‫مكتبة قطر الندى‬

Chapter Two
The Metric Spaces
Definition:
Let be a non-empty set and is called the
distance function satisfy the following conditions:
a) d(x,y) ≥ 0 , for all x,y ϵ x
b) d(x,y) = 0 iff x=y
c) d(x,y) = d(y,x) for all x,y ϵ x
d) d(x,y) ≤ d(x,z) + d(z,y) (Triangle inequality) then (x,d) is
called metric space.
Example:
let d:RxR R defined by d(x,y) = |x-y| , for all x,y ϵ R show
that (R,d) is a metric space
Sol:
1) d(x,y) = x-y| > 0 , for all x,y ϵ R (By def. of absolutely value)
2) d(x,y) = 0
|x-y| = 0
x-y = 0
x=y
3) d(x,y) = | x-y |
= |- (y-x)|
= |-1| -|y-x|
= |y-x|
= d(y,x)
4) d(x,y) = |x-y|
= |x-z+z-y|
|x-z|+|z-y|
d(x,y) + d(z,y)

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(R,d) is a metric space

Lemma 2.1 : (Cauchy- Schwarz inequality)
For any real numbers a1, a2, …, an, b1, b2, …, bn we have

(a1 b1 +…+ an bn) √ √

Lemma 2.2 : Minkowski inequality
For any real numbers a1, a2, …, an, b1, b2, …, bn we have
√

√ √

Proof: (a1+b1)2 + (a2+b2)2 +… + (an+ bn)2 =

By Lemma 2.1

√ √

(√ √ )

√ √

Example :
Let d:RnxRn R defined by
d((x1,x2, …, xn), (y1,y2, … yn)) = √∑
where x= (x1, x2,…, xn) and y=(y1,y2,…, yn)

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sol:
1)

√∑

2)

√∑

(xi,yi)2 =0 ,
xi = yi ,
(x1,x2,…, xn) = (y1,y2,…, yn)
x=y
3) d(x,y) = √∑
= √∑
= d(y,x)
4) let x= (x1,…, xn), y= (y1,…, yn), z= (z1,…, zn)
d(x,y) = √∑
= √∑
√∑ √∑
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[By minkowski inequality]

is a metric space which is called n-dimensional

Euclidean space
Example:
Let d:R2xR2 R defined by d(x,y)= |x1-y1| + |x2-y2|
where x= (x1, x2) and y=(y1,y2)
Sol:
1) | | | |

2) d(x,y) = 0
| | | |
| | | |

x=y
3) d(x,y) =| | | |
=| | | |
= | || | | || |
=| | | |
= d(y,x)
4) let
| | | |
| | | |
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |

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Example:
Let X be a non-empty set defined d: X*X  R by
{

Sol:
1)
2)
3)
1 1 if
0 0 if
4)
1)

2) (H.W)

3)

4)

5)

Exc. :
Let [ ]
{ [ ] } [ ]
[ ]
∫ | | [ ]

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Exc. :
Let we define by {|
|| |}
Definition:
Let X be a non-empty set a mapping [ is called a
pseudo metric for X iff d satisfies the following axioms
1)
2) ‫االختالف فقط في هذه النقطة‬
3)
4)
Remark:
Every metric space is a pseudo metric, but the converse is not true
in general.
Example:
Let defined by | | is
pseudo metric on R. but is not a metric on R.
Sol:
1) | |
2) | |
3) | |
| |
| || |
| |

4) | |
| |
| | | |

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Now, show that d is not metric on R.

| |

Showing that does not always only for example

| | where Hence the function d
is not a metric on R.
Definition:
Let (x,d) be a metric space and Then the mapping on Y
defined by is called the metric
induced on Y and the metric space is called a subspace of
(x,d).
Example:
Let (R,d) be a metric space where defined by
| |
Let
| |
Then (Q,P) is a subspace of (R,d).
Sol: (Exc.)
Definition:
Let (x,d) be a metric space and let
{ }

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Is called a ball of radius r and center

(Neighborhood of with radius r)
{ } is called disk with radius r and
center
Example:
Let (R,d) be a metric space where | |
{ }
{ | | }
}

𝑥 𝑟 𝑥 𝑥 𝑟

{ }
{ | | }
{ }
[ ]
𝑥 𝑟 𝑥 𝑥 𝑟

Example:
Let be a metric space where s.t. d is a
usual distance
{ }

{ √ }
{ }
{ }

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{ √
{
Example:
Let be a metric space where s.t. d is a
usual distance on
{ }
{
√
{ }
Where

