CONVERSION OF ELECTRIC FIRED MUFFLE FURNACE TO

GAS FIRED MUFFLE FURNACE

BY

OJADI CHIJIOKE MICHAEL

M.19/HND/P&P/10973

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

PETROLEUM TRAINING INSTITUTE
EFFURUN, DELTA STATE, NIGERIA

JANUARY, 2022

1
CONVERSION OF ELECTRIC FIRED MUFFLE FURNACE TO
GAS FIRED MUFFLE FURNACE

A PROJECT REPORT

SUBMITTED BY

OJADI CHIJIOKE MICHAEL

M.19/HND/P&P/10973

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE

AWARD OF HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA

IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

AT

PETROLEUM TRAINING INSTITUTE

EFFURUN, DELTA STATE, NIGERIA

JANUARY, 2022

i
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this project work was carried out by OJADI CHIJIOKE
MICHAEL in the Department Mechanical Engineering, Petroleum Training
Institute, Effurun, Delta State.

______________________ ____________________
Engr. Dr. A. O. Jewo Date
(Project Supervisor)

_________________________ ____________________
Engr. S. N. Ozonuwe Date
(Head of Department)

ii
 DEDICATION
I dedicate this project to God Almighty my creator, my strong pillar, my
source of inspiration, wisdom, knowledge and understanding. He has been
the source of my strength throughout this program and on His wings only
have I soared.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special thanks to God Almighty for the successful completion of this project
work.

Special thanks to our project supervisor Engr. Dr. A. O. Jewo for his
enormous contributions and concern towards this project work success.

I acknowledge all my lecturers that taught me throughout my course of

study at Petroleum Training Institute.

Finally, to God all the glory and honour, the giver of wisdom, knowledge and
understanding for leading me throughout my HND program

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Pages
Title - - - - - - - - - - i
Certification - - - - - - - - - ii
Dedication - - - - - - - - - - iii
Acknowledgement - - - - - - - - iv
List of Tables - - - - - - - - - vii
List of Figures - - - - - - - - - viii
Abstract - - - - - - - - - - x

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY - - - - - - - 1

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES -- - - - - - 3

1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM - - - - - - 3

1.4 RELEVANCE AND SIGNIFICANCE - - - - 3

1.5 SCOPE AND L I M I T A T I O N - - - - - - - 4

1.6 METHODOLOGY - - - - - - - - 4
CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND- - - - - - - 5

2.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF HEAT TREATMENT- - - - - 6

2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF FURNACE AND TYPES- - - - 9

2.4 HEAT TREATMENT FURNACE - - - - - - 10

2.5 TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT FURNACES - - - - 11

v
2.5.1 Pit Furnace - - - - - - - - - 11

2.5.2Salt Bath Furnace: - - - - - - - - 11

2.5.3 Box Furnace - - - - - - - - - 12

2.5.4 Muffle Furnace - - - - - - - - 13

2.5.5 Car-Bottom Furnace - - - - - - - 14

2.5.7 Continuous Pusher Type - - - - - - - 15

2.5.8 Continuous Steel Reheating Furnaces - - - - - 15

2.5.9 Furnace Feature -- - - - - - - - 15

2.5.9 Types of Continuous Reheating Furnace - - - - - 16

2.5.9.1 Pusher Type Furnaces - - - - - - - 16

2.5.9.2 Walking Hearth Furnaces - - - - - - 17

2.5.9.3 Rotary Hearth Furnace - - - - - - 18

2.5.9.4 Continuous Recirculating Bogie Type Furnaces - - - 19

2.5.9.5 Walking Beam Furnaces - - - - - - - 20

2.6 Melting Furnace - - - - - - - - 20

2.6.1 Non-Metallurgical Furnace - - - - - - 21

2.3.2 Metallurgical Furnace - - - - - - 21

2.8 ENERGY SOURCES FOR FIRING FURNACE - - - 20
2.8.1 Types of Fuel - - - - - - - - - 20

2.8.1.1 Solid Fuel - - - - - - - - - 30

2.8.1.1.2 Types of Coal- - - - - - - - 31

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2.8.1.1.2.1 Peat - - - - - - - - - 31

