my decision-
making process in my role as a future civil engineer. This will help me in selecting the right materials
to meet the demands for durability and safety. In order to ensure that structures are safe and
functioning under a variety of conditions, design methodologies and thorough load analysis are both
essential. Utilizing advanced tools like simulations aids in identifying design flaws and making
informed design adjustments. To ensure legal compliance and accepted safety levels, it is crucial to
adhere to building regulations and standards. In the end, it is our job to build structures that are not
just capable of withstanding forces but also offer enduring, secure, and useful spaces for people and
society, reflecting moral engineering principles that put people's wellbeing first.