Kinds of Thermodyn

. are not crossed by working

1. A' Clo d Sy t m I a y t m who e b�undanes . .
of this system 15 a P iston
subst nc but cro s d by n rgy. A typical example
nd cylind rd vie as hown in Figur 1.1.

• A Closed Syst m i I o c II d control/ d

r two typ of
Work, W
mass syst m. Th r
closed· y t m-th nonf/ow c/o d
system, nd th t dy-f/ow clo d
system.

Cylinder

Heat, Q

Figure 1. 1. Piston-Cylinder
Device as a 'Closed System

2. An Open System is a thermodynamic system in which both the working substance

and energy cross its b0undaries. An exam pl� of this syst�m is a pump· or
compressor being cut from the suction point to the discharge side, as shown in
Figure 1.2.
Boundary
■ An Open �ystem is als o c al led
controlled volume system. There are
:------�---; Boundary 2
two types of open ·system-the Boundary I I
I
I
I

steady-flow open system, and the ----m2

m1 .
-�-�..�,J

unsteady flow or transient flow open I

I
I

system. I

·- -------------·
I
I I

Work, We or Wp

Figure 1.2. Pump or Compressor

as an Open System

3. An Isolated System is a thermodynamic system in which neither the mass (working

substance) nor energy crosses its boundaries. It is completely not affected by
the surrounding conditions.

• An example of this is a compartment in a spacecraft where astror.auts are

located. The compartment is not affected by the outside conditions.
 4

THERMODYNAMIC STAT O A UBSTANCE

• Th condition of a subst d fin cJ by thermodynamic properties. The word

"condition" i not th th rmodynamlc term but the correct term is
" tate." Th t rn fin d , th mode or condition of being.
• Th stat of ul th c xlsts and how it is identified
by c rtain m pr . omo familiar properties are
temper tur , d n It r m ro copfc properties. By knowing these
prop rti , th th u r fluid could b determined,
• Th thermodyn mlc pr p rti II fix d when the thermodynamic state is
fi d.
• Thermodynamic st t i th condition of pure substance or system as identified
through the prop rti s of th sub tance. This state is defined generally by
particular values of any two independent properties. All other thermodynamic
properties of the substance have certain particular values whenever a certain
mass of the substance is in .this particular macroscopic state.
• Figure 1.3 illustrates a system or the state of a system. Points 1 and 2 are states
of the system identified and ·described by two independent properties, namely,
pressure and volume. · '

p
2

---r---------------------
, • I
I I
I .I
I
:

½ V1 V
Figure 1.3. The p V Diag
The State Postulate ram

• The state postulate sta

te s that:

The number of independe

ntly variab/ therm
for a speci fieo' system is odynamic prope
equal to the n:m rties
work modes plus one. b er of relevant rev
ersible
•
•
Specified system implies a
. spec1·t·ie d amount
Th ermodynam,c properties refer to of so e spe
_ th ose � cified matter.
to thermodynamic equilibriu c haracterist1. c
• Re,ev
, ant states reversible wo
m states.
rk modes mean
s relevant to en
ergy and
th e sys te m ,.� question and not irre only the im .
• The plus one 1s for the indepen versible work
dent control of en
mode s .
ergy throug
portant work
modes for
work. h heat1. ng or
1rr
. ..... ···----·
 THERMODYNAMIC P - 0

• Thermodyn mlc prop rt/ criptiv charact ri tic of th system used to

comput th ch n of n r y th t occur in a y t m or working substance.
Th r ch r ct ri tic ttrlbut of m tt r which can be evaluated
quantit tiv ly.
• A property i ch lity f th ntir y t m nd d p nds not on how
th syst m ch n nly n th fin I y t m tate (Burghardt and
Harbach, 199 ).

Types of Th rmodyn mi Pr p rtl

1. Intensive properties r th rmodyn ml prop rtl that are independent of the

mass of the substanc in th sy t m. xample of these properties are
temperature, pressure, density, and voltage.
2. Extensive properties are thermodynamic properties that are dependent upon the
mass of the substance in the system. These properties are total values. Examples
of these properties are total volume-, total internal energy, or total enthalpy.
3. Specific properties are properties that are considered for a unit mass, and are
intensive by definition. Examples of these properties are specific volume, specific
internal energy, or -specific enthalpy.