2.8.1.1.2 Lignite - - - - - - - - - 31

2.8.1.1.3 Liquid Fuel - - - - - - - - 32

2.8.1.1.3.1 Petroleum -- - - - - - - - 32

2.8.1.1.3.2 Kerosene - - - - - - - - 32

2.8.1.1.3.3 Biodiesel - - - - - - - - - 33

2.8.1.1.3.4 Gaseous Fuel- - - - - - - - 33

2.9 LAGGING MATERIAL - - - - - - - 36

2.10 RELATED MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE- - - - - 37

2.11 REFRACTORIES - - - - - - - - 42
2.12 HEAT LOSSES AND FURNACE LAGGING. - - - - 46

2.13 INSULATION MATERIALS - - - - - - - 48

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 MATERIALS - - - - - - - - 52

3.2 METHODS - - - - - - - - 53

3.3 DESIGN CALCULATIONS - - - - - - - 58

3.4 Construction Procedure of the Gas Burners - - - - 74

3.5 Design of Temperature Control Unit- - - - - 77

3.6 Measurement Data Sheet (MDS)- - - - - - 78

3.7 Voltage and Temperature - - - - - - - 83

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 CHAPTER FOUR

TEST AND RESULTS

4.1 TEST ON THE FURNACE - - - - - - - 85

4.2 TEST ON TEMPERATURE CONTROL UNIT - - - - 88

4.3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION - - - - - - - 90

4.4 SAFETY PRECAUTION FOR THE FURNACE - - - - 92

4.5 BILL OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT EVALUATION (BEME)- 96

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION - - - - - - - - 100

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS - - - - - - - 100

REFERENCES - - - - - - - - 100

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Fusion Point of Some Metal Oxides or Refractory Material 39

3.1 Conditions of Furnace Components/Units - - - - 50

3.2 Furnace Specifications - - - - - - - 51
3.3 Furnace Design Considerations - - - - - 52
3.4 Adiabatic Flame Temperature - - - - - 56
3.5 Factor of Safety - - - - - - - - 59
3.6 Thermal Conductivity - - - - - - - 64
3.7 Material Selection - - - - - - - 68
3.8 Material Requirement and Selection - - - - 73
3.9 Shows the Voltage and Temperature Readings - - - 78
4.1 Table Results on Temperature Against Time - - - 85
4.2 Results Temperature Against Time from Interpolation - - 90
4.3 Bill of Engineering Materials - - - - - - 93

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 LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 Classification of Furnace - - - - - - 7

2.2 Salt Bath Furnace - - - - - - - - 9

2.3 Box Type Furnace - - - - - - -

10

2.4 Walking Hearth Type Furnace - - - - - 14

2.5 Rotary Hearth Type Furnace - - - - - - 15

2.6 Continuous Circulating Bogie Type Furnace - - - 16

2.7 Fusion Point of Some Metal Oxides or Refractory Material 18

2.8 Open Hearth Furnace - - - - - - - 19

2.9 Bessemer Furnace - - - - - - - 20

2.10 Cupola Furnace - - - - - - - 20

2.11 Crucible Furnace - - - - - - - 21

3.1 State of the furnace before rehabilitation - - - - 50

3.2 Gas Flow Analysis - - - - - - - 60

3.3 Steel Pipes - - - - - - - - - 69

3.4 Cut steel pipe - - - - - - - - 69

3.5 T-joint steel pipe - - - - - - - - 70

3.6 PCB Circuit Diagram 73

3.7 Flow Diagram of Electrical/Control - - - - - 74

3.8 PCB CAD Model - - - - - - - - 74

3.9 Control Box Under Fabrication - - - - - 75

3.10 3D CAD Image of Completed Control Box - - - 75

3.11 Graphical Representation Depicting the Relationship of Voltage and

Temperature - - - - - - - - 79

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4.1 3D Model of Heat-Treatment Muffle Furnace with Door Open 81

4.2 Circuit Diagram of the Amplifier - - - - - 84

4.3 A Graph of temperature (0C) Against Time (S) - - - 86

4.4 Orthographic View of Gas Muffle Furnace - - - 89

4.5 Exploded View of Gas Muffle Furnace - - - - 90

4.6 Isometric View of Gas Muffle Furnace - - - - 91

4.7 Modeled View of Gas Muffle Furnace - - - - 92

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 ABSTRACT
This report presents the conversion of electrical – powered muffle furnace to
gas – fired muffle furnace. The project was carried out to restore the heat
treatment furnace in Mechanical Engineering Department Foundry Shop to
its functional state. The choice for an alternative power source (gas) is due
to the irreparable condition of the heating element and also the epileptic
nature of power supply in the country. The faulty parts of the furnace were
identified as the heating system and control unit. In designing the gas
heating system, major analysis such as flow, combustion and heat loss
analysis were carried out. Similarly, the control unit was designed,
constructed and calibrated to meet the design specification. The
performance of the converted furnace was carried out by testing for its
functionality and operation. The test results showed that the different units
of the furnace are functioning properly, while the operational test showed
that the furnace could attain a maximum temperature of 600 0c. This drop in
designed temperature could be attributed to insufficient gas supply due to
the size of burners and non-availability of an air blower. It is believed that
the furnace would perform optimally if these short comings are taken care of
in further work.