Example:
Let be a metric space where defined by
| | | | where
{ | | | | }
{ | | | | }
If
If
If
If
Define:
Let (x,d) be a metric space and an element is called
interial point if and all interial points of A
denoted by
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Ex. : let be a metric space where [ ]

Find
Sol:

Definition:
Let (x,d) be a metric space and A is called an open set if
there exists such that .
i.e. A is open set iff
Ex. : let (R,d) be a metric space, which of the following sets is
open:
Theorem 2.1:
Every ball (neighborhood) is an open set proof:
{ }
Let take
T.P.
Let

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Hence every point of

Remark: every open interval in R is an open set

Ex. : ore open sets.
Sol: | |
s.t.

Ex. : is [

Sol: for all

but for all ball [

Ex. :
{ }
Is H open set in
Sol : for all ( )
but if and
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Exc.: show that { } is open subset of

Ex.: the set of rational is not open set since any interval in Q with
center doesn't contain rationales only (by the density of
irrational)
Theorem 2.2: For any collection { } of open sets then

Proof: let

Since

Theorem 2-3:
The intersection of a finite number of open set is open.
Proof: let be a set of finite number of open set.
T.P. ⋂
Let ⋂

Take { }

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Remark: the intersection of infinite number of open set needn't be

open, as the following example show:
Ex. : let be a metric space

( )

⋂ { }

By Arch. Property.

If

( )

By arch. Property.

If

( )

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{ } is not open since

{ }
Proposition 2.4: let (x,d) be a metric space and then A is
open iff A is a union of balls.
Proof:

⋃ [ ]

Def. : Two metrics d and on the some set X are said to be

equivalent, if every open set in is open in
Ex. : let be a metric space and P be a function on
defined by { }
Sol:
1)
{ }

2)
{ }

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3) { }
{ }

4) Let If at least one of say

Then { }

Also in case
{ }
{ }

Now to show that P is equivalent to d.

T.P. every open set in (X,P) is open in (x,d)
Let G be any open subset of X in (X,P)
Let
{ }

{ } { }

Hence every open set in (X,P) is open set in (x,d)

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Next, let H be an open set in (x,d)

}
Let { }
{ } { }

Hence d and P are equivalent metrics.

Ex. : Let (x,d) be a metric space, and let

Show that is a metric on X equivalent to d.

Sol. : First to show is a metric on X
1)
2)

3)

4) For all

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Exc. : now, to show d and are equivalent.

Let
Be ball where
T.P.
Let

Next, let

We take

Let

T.P.

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Let

Definition: Let be a metric space, a point is said to

be a limit point of a set , if every ball (nbd.) of contains a
point of .
i.e. is a limit point of if then [ { }]
Definition: The set of all points of a set is known as the
derived set and is denoted by .
Example: let be a metric space and
Solution:
{𝑃}

[ { }]

[ { }]

[ { }]

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𝑃
 ‫مكتبة قطر الندى‬

[ { }]
If
[ { }]
If
[ { }]
𝑃
[ ]
Example: let be a metric space and [ ]
Solution:
[ ] {𝑃}

[ { }] [ ]

[ { }] [ ]

[ { }] [ ]
{𝑃} {𝑃}

[ { }]
[ ]
Example: let be a metric space and
Solution:

[ { }]

[ { }]

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Example: let be a metric space and

Solution:

[ { }]

[ { }]

[ { }]

[ { }]

Exercise: let be a metric space find the derived set of

{ } { } [

Definition: A subset of a metric space is said to be closed

if contains all of its limit points.
i.e. is closed iff .
Example: let be a metric space and
[ ] and
is not closed.
Example: let be a metric space and [ ]
[ ] and
[ ] is closed.

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Example: let be a metric space and

{ }
Solution:
{ } (check)

is closed
Example: let be a metric space and
{ }
{ }

is not closed
Theorem 2.5: In a metric space a set is closed if and only if its
complement is open.
Proof: Suppose that is closed set
T.P. is open
Let
is closed
is not a limit point of

is open
Suppose that is open
T.P. is closed
Let be a limit point of
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s.t.

is open

is closed
Theorem 2.6: for any collection { } of closed sets, then ⋂
is closed.
Proof: let { } is closed
T.P. ⋂ is closed

(⋂ ) ⋃

is open set, [Theorem 2.5]

By theorem 2.2 we get
⋃ is open
Hence ⋂ is closed [Theorem 2.5]
Theorem 2.7: for any finite collection of closed sets
then ⋃ is closed.
Proof: suppose that are closed sets T.P. ⋃ is
closed.
Since ⋃ ⋂
is open set [Theorem 2.5]

By theorem 2.3 we get

⋂ is open

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Hence ⋃ is closed.