BASIC LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. The First Law of Thermodynamics deals with law of conservation of energy. The
law of conservation of energy states that energy can neither be created nor
d.estroyed, it just transforms into another form.
2. The Second Law of Thermodynamics deals with the direction of fl.ow of heat energy,
that is from the higher-temperature body to lower-temperature body, and the
property known as Entropy.
3. The Third Law of Th.ermodynamics deals with the.restricti'on of all physical systems
to the temperature regime that excludes absolute zero. Th� law states that at
absolute zero, the entropy of a pure substance (in equilibrium at 0 ° K or 0 ° R) in
'·
some perfect crystalline form becomes zero.
4. The Zeroth Law is the law concerning thermal equilibrium -and is the basis for
temperature measurement. The law states that when .two bodies, isolated from
other environment, are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, the two are in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
 NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

tion of a particular
• Newton's s cond law of motion states that the accelera
on it and inversely 2.
body is directly proportion I to the resultant force acting
e of velocity of a
proportional to its ma s. Ace I r tion is also the derivativ
body with resp ct t tim .
F m Eq. 1.1
a or
oc -, =k , r =-
m m k

Where F = fore cting on the body, N, kgf, lb f

m = mass of the body, kg, lb
acceleration, m/s , fps
2 2
a =
unit of F
k = proportionality constant, depending on the

Figure 1.4. Newtons Second Law of,Motion

ma
Values of Constant, k, in the equation k =
F

1. The value of k is unity but not dimensionless.

a. Cgs system: 1 Dyne force accelerates 1-gram mass at 1 cm/s2 •

ma= (1 gram)(1 cm/s2 ) = gm ·Cm

k== 1 2
F 1 Dyne Dyne . s

b. Mks System: 1 Newton force accelerates 1-kg mass at 1 m/s2 •

k=�
= (1 kgm) ( 1 m / s2 ) - kg m . m
1
F 1N N. s 2
-
C. Fps System: 1 lb1 accelerates 1 slug m
ass at 1 fps2 .
(1 slug) (1 fps2 )
_ ma --
k --= �-_!___ sug- 1 ft
F 1 lb
1
t - lb f . s2
 7

2. Th

1 r m-m t 980.66 cm/s 2 •

80.

b. Mk t . 0 m/ 2
•

=-
m k •m
m_
1k f k f . 2

Fp y t m: 1 lb, 1 I m t ?..174 fp 7
•

2
m (1 I bm ) ( 32. 174 fps ) I b . ft
k=-=-------=32.174 _m_2
F 1 lb t lb t · s

Relation between kgt and N

k m k m
k = 1 gm . 2 = 9.8066 gm . 2
N·s kg1 · s

Relation between lbm and slug

b
k = 1 slug.� = 32.174 l m . � 1 slug= 32.174 lbm
lb,· s lbt .· s

MASS AND WEIGHT

• Mass is the absolute quantity of matter in substance or body. It is a quantity that

does not change wi-th the change of gravity.
• Weight is the force of g_ravity on the body and could be determined by a spring
scale. This quantity changes with the change of gravity.

■ At the surface of the earth near sea level, mass and weight are numerically
equal.

Ex. 1.1] The weight of an object is 80 lbr Determine its mass at standard condition.

Solution:

m=
F9 k
_
(801b, )( 32.174 lb m · ft/lb 1 • s2) _

g - 4f / 2
32.17 t s
-BO lb, ans.
Ex. 1.2] Find the weight of a 75-kgm object at standard condition.

Solution:

mg (75 kg m ) (9.8066 m / s2 ) ans.

.F9 = - = -::-:::-::-:--:--=----_!.. 75 kg,
k 9.8066 kg m -m / kg f . s2 -

DENSITY.
• Density is an intensive thermodynamic property that is usually used to determine
the mass of the substance or system. It i� the mass per unit volume of a substance.

m Eq. 1.2
p·=-
Where p = density of the substan·ce,. kg/m 3 , lb/ft3
m = mass of the substance,. kg, lb
V = volume of the substance, m 3 , ft3

SPECIFIC VOLUME

. • Specific volume is the volume of a unit mass substance. It is also defined as the
rec\procal of density.