xii
xiii
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

The modification of micro-structures of metals to achieve desired

properties is a fundamental approach in metallic material
development. Heat-treatment which is one of the primary routes of
developing microstructures requires furnaces to be able to attain the
desired temperature, heating and cooling rates; and holding
environment to induce such phase transformations. Heat-treatment
furnaces with effective temperature sensing element, heat retaining
capacity and controlled environment are necessary for heat-treatment
operation to be successfully performed. Some of the processes require
heating cycles for durations spanning a few minutes to several hours
depending on the material and the properties required.

Muffle furnace is a type of furnace with a jacketed enclosure that is

used to heat a material to a significantly high temperatures while
keeping it contained and fully isolated from external contaminants,
chemicals or substances. Muffle furnaces were designed to combat the
associated outcomes of heating via combustion. Such outcomes
include a variety of unwanted byproducts such as ash, soot and gas
fumes. The generation of these byproducts often present as impurities
to the material being heated. As such, it became vital to develop a
housing medium to take care of the external contaminants.

The defining characteristic of a muffle furnace is that it separates the

object to be heated from all by products of combustion from the heat
source. With modern electrical furnaces, this means heat is applied to
a chamber through induction or convection by a high-temperature
heating coil inside an insulated material. The insulating material
1
effectively acts as a muffle, preventing heat from escaping. A well-built
muffle furnace can reach extremely high temperatures with a high
degree of uniformity and accuracy, while preserving the purity of the
chamber environment.

What is the difference between a Muffle Furnace and a Retort Furnace?

The difference is largely historical and semantic. A retort is simply the
airtight vessel that the material to be processed is placed in. The term
comes from the chemical industry. A Muffle furnace refers to the
insulation and separation of the heating elements from the contents of
the retort. “Muffle Furnace” is terminology that came from the furnace
manufacturers, but they both describe exactly the same type of
furnace. 

The term ”muffle furnace” is still in use today, however, it is not the
same thing that was used in the early 20th century often referred to as
”Retort Furnace”.

The defining characteristic of muffle furnace in modern technology is

that it separates the object to be heated from the by-products of
combustion from the heat source. With modern electrical furnaces, this
means that heat is supplied to a chamber through induction or
convention by a high-temperature heating coil inside an insulated
material effectively acts as a muffle, preventing heat from escaping. A
well-built muffle furnace can reach extremely high temperatures with a
high degree of uniformity and accuracy, while preserving the purity of
the chamber environment.

The areas of application of muffle furnace in modern times cannot be

over emphasized. It has found use in many areas and industries such

2
 as plastic industry, molding industry, glass industry, rubber industry,
ceramics industry, biomedical industries, paint industry, textile
industry, metallurgical industries and so on. For instance, in
manufacturing industries, several tasks are performed that require
high-temperature to determine the properties of the raw material to
produce a high-quality product. These tasks include melting of glass at
the time of recycling, below molding of glass to make the different
shape of products and much more. To attain such type of
temperatures easily, several muffle furnaces have been introduced.
Additionally, these are also used to make the glass stronger and better
by bending them. The temperature which is required making glass
products tough is about 700 to 900 degree Celsius. This help to make
the glass product tough, and this temperature can be achieved using
muffle furnaces.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of the project is to convert electric-fired muffled furnace to a
gas-fired muffle furnace. The specific objectives of the project are to;
(i) Design the heating system (combustion unit).
(ii) Redesign the control unit.
(iii) Fabricate the components of the heating system and control unit.
(iv) Assemble the fabricated components.
(v) Test and evaluate the performance of the furnace.