Definition: In a metric space the closure of a set is

denoted by ̅ or which is defined by
̅
Example: let be a metric space, let .
Then ̅ [ ] [ ]
̅

Theorem 2.8: if is a metric space and then:

a) ̅ is closed,
b) ̅ iff is closed,
c) ̅ for every closed set such that .
Proof:
a) If and ̅
and
̅ is open
̅ is closed [Theorem 2.5]
b) Suppose that ̅
By (a) we get is closed
Suppose that is closed

̅
c) Suppose that and is closed
T.P. ̅
is closed
and

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̅
Definition: Let be a metric space and is called dense
in if ̅ .
Example: is a metric space, then is dense in
since ̅ .
Example: : is a metric space,
̅
is not dense in .
Definition: A metric space is called separable if it contains
a countable dense subset.
Example: is a metric space which is separable since is
dense subset of and it’s countable.
Definition: let be a metric space and is called
bounded set of there is a real number and such that
, for all .
Example: is a metric space and { }

is bounded.
Example: A metric space , and

is bounded.
Definition: Let be a metric space. An open cover of a set
is a collection { } of open sets of such that .
Definition: A subset of a metric space is called compact if every
open cover of contains a finite subcover.
i.e. s.t. ⋃ .

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Example: Every finite set of a metric space is compact.

Solution: Let be a metric space and where:
{ }
Let { } be an open cover of

Let
{ } ⋃
is compact.
Example: Is the usual metric space compact?
Solution: Let { }

But there exist no finite subcover s.t.

is not compact.
Example: In the usual metric space , let
{ } is a compact subset of .
Solution: Let { } be an open cover of .
i.e. ⋃
s.t.
s.t. [Archimedean property]

Hence contains all elements of except

Suppose that .
⋃
is compact subset of .
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Example: in a usual metric space is not compact.

Solution: , let ( )
⋃ ( )
s.t. [Arch. Prop.]
claim { } has no finite subcovering
𝑟
for 𝑘

if there exists a finite subcovering from { } for

Then ⋃
( ) ( )

( )

( ) C!
𝑚

s.t.
, but ( )
is not compact.
Exercise: is not compact.
Theorem 2.9: closed subset of compact metric space is
compact.
Proof: Let be closed.
Let { } be an open covering for
i.e. ⋃
is closed is open
⋃

s.t. ⋃
⋃
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is compact.
Theorem 2.10: Every compact subset of a metric space is closed.
Proof: Let be a compact subset of a metric space
T.P. is open
Let
T.P. is an interior point of
two balls with radius ,
s.t. and
⋃{ } ⋃

is compact
s.t.
⋃

is open
is closed
Corollary: If is closed and is compact subset of a metric space
, then is compact.
Proof: is closed and is compact.
By theorem 2.10 is closed
is closed [Theorem 2.6]
is compact [Theorem 2.9]
Theorem 2.11: Let be a compact metric space and let be
an infinite subset of , then has a limit point.
Proof: Suppose the result is not true

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i.e. has no limit point

is closed
is open [Theorem 2.5]
has no limit points
open set s.t.
{ } [ { }]
⋃
⏟ ⋃

⋃
{{ } } is an open covering for
is compact
s.t.
⋃
(⋃ )
( ) ( ) ( )
{ } { } { }
{ }
Since is an infinite set.
has a limit point.
Theorem 2.12: Let be a metric space and let be a compact
subset of , then is bounded.
Proof: Let
Let { }
is open set
such that

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{ } is an open covering for .

is compact
are all balls
s.t. ⋃ [ ]

is bounded.
Proposition 2.13: Let be a metric space, if then
is compact.
Theorem 2.13: (Bolzano-Weierstrass)
Let be a metric space, then every bounded infinite subset
of has a limit point.
Proof: Let and
is bounded infinite
is compact [Theorem 2.13]

has limit point [Theorem2.11]

Theorem 2.15: (Heine-Borel)
Every bounded closed set is compact.
Proof: Let be bounded closed set and be an open cover of
Then by theorem 2.15, countable subcover cover of we
have
{ }
Let
In general ⋃
Then are open sets
Let
In general
Where is bounded and closed,

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Then we get

{ } be a collection of bounded closed sets

Suppose that
⋂
Let ⋂

and
and
is not cover of C!
s.t.

⋃ where
is compact.

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