V=-=-
V 1
. Eq. 1.3
m P

Where v = specific volume, m 3/kg, ft3/lb

SPECIFIC WEIGHT

• Specific Weight is the force of gravity per unit volu,:ne

of a substance .

Eq. 1. 4

Where 'Y = specific we . ght of the substance, N/m , kg/m , lb/ft3

F9 = the foree of gr1 avity
.
on the body or the
3

ht of
3

, kgt, lb,
weig the body
Note: If the mass is at the surfac
e of the e arth, near �
equal to k (g � k). ea level, g is num r
 Ex. 1.3] Det rmin th- p Ifie w ight of wat r t tandard condition, in kg/m3 •

Solution: At t nd rd condition, g 9.8066 m/ 2 nd p 1000 kg/m3

pg (1000 k / m )( .80
'Y - k - k • m-· --
80 . N/m3 = 1000 kg, /m3 ans.
1 ,2
N

Not : 1 kgt - .80 N

Ex. 1.4] Two liquids of differ nt d n iti (p, 1 00 kg/rn 3 , p 2 - 500 kg/m3 J were po red
together into a 100-liter container, filling it. If th r ulting den ity of the mixture is 800
kg/m3 , find the respective amounts of liquids used. Also, find the weight of the mixt re;
local g = 9.675 m/s2 • (Problem by Faires)

Given: Liquids of different densities

Liquid I Liquid 2.
p 1 =1500 kg/m3 · V r = 100 liters = O .1O m3

p 2 = 500 kg/m3 P m = 800 kg/m

3

Required:

The mass of each liquid and the weight of the mixture if g = 9.675 m/s2

Solution:

• To solve for the mass of each liquid, let

m 1 = mass of liquid 1
m 2 = mass of liquid 2
m = mass of the mixture
V1 = volume of liquid 1
V2 = volume of liquid 2
VT = volume of the mixture which is·equal to the tank volume

1soo v 1 + sooy2 = 800(0.10) = 80 Eq. 1.

• Consider the total volume, V 1 + V 2 = V r = 0.1o

Eq. 2
 I l
r.:
and V1,
tltutit q. to q. 1, and solving for V2
V 0.07 m nd V 1 0.03 m 3

• · lvln f r m 1 nd m2 ,
n11 =
11V, 1 00(0.03) 45kg
ans.
t 12 - p V - 0 (0.07) 3 kg ans.
• r th w i ht of th mixtur ,
m g {45 kg 35 kg)(9.675m / s
2

F = m =
) = 78_93 kg1
k kg•m
g
9.8066 ans.
kg, · s2

Ex. 1.5] A cylinder 6 inches in diameter and 1 0 inches high contains oi� that has a
d nsity of 850 kg/m3 • Determine the weight of the oil, in lb t .

Given: A cylinder containing oil

p = 850 kg/m
3

H= 10"

Required:

The weight of oil, in lbt

Solution:

Solving for the volume,

V =: 0 2 H = (; )[(6 in.){1 ft/ 12in.)J 2 {10 in

)( 1 ft /12 in.)= 0.1636 ft3

Solving for the specific weight,

kg 2.205 lbm
850 m 1 n,
g m
y = p = ___ _3----'--"_1_k-=-
gm �3.2-8 ft 32.17 4?
k
----L.. == 53.11 lbft
::.:.._ :..:__
32 .7 1 4� l b ft
3(
- ,
3
lb t . 8 2
 l l

Solving f r th w i ht foil,

u yV ( . 11 ��; )( 0 � ft ) 8. lb, ans.

SP CIFIC GRAVITY

Specific gr ity i tt r ti f th r lfi w i ht of ; c rt in 'Sub tance to that of

the sp cifi w i ht f w t r, t t n , rd. nditi n. It i al o d .,fined as the ratio of
the d n ity of c rt in ub t· n t th' t of th d n ity of water at tandard
condition.