1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Over the years, it has been observed that the electric-fired muffle
furnace in mechanical engineering department foundry workshop has
not been functional, owing to some of its components/units been
faulty. However, it was observed that the heating element was
completely bad and therefore required replacement. Although,

3
 purchasing a new one will be difficult. Therefore, an alternative energy
source such as gas firing or gas energy source is selected due to its
availability. This project work would identify these faulty
components/units and carry out repairs or redesign as may be
required.

1.4 RELEVANCE AND SIGNIFICANCE

The project demonstrates practically, the conversion of electric-fired
muffle furnace to gas-fired muffle furnace. The successful completion
of this furnace will serve commercial purpose as well as training of
students in the various institutions across the country.

1.5 SCOPE AND L I M I T A T I O N

This project is mainly designed for the purpose of heat treatment of

metals using gas as a source of energy for combustion. However, the
non-availability of a pump to increase air pressure thereby increasing
the furnace heating was a challenge.

1.6 METHODOLOGY
The methodological approach to this project work are as follows;

i. Reviewing of related work

ii. Consultation with project supervisor

iii. Design analysis for critical components

iv. Development of working drawings and assembling drawings

v. Fabrication of components

vi. Components/units assembly

4
vii. Testing and performance evaluation of the furnace

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Human survival has always been dependent on staying warm during

the the coldest times of the year. For most of human history, our
ancestors stayed warm through open fire or wood-burning fireplaces.
Just a short distance away from these fires, you could get cold again,
very quickly.

A furnace is device that produces heat. Not only are furnaces used in
the homes for warmth, they are also used in industry for a variety of
purposes such as making steel and heat-treating of materials to
change their molecular structures. Central heating with a furnace is an
idea that is centuries old. One of the earliest forms of this idea was
invented by the Romans and called a hypocaust. It was a form of
under-floor heating using fire in one corner of the basement with the
exhaust vented through flues in the walls to chimneys. This form of
heating could only be used in stone or bricks home. It was also very
dangerous because of the possibility of fire and suffocation. But the
modern heat radiator was invented around 1855 by Fanz San Galli, a
polish-born Russian businessman living in St.Petersburg Russia. In

5
 1885, Dave Lennox helped advance home heating with low-cost coal-
burning cast iron radiators. Using the natural convection, these
radiators used the natural laws of rising heat to aid in heat distribution
in a house. Usually installed in the basement, radiators allowed home
owners a better chance at keeping more of the home warm above
other forms of heaters.

Furnaces generate heat by burning fuel, but early furnaces burned

wood. In the seventeenth century, coal began to replace wood as
primary furnace fuel. Coal was used until the early 1940s when gas
became the primary fuel. In the 1970s, electric furnace started to
replace gas furnaces because of the energy crisis. Today, the gas
furnace is still the most popular form of home heating equipment.

Wood and coal furnaces required constant feeding to maintain the

warmth in the home. From early morning to late at night, usually three
to five times a day, fuel needed to be put in the furnace. In addition,
the waste from the ashes emanating from the burnt wood or coal must
be removed and disposed.

2.2 BRIEF HISTORY OF HEAT TREATMENT

Humans have been heat treating metal for thousands of years. As soon
as the practice of metallurgy was discovered, it set off a significant
period of technological advancement. Heat treating remains an
extremely important process of metalworking to this day, and it’s always
worth taking a look back at the history of metallurgy just to get a sense
of how far we’ve come through the millennia.

Most archaeologists believe the earliest metal that humans used was
gold. There have been small amounts of natural gold found in caves
6
used in Spain during the Paleolithic period dating back to around 40,000
B.C. Silver, copper, meteoric iron and tin have also been found in their
natural form, indicating there may have been a limited amount of
metalworking going on in some of the very earliest human civilizations.

It wasn’t until around 6,000 B.C., though, that metallurgy really began to
evolve in human civilizations. At that point, humans discovered the
process known as smelting, which involves recovering metals from their
ores by heating the rocks up in a fire or blast furnace. Evidence of early
smelting was discovered at archaeological dig sites in Yarmovac, Plocnik
and Majdanpek, in what today exists as Serbia. This includes some of the
very earliest evidence of copper smelting. Archaeologists discovered a
copper axe produced at the site in around 5,500 B.C.

Copper smelting also occurred in present-day Iraq around that same

time period, where researchers have also found the earliest uses of lead.

By the third millennium B.C., metals were beginning to be used more

widely. Metal objects have been discovered at archaeological sites in Los
Millares (Spain), Palmela (Portugal) and Stonehenge (United Kingdom).