G=_r_ _ _e_ Eq. 1.5

Yw Pw
Where Y = specific weight of a certain substance
Yw = specific weight of water at standard condition
Yw = 62.4 lb/ft 3 = 1000 kg/m 3 = 9.8066 kN/m3 = 1 kg/Ii
P = density of a certain substance
P w = de nsity of water at standard condition
P w = 62.4 lbm/ft 3 = 1000 kg/m 3 = 1 kgm/m3

Ex. 1.6] The fuel tank of a car holds 60 liters of gasoline. Assuming that the gasoline
has a specific gravity of 0. 74, determine the weight of the gasoline in the tank, in kg .
t

Given: Fuel tank

V = 60. liters = 0.06 m 3 SG = 0.74

Required:

The weight of the gasoline, in kgt

Solution:

. Solving for the mass of the gasoline,

m = (SG)(PH,o )v = (0.74{ 1000 :; )o.06 m 3 ) = 44.4 kg m

Solving for the weight,

2
F =mg= (44.4 kgm )(9.8066 m/s ) ans.
g
k kg . = 44 .4 kg1
9.8066 m �
. kgf ·S
 12

t,t f I /ff\. I ul t th volume needed to

, n: II I

-y 2 I /t
Soluti
quiri d:

Th tum f tt Ii

olution:

From th qu ti n f if I w I � ,
0 lb PRE
V == Fg = _ , = 1. ft 3 a s.
y 200 lb, I ft 3

E . 1.8] It is proposed by gasoline dealers to sell gasoline by the liter. If gasoline has a
density of 1.3 slugs per cubic feet, what is the weight of 60 liters of gasoline?

Given: Gasoline
y = 1.3 slugs/ft 3 V = 60 liters = 0.060 m 3 = 2.1173 ft3
Required:
The weight of the gasoline
Solution:

Wt = y V = (1.3 slugs/ft 3 ) (2.1173 ft 3 ) = .2.752 slugs

Where 1 slug = 32.2 lb

1 lbt = 32.2 poundals
1 lbt = 32.2 lb m-fps 2
1 kg = 2.205 lb

Wt = (2. 752 slugs )(32.4 lb/slug) = 88.63 lb = 40.19 kg ans.

Ex. f.9] A household oil tank can hold 275 gallons of oil. If oil has a specific weight of
8800 N/m 3, how many pounds of oil will there be in a full tank?

Given: Oil tank

V = 275 gallons y = 8800 N/m 3

 M EPTS l3
equired:

Weight of the oil in the tank

Solution:

Vr = (275 gallons)(3.7854 li/g 1)(1 m /1 oo Ii)= 1.041 m3

F9 = yV = (8800 N/m 3)(1.041 m3)= 9160_ 68
N
F9 = (9160.668 N)(1 kg/9.81 N)(2.205 lb/kg)= 205
9.05 lb

PRESSURE

• Pressure is an intensive thermodynamic property and basically defined as the

force per unit area.
F
p=­ Eq. 1.6
A

Where p = pressure, kN/m2 , kPa, MPa, kg/cm2 , psi

F = normal force, kN, kg,, lb,
A= area, m2 , cm2 , in2

• Gauge Pressure is the pressure of a substance or system measured by a pressure

gauge or a pressure-measuring instrument.
• Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the column of atmospheric air per
unit area; or it is the pressure of the atmosphere at a certain location, say, at the
surface of the earth near sea level.

Standard atmospheric pressure at the surface of the earth, near sea level

1 atmosphere = 29.92" Hg
1 atmosphere = 760 mm Hg
1 atmosphere = 101.325 kPa
1 atmosphere= 14:7 psi
1 atmosphere= 34· ft H2 O
1 atmosphere = 760 Torr
1 a�mosphere = 1.0332 kg/cm 2

Special Pressure Conversions:

1bar=100 Pa=0.10MPa
1 m Hg= 1 Torr
 14

ur
Fluid Pr ur
ur th f rce exerted by a
ut r luld u
r unit r

•
) JJllll o(
l·luid
Unit Arc·• A

• H 1drostatie l'rl's.rnrl' <�/ a .,'olumn of Fluid

From Figure 1.5, th fluid pr s ur is giv n by th equation

F9 mg
p=-=- Eq. 1.7
A kA

Where p = fluid pressure or hydrostatic pressure, kPag, psig

F9 = force of gravity or· the weigl1t of the column of fluid, , kg f , lb 1
A= cross sectional area of the column, m 2 , in2
g = acceleration due to gravity= 9.8066 m/s2 (standard condition)
g = 32.174 fps2 (Standard condition)
m = mass of the column of fluid, kgm, lbm RI
k = proportionality constant

m = pV = pAh
•
Eq. 1.8

· V = volume of the column of fluid

•
• Substituting Eq. 1.8 to Eq. 1.7, then fluid pressure will be •
- pAhg -(-
P---- pg )h -'Y
- h
kA k Eq. 1.9

Absolute Pressure
• Absolute pressure is the algebraic sum of the baromet
ric Pr.assure or atmospheric
pressure and the gauge pressure.

Eq . 1. 1 0
 I5

Wh r
tm
-
Not : k
n p b elute; and kPag
m

• Positive sign ( wh r than atmospheric

pressur or urro
• Negativ ign ( ) i w r than atmospheric
pressure. N g tiv g u v cuum pre ure.

au I r ·s ure '
p& Defined
� Standard
--,,-----t-----'-----.----..!... Atmospheric
Vacuum Pressure line
Absolute Atmospheric
Pressure, - Ps Pressure ' pab Pressure, Patm
Absolute
Pressure

Figure 1.6. Relation of Absolute ·and Gauge Pressures

PRESSURE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

• Barometer is a pressure-measuring instrument used to measure atmospheric

pressure.
• Pressure gauge is a pressure-measuring instrument used to measure gauge
pressure directly by its dial indicator. A typical example of this is a Bourdon pressure
gauge, shown in Figure 1.7.
• Manometer is a pressure-measuring instrument used to measure gauge pressure
of the system using U-tube wherein water or mercury is the working substance.
An illu_stration of a manometer is shown in the Figure 1.8.

§) V\ Pressure Gauge
'-(Bourdon tube)

System

Figure 1.7. Bourdon Pressure Gauge

 .r .,
TflBRM
16

Ex.
p · ide the atm
ow
t h ric h Giv
ce
m
�Mercury

.8. Ml'rcu,y Manom<.'I 'r

r m igur 1. ur t int A jr JiV n by

PA =
Patm tm I PHr., h Eq. 1.11
g
Re
Where pH
9
= density of mercury

Ex. 1 10] A 30-m vertical column of fluid, p = 1878 kg/m 3 is located where
g = 9.65 mls 2 • Find the pressure at the base of the column, in kPag. So/

Given: A column of fluid shown

_ p = 1878 kg/m3

g = 9.65 m/s2

Ex.
at

Gi

Required:

The pressure at the base of the column of fluid

Solution:

Solving for th� fluid pressure or the hydrostatic pressure at the base of the fluid, R

p=
(pg)h (1878kg/m3 )(9.65 m/s2 )
T (30m)=543681 N/m2 (gauge)
=
kgm •m
1 2
N-s
p = 543681 Pag = 543.681kPag n.
 17

ndard
Ex. 1.11] A vertical column of water will be upported to what height by sta
atmospheric pressure in ft?

Given: Column of water supported by standard atmospheric pressure

Atm spher
p = 14.7 psi - - - S7

Required:
sphere
The height of the water supported by the standard atmo

Solution:

At standard atmospheric pressure, -y = 62.4

lb/ft3

ans.

Ex. 1.12] The pr ssur insid h boil r i .5 g/cm2 • The barometric pressure of the
atmospher is 7 8 m of Hg. Find he absol e pressure in the boiler.

Given: A boil r
pg= 9.5 g/cm2
P tm
= 768 mm Hg

R qui d:

e ·1e
h a pre
 >< K I THERMODYNAMICS 1

lull 11'
Req
p Pg
ur in id th b ii r, p
m
rth olut

olvin tn I m',
SOIL

)( ; ��----, )
o 1 1.
(7 mm

)
1
1. Nim ( -�- 1.04 k I m
p Im -( 1 0
/.
ans
Th r for , P 1.04 .)