Metalworking changed forever when humans discovered how to extract

iron from its ore, a much more difficult process than smelting copper or
tin. Metalworking became absolutely crucial in ancient and medieval
kingdoms in ancient Iran, ancient Egypt, Anatolia, Carthage, the Greek
and Roman civilizations, ancient and medieval China, ancient and
medieval India, medieval Europe, ancient and medieval Japan and many

7
more. The process of iron working and extraction was discovered
presumably by the Hittites around 1,200 B.C., which archaeologists mark
as the beginning of the Iron Age.

Iron working allowed for more significant advancements in tools,

weaponry, building and mechanics, and accelerated the rate at which
the field of metalworking advanced. Civilizations that were able to make
significant use of iron were in a much better position to survive, spread
and thrive.

Obviously, today’s metalworking processes are significantly more

advanced than those of thousands of years ago, but the general
processes involved with metalworking remain the same—separating
metal from its ores, heating it up to a certain point to be able to work
the metal itself and then immediately cooling it afterward as rapidly as
possible.

Today, technology advancement has impacted the idea of heat

treatment as well as the design and types of furnaces applied both in
steel and metallurgical industries. In modern time, heat treating
furnaces are essentially heating chambers, that is, a refractory vessel
which holds the steel stock as well as the heat. The furnace chamber is
heated with some source of heat. The supply of the heat has to be
regulated depending on the requirement. More heat is needed during
the heating period, but almost a constant heat is required when the
furnace has attained the required temperature and is to be maintained
at that temperature.

8
 The heat has to be supplied to the whole of the properly designed
furnace in a way that the temperature is constant everywhere, or at
the places where the charge is being kept, otherwise some parts may
get underheated, or overheated. The doors, or openings of the furnace
are kept as small sized as possible to reduce the heat losses.
Tempering and low temperature furnaces may require provisions for
forced air or atmosphere circulation. The carburized parts may be
quenched inside the furnace itself.

The heat treatment furnaces play a very important role in imparting

reproducible useful properties to the steel components. The design of
the furnace is determined by the stock which is to be treated and the
particular treatment which is to be carried out at the special
temperature. When parts are required to be treated at different
temperatures, several furnaces may be required as a furnace which
may be suitable for use at 1300C, may be unstable for use at 300C,
although the latter temperature is within its maximum temperature
range. This is because heat transfer below 700C and particularly at
300C or so occurs mainly by conduction and convection. Radiation
plays a relatively unimportant part. Thus, the box-type furnace is
unsuitable. Forced-air -radiation furnaces are needed. Thus, a
hardening furnace cannot be used for tempering purposes.

Modern furnaces designs have progressed to such a state that there is

a special furnace for each range of temperature. There is no furnace
which will efficiently carry out all the heat treatments.

2.3 CLASSIFICATION OF FURNACE AND TYPES

Based on the method of generating heat, furnaces are broadly

classified into two types namely combustion type (using fuels) and
electric type. In the case of combustion type furnace, it can be broadly

9
classified as oil fired, coal fired or gas fired. Based on the mode of
charging of material furnaces can be classified as (i) Intermittent or
Batch type furnace or Periodical furnace and (ii) Continuous furnace.
Based on mode of waste heat recovery as recuperative and
regenerative furnaces. Another type of furnace classification is made
based on mode of heat transfer, mode of charging and mode of heat
recovery as shown in Figure 2.1 below

Figure 2.1. Classification of Funance

10
2.4 HEAT TREATMENT FURNACE

Heat treatment furnaces may be seen as a refractory-lined chamber in

which the metal part is heated to the required temperatures. Usually a
heat treatment furnace consists of a box-like structure with a steel
shell and an access door, a refractory lining and temperature controls
and indicators.

2.5 TYPES OF HEAT TREATMENT FURNACES

2.5.1 Pit Furnace: This is a type of furnace used for metallurgical processes
which require low temperatures; mostly used to harden alloys like
steel and evenly heat them. Pit furnaces are used to treat large metal
objects with heat. Pit furnace Manufacturers design Pit Furnaces to
have a detachable movable roof which may or may not expand. They
can also be round rectangular or

2.5.2 Salt Bath Furnace: This is basically a ceramic or metal container

filled with molten salt into which work is immersed for either heating
or cooling. The furnace contains salt such as nitrates, nitrites, caustic
soda, chlorides, carbonates, and cyanide. Mixtures of salt are selected
to give a specific temperature range and a desired treatment (or lack
of treatment) to the surface of the material being processed. When we
want to change the physical properties of something without changing
the surface of it, we use neutral salts such as chlorides and nitrates.
We can change the surface conditions of a part by placing it in a salt
bath furnace having ingredients that react chemically with the surface
as in carburizing, cyaniding, nitriding, and aluminizing.