E . .13 The door of j t lin r h dim n ion f 2.' m / 1.2 m. If the inside pres�ure Ex ..
of the cabin i 98 kPaa, wh t fore i x rt d on th door then the plane flies at a pre
altitude here the outside pressure is 15 kPaa?

Given: Jet liner door

2.3 m x 1.2 m

e
Pi= 98 kPaa P0 = 15 kPaa

Required:
So
The force exerted on the door

Solution:

For the force exerted by the door,

F = F; -F0 = (P; -p 0 ) A= (98 000 :2 -15000 :2 )<2.3m )(1.2) E>

As
F = 229 080 N = 229.08 kN , ans. in

Ex. 1.14] The piston of a pump is 7 .5 cm in diameter. If a force of 2000 N is applied to GJ

the piston, what is the pressure that is being developed at the face of the piston?

Given: Pump piston F = 2000

d= 7.5 cm
 1/

Required:

The pressure at the bottom, in psig

Solution:

Solving for the pressure,

1 ft
2
p = yh = ( 62.4 lbt /ft )(35 ft) ( -. J = 15.17 psig
3
ans.
12 in

Ex. 1.16] A vacuum gauge reads 1 O" Hg when the atmospheric pressure is 30" Hg.
Assuming the density of mercury to be 13595 kg m/m 3 , determine the absolute pressure
in kPaa.

Given: A vacuum gauge

Pg = 10" Hg P atm = 30" Hg

Required:

The absolute pressure, in kPaa

 0

oluti n:

f tt tut p ur , Ex. 1.1

qual t
254 mm { 1m forced
\
p (pg )11
k
t➔
) 1 } 1'000 m-J Given:

- 1 .8 1 .4 k an
eb a

. . 7] A pr , p l wh n h bar metAr · at a re re g
ur u indi , t
equi 1 alent to 14.5 p i. Comput th b lut pr ur in p i and ft of mArc, y if e
specific gravity of m rcury is 13.0.

Given: Pressure gauge Requi

§)�P = 25 psig
g

Pbaro = 14.5 psi

SG Hg = 13.0 o uti

Reqµired:

The absol.ute pressure in psia and ft of mercury

Solution:

Solving for the absolute pressure, in psia, Ex.1

0
dens
P abs = P baro + P g = 14.5 + 25 = 39.5 psia

For the absolute pressure, in Give

ft Hg,
2 2 f 2)
h = P abs == ( 39.5 lbf /in ) ( 144 in / t -
1b , l ft3 ) ?.01ftHg ans.
1 3 ( 6 2. 4
Y

Re
 Ex. 1.18] During take off in space, an 80-kg astrona t' Is
u subjected to an acceleration
equal to 5 times the pull of the earth's standard gravity. If the take off is vertical, what
force does he exert on the seat? (Problem By Burghardt)

Given: An astronaut

m = 80 kg

a = Sg

g = 9.8066 m/s 2

Required:

The force exerted by the astronaut on his seat

Solution:

For the force exerted on the seat, as shown in the figure above,

F = ma + mg = 5mg + mg = 6 mg

F � (6) (80 kg) (9.8066 m/s 2) = 4707.2 N ans.

Ex. 1.19] A hiker is carrying a barometer that measures 101.3 kPa at the base of the
mountain. The barometer reads 85 kPa at the top of the mountain. The average air
density is 1.21 kg/m3• Determine the height of the mountain. (Problem by Burghardt)

Given: A hiker
Pt = 85 kPa

p1 = 1.21 kg/m 3
untain

h=?

Required:

Th height of the moun ain

 22

Solution:

■ C n Id r th lumn fth tm rf

J
th mount hi, 8 kl
II

r
' ' I I I I

:;::::-,,,:
::;:-:, ' '

l
: : :{\:t,:: h '/
;::::::::::
,,,,,•,•,' .

. ·l r b 101. kJ'H

Solving for the height, h,

Pb=Pt + Ph =Pt + Pa9 h
p
h= b-Pt = 101300-85000=1373_67m
p 1.21(9.8066)

Ex. 1.20] Determine the pressure, in kPaa, at points A and B in th

density of mercury is 13590 kg/m 3 and that of water i 11000
Burghardt)

Given: Mercury Manometer shown

P w = 1000 kg/m 3

PHg = 13590 kg/m 3

Required:
I ,
The pressure at points A and B
I
\

Atmosphere

635 mm

Water
h, 510 mm
 23

Solution:

• C n Id r tt rt t t-t n I f th m n m t r, m rcury column,

IOI 325 p,

Solving for pr ur p ,
Pa =Patm +pHg =p tm +pHg9h 1 =101325 (13590)(9.8066){0.5 1)

Pe = 169 293.56 Paa = 169.3 kPaa ans.

• Consider the left_-hand leg of the manometer, water column,

Solving for pressure, PA,

Pe= P A + P w9h2 or PA= Pe -Pw9h2
PA = 169 293. 56 -1000 ( 9. 8066) (1. 145)
PA = 158065.003 Paa = 158.07 kPaa ans.

Ex. 1.21] As illustrated below, a mercury manometer is attached to the side of a nearly
full water tank. The reading of the mercury column is 15.5" Hg gauge. Although air on
the water maintains the pressure, the other 10-inch leg of the manometer is full of
water; for water, p = 62.3 lb/ft3; for Hg, p = 846 lb/ft3 . If the location is at standard gravity
and the temperature of both the water and mercury is 60 °F:
a) what Is the pressure (psia) In the tank at the level where the manometer is
attached?
b) If the tank extends 1 Oft below this level, what is the pressure at this depth?
(Problem by Faires)
 t
int .
int .
l
I0
t t

___.,.._-a·
olut,on:

a. De ermination of pressure at point B

Le , h 1 = 15.5 inches, h2 = 10 inches, and h 3 = 0
For the pressure at point A, consider the mercury J

P A= Patm + 'YHg h1 = 14.7 psi+ (846 lb/ft 3 •1ft J (15.5.

)( 12 inches es)

pA = 22.29 psia

• For the pressure at point B, consid er th e water col mn

manometer,

f
3

Pa = PA -yw h 2 = 22.29 psia -( 62.3 lb/ ft )( -� t · ) ( 10 inches

3
12 inches
P 6 = 21.93 psia an .

b. Determination of pressure at point C in the tank I

• Consid�r the column of water in the tank, from C to B,

1ft�
Pc =Pe +ywh 3 =21.93psia+(62.31b/ft 3 )(10ft) )
(
144m 2
.
Pc= 26.26 psia ans.
 25

Ex. 1.22] The composite piston, in the figure shown

below, has a total mass of 21 kg
and is supported by the pressure at point Ill by the flowing methane gas. If the pr.essure
at I is 600 kPaa and the pressure at II is 170 kPaa, determine the pressure at point Ill.
Local gravity is 9.8066 m/s2•

Given: The figure show n

mp = 21 kg
p1 = 600 kPaa
p11 = 170 kPaa Pipe
r

0=20
Required:

The pressure at 111

Solution:

• Consider t.he FBD of the piston,

Taking the [:EF =O]

=
P 1A 1 + P1 1A 1 1 +mpg
Pm

2
Where A I = 1t d 2 = 1t (0.10m) =0.00785m
2

4 4
2
A111 = 7t 0 2 = 1t (0.20m) = 0.031416m2
4 4
A 11 =A Ill -A I =0.031416-0.00785=0.023566m2
 tit ti

) 170 235 6 J + 21(9.8066)

I 111 0.
ans.
4 P a

ipe and i
,. J m-diam ter ,�rtical p
r, and the
1 w r nd .1 ,·mm r ed •in Nate
•
. t·I n 1
r v1t et ration 1s 9. 45 m /s 2 .

i t n t th 6.1-m marr;
em Y
w r n th un r id ., f the p1 tor.. (Probl

F
Giv n: Th figur t)own

T
D = 30 cm
m p = 50 kg Piston
h = 6.1 m
P atm = 100 kPa 6.1 m
g = 9.45 m/s 2

Required:

a. The force F
b. The pressure of water at the underside of the piston

Solution:

a. Solving for the force requir d to hold the piston at 6.1-m m rk, c nsider the
free-body-diagram of th piston and water column, .