11
 Fig. 2.2 Salt Bath Furnace

2.5.3 Box Furnace

This features a vertical lift or swing out door allowing the various sized
product(s) to be placed in the furnace. Box Furnaces are utilized for
heat-treating, calcining, curing, annealing, stress relieving, preheating,
tempering, and other high temperature thermal processes. Multiple
zone heating technology can be integrated to maintain exceptional
part temperature uniformity, and achieve ramp/soak heating and
cooling profiles.

12
 Fig. 2.3 Box Type Furnace

2.5.4 Muffle Furnace

This refers to a type of jacketed enclosure that is used to heat a

material to significantly high temperatures while keeping it contained
and fully isolated from external contaminants, chemicals or
substances. Muffle furnaces are usually lined with stainless steel,
making them largely corrosion resistant. Muffle furnaces were
designed to combat the associated outcomes of heating via
combustion. Such outcomes include a variety of unwanted byproducts
such as ash, soot and gas fumes. The generation of these byproducts
often present as impurities to the material being heated. As such, it

13
 became vital to develop a housing medium to combat this. Muffle
furnaces are capable of reaching and holding temperatures as high as
1800°C (3270°F). They are used in a variety of applications, including
lab materials to conduct experiments, brazing and soldering.

2.5.5 Car-Bottom Furnace

This is an industrial furnace in which the products are transferred from

the charging hole to the discharging hole on a conveyor during the
heating process. Such furnaces are used for heating metal products
before pressure shaping and during heat treatment, as well as for
drying foundry molds. Car-bottom furnaces are classified according to
design as furnaces with conveyors below, on, or above the hearth.
Car-bottom furnaces are heated by gas, liquid fuel, and electrical
resistance heaters.

2.5.6 Batch Type

A box type furnace is employed for batch type rerolling mill. The
furnace is basically used for heating up scrap, small ingots and billets
weighing 2 to 20 kg. for rerolling. The charging and discharging of the
‘material’ is done manually and the final product is in the form of rods,
strips etc. The operating temperature is about 1200oC. The total cycle
time can be further categorized into heat-up time and rerolling time.
During heat-up time the material gets heated up to the required
temperature and is removed manually for rerolling. The average
output from these furnaces varies from 10 to 15 tonnes / day and the
specific fuel consumption varies from 180 to 280 kg of coal / tonne of
heated material.

2.5.7 Continuous Pusher Type

14
 The process flow and operating cycles of a continuous pusher type is
the same as that of the batch furnace. The operating temperature is
about 1250oC. Generally, these furnaces operate 8 to 10 hours with
an output of 20 to 25 tonnes per day. The material or stock recovers a
part of the heat in flue gases as it moves down the length of the
furnace. Heat absorption by the material in the furnace is slow, steady
and uniform throughout the cross-section compared with batch type.

2.5.8 Continuous Steel Reheating Furnaces

The main function of a reheating furnace is to raise the temperature of

a piece of steel, typically to between 900°C and 1250oC, until it is
plastic enough to be pressed or rolled to the desired section, size or
shape, The furnace must also meet specific requirements and
objectives in terms of stock heating rates for metallurgical and
productivity reasons. In continuous reheating, the steel stock forms a
continuous flow of material and is heated to the desired temperature
as it travels through the furnace.

2.5.9 Furnace Feature

A refractory chamber constructed of insulating materials for retaining

heat at the high operating temperatures. A hearth to support or carry
the steel. This can consist of refractory materials or an arrangement of
metallic supports that may be water-cooled. Burners that use liquid or
gaseous fuels to raise and maintain the temperature in the chamber.
Coal or electricity can be used for reheating. A method of removing the
combustion exhaust gases from the chamber A method of introducing
and removing the steel from the chamber. These facilities depend on
the size and type of furnace, the shape and size of the steel being
processed, and the general layout of the rolling mill. Common systems

15
 include roller tables, conveyors, charging machines and furnace
pushers.