Let F = force holding th piston F

W = weight of th pi ton
P
W w = w ight of th lumn of wat r
mp = mass of th pl ton
mw = mas of th lumn f water
A= cros ction I r f the pipe
I

'•
. . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. ..
�

"
•

I
•

11
t

•
•

t
•

'I
•
'
•
•

♦
•

' '-
•
 27

kin th ],

■Im WP ·Ww
F-W WW • p Ah
s
F=
( 0k 2) (1
I ( .4 ml
')r: yo., 2
mJ (6.1 m)
N 2

F= 47.1 N ans.

b. For th pr ur n th un f th pi t n, c n id r the FBD of pi ton

Let P = w t r pr ur on th pi ton und r id

Taking the [.I:F = O],

F+pA=p t A+W
. am
PatmA
p

WP+ Ww + pA =P atm A +W
· P
F
pA

. p =100000 - 1000 (9.45) (6.1) = 42355 Paa ans.

TEMPERATURE
• As defined by James Clerk Maxwell, The temperature of a body is the body's
thermal state considered with reference to its ability to communicate heat to other
bodies (Faires, 1978).
• Temperature is also defined as the measure of coldness and hotness of a body. It
is an intensive thermodynamic property used to indicate. the amount of ener gy
within the molecules of the substance.
• Two arbitrary scales are commonly used for measuring temperature, namely: the
Fahrenheit scale (after Gabriel Fahrenheit, 1686-1736), and the Celsius scale
(after Anders Celsius, 1701-1744).
• Fahrenheit scale is based on the freezing point of water as 0° F and the boiling
point of water as 212°F at 1 standard atmospheric pressure. This scale is used
for English system of measurement.
• Celsius scale is based on the freezing point of water as 0°C and the boiling point
of water as 100 ° C at 1 standard atmospheric pressure. This scale is used in the
Metric and SI systems of measurement.
 LESSE> ·BA

Required:

a)
b} T

Conv r ion of O
t °C Solution:

Eq. 1.12 L
tc (t, -3 .)
-
a. F
c n rsion of °C to 0

Eq.1.13

■ Absolute temperature in K

Eq. 1.14

■ Absolute temperature in R

Eq.1.15

Where tF = arbitrary temperature in °F b.

tc = arbitrary temperatwe in °C
TR = absolute temperature in R
TK = absolute temperature in K

Ex. 1.24] Fahrenheit and Celsius thermometers are both immersed in a fluid and indicate
identical numerical readings.
a) What is the temperature of the fluid expressed as R and K?
b) What is the fluid temperature if the Fahrenheit reading is numerically twice
that of Celsius reading? (Problem by Faires)

Given: A fluid with two thermometers shown

 R, qui

Th
lh I u, ,,, 1/1
t111 II I I I I/ I 'I It' I I It,, I
1uti
n: I I 1,

L t
1• u lln ,
'11 It , II lln I
a. For th flui
dt n I t111, It I
t1 • I I

Using Eq. 1.
12, t
( t, ),
9 Re "' 5 Re
- ( ),
4 1
:-4
Re == 160 ==
-40°C ::::
Therefore, the
fluid temp
erature Is
TK = -40 +
273 == 233K

TR =
-40 + 460::: 42 ans.
0R
b. For the fluid ans.
temperature
if RF == 2R .
e

Using Eq. 1.12, 5

le "' (tF -32),
g ➔ Re = g5 (RF -32) = 5 (2Rc
g - 32)
9Rc == 10Rc -160

-Re == -160, ➔ R
e == 160°C

Therefore, tC = 160° C
ans.
tF = RF = 2R = 2(16
C 0) = 320°F
ans.
 Ah >I 1t Z r

Uifi d:

Mak an e pression that converts 0 H to °C.

Solution:

a) For the conversion, using interpolation in the figure above,

tH -500 = tc -100 tH -500 = tc -100

➔
100-500 0-100 -400 -100

tH -500=4(t C -100)=4t c -100 ans.

b) For the absolute temperature in °H

By extrapolation, from the given figure, E

500- 100 100- 0 · 400 100 The I

=--- ➔ -----
500-A H 100 + 273 500-A H 373 , destr
For a
equat
4(373) = 500-A H

A H= 500-4(373) = -992 °H
a n s.