2.5.9 Types of Continuous Reheating Furnace

Continuous reheating furnaces are primarily categorized by the

method by which stock is transported through the furnace. There are
two basic methods: Stock is butted together to form a stream of
material that is pushed through the furnace. Such furnaces are called
pusher type furnaces. Stock is placed on a moving hearth or
supporting structure which transports the steel through the furnace.
Such types include walking beam, walking hearth, rotary hearth and
continuous re-circulating bogie furnaces. The major consideration with
respect to furnace energy use is that the inlet and outlet apertures
should be minimal in size and designed to avoid air infiltration.

2.5.9.1 Pusher Type Furnaces

The pusher type furnace is popular in steel industry. It has relatively

low installation and maintenance costs compared to moving hearth
furnaces. The furnace may have a solid hearth, but it is also possible
to push the stock along skids with water-cooled supports that allow
both the top and bottom faces of the stock to be heated.

Pusher Type Furnace Pusher type furnaces, however, do have some

disadvantages, including: Frequent damage of refractory hearth and
skid marks on material Water cooling energy losses from the skids and
stock supporting structure in top and bottom fired furnaces have a
detrimental effect on energy use; Discharge must be accompanied by
charge: Stock sizes and weights and furnace length are limited by

16
 friction and the possibility of stock pile-ups. All round heating of the
stock is not possible.

2.5.9.2 Walking Hearth Furnaces

The walking hearth furnace (Figure 2.4) allows the stock to be

transported through the furnace in discrete steps. Such furnaces have
several attractive features, including: simplicity of design, ease of
construction, ability to cater for different stock sizes (within limits),
negligible water cooling energy losses and minimal physical marking of
the stock. The main disadvantage of walking hearth furnaces is that
the bottom face of the stock cannot be heated. This can be alleviated
to some extent by maintaining large spaces between pieces of stock.
Small spaces between the individual stock pieces limits the heating of
the side faces and increases the potential for unacceptable
temperature differences within the stock at discharge. Consequently,
the stock residence time may be long, possibly several hours; this may
have an adverse effect on furnace flexibility and the yield may be
affected by scaling.

17
 Fig. 2.4 Walking Hearth Type Furnace

2.5.9.3 Rotary Hearth Furnace

The rotary hearth furnace (Figure 2.5) has tended to supersede the
recirculating bogie type. The heating and cooling effects introduced by
the bogies are eliminated, so heat storage losses are less. The rotary
hearth has, however a more complex design with an annular shape
and revolving hearth.

18
 Fig. 2.5 Rotary Hearth Type Furnace

2.5.9.4 Continuous Recirculating Bogie Type Furnaces

These types of moving hearth type furnaces tend to be used for

compact stock of variable size and geometry. In bogie furnaces (Figure
2.6), the stock is placed on a bogie with a refractory hearth, which
travels through the furnace with others in the form of a train. The
entire furnace length is always occupied by bogies. Bogie furnaces
tend to be long and narrow and to suffer from problems arising from
inadequate sealing of the gap between the bogies and furnace shell,
difficulties in removing scale, and difficulties in firing across a narrow
hearth width.

Fig. 2.6 Continuous Circulating Bogie Type Furnace

2.5.9.5 Walking Beam Furnaces

19
 The walking beam furnace overcomes many of the problems of pusher
furnaces and permits heating of the bottom face of the stock. This
allows shorter stock heating times and furnace lengths and thus better
control of heating rates, uniform stock discharge temperatures and
operational flexibility. In common with top and bottom fired pusher
furnaces, however, much of the furnace is below the level of the mill;
this may be a constraint in some applications.

2.6 MELTING FURNACE

Melting furnaces can be classified into two (2) such as;

1. Non-metallurgical furnace

2. Metallurgical furnace

2.6.1 Non-Metallurgical Furnace

1. Oven: This is a brand of non-metallurgical furnace whose use and

construction vary, they may be gas or electrically fired. However,
they are used for less intensive heating like in enameling food and
wood processing containers.

2. Brick Kiln: This is also called Hoffman kiln, it consists of long

continuous refractory chamber with rounded ends. It is used for
burning bricks.

2.3.3 Metallurgical Furnace

These are forms of furnace use to melt metal ore to remove gangue,
primarily in iron and steel production. They are commonly used for
heating of metals. The various types are discussed below;

i. A Reverberatory Furnace: This is a metallurgical or process furnace

that isolates the material being processed from contact with the fuel,

20
 but not from contact with combustion gases. The term reverbatory is
used here is a generic sense of rebounding or reflecting, not in the
acoustic sense of echoing. Reverberatory furnaces are used in a
copper, tin, and nickel production, in the production of certain
concretes and cements, and in aluminum. Reverberatory furnace
heat the metal to melting temperatures with direct-fired wall-
mounted burners.

Fig 2.7 Reverberatory furnace

ii. Open Hearth Furnace: are one of a number of kinds of furnace where
excess carbon and other impurities are burnt out of pig iron to produce
steel. Since steel is difficult to manufacture due its high melting point,
normal fuels and furnaces were insufficient and the open hearth
furnace was developed to overcome this difficulty. Compared to
Bessemer steel, which it displaced, its main advantages were that it
didn't expose the steel to excessive nitrogen, was easier to control,

21
 and it permitted the melting and refining of large amounts of scrap
iron and steel.

Fig. 2.8 Open Hearth Furnace

iii. Bessemer Furnace: It was the first inexpensive industrial process for
the mass production of steel from molten pig iron before the
development of the open hearth furnace. The modern process is
named after its inventor, the Englishman Henry Bessemer, who took
out a patent on the process in 1856.The process was said to be
independently discovered in 1851 by the American inventor William
Kelly. The key principle is removal of impurities from the iron by
oxidation with air being blown through the molten iron. The oxidation
also raises the temperature of the iron mass and keeps it molten.

22
 Fig. 2.9 Bessemer Furnace

iv. Cupola Furnace: This is a melting device used in foundries that can be
used to melt cast iron, Ni-resist iron and bronzes. The cupola can be
made almost any practical size. The overall shape is cylindrical and the
equipment is arranged vertically, usually supported by four legs.

Fig. 2.10 Cupola Furnace

23
v. Crucible Furnace: this is a simple and very old type of melting unit
commonly used in foundry. The crucible furnace typically uses a
refectory crucible which contains a metal charge. The actual crucible is
a container that can withstand very high temperatures and is therefore
used to melt materials such as metals.

Fig. 2.11 Crucible Furnace

2.7 REVIEW OF RELATED WORK

Radhakrishnan, P. (2008), developed a comprehensive furnace model

by improving the current computerized heat treatment planning
system based model in other to accurately simulate the thermal profile
on load inside the furnace. His research methodology was based on
both experimental work and theoretical developments which included
modeling different types of heat treat furnaces. This furnace typically
used energy for process heating and which accounted for 20% to 50%
of the total production cost.

24
Li Xinyl et al (2010), studied the use of muffle furnace for drying of
municipal sewage sludge and proposed a mathematical experimental
model for it. Their work described the process of heating of sewage
sludge under different atmospheres of nitrogen and oxygen and also
discovered the relation between moisture content of municipal sewage
sludge (MSS) and the heating time under different surrounding
temperature by means of mathematical model. The work focused on
generating an effective method of sewage sludge treatment in order to
tackle environmental problems most especially increase in sewage
sludge by rapid urbanization in china.

Iukoba, O. (2012), centered on the development of a low temperature

heat treatment furnace. His design closely revealed the parameters
and the features needed such as, the casing design, insulating system,
the heating system, the electrochemical and safety/control system.
The performance gave rise to a maximum temperature reading of 880 0
C in the furnace heating 200 and 20 0 C temperature reading at the
surface of the external casing after a period of 90minutes. The result
obtained made it possible to heat treat both ferrous, non-ferrous
metals and their alloys in order to alter their microstructure and to
enhance their properties for needed application in service with
maximum safety and precaution in place. The furnace was specifically
designed for controlled heating of element/material of temperature
range of 1500 but it can equally be adapted for use in other heating
operations of same temperature range.

Tien et al (2013) studied the chemical transformation of calcium in

Shenhua coal during combustion in a muffle furnace. The work
revealed the chemical reaction characteristics of calcium in three
samples of Shenhua coal, i.e., raw sample, hydrochloric acid washed

25
sample and hydrochloric acid washed light fraction, during combustion
in a muffle furnace.

Ufuoms, P. (2015), developed an electric induction furnace for heat

treatment of ferrous and non-ferrous alloy. A 3kg capacity electric
induction furnace with a power rating of 2500W for heat treatment of
ferrous and non-ferrous alloys was developed. The furnace body is
made from mild steel and is monolithically lined with fireclay
refractories. It was designed to attain a temperature of 1200 0 C. The
furnace was constructed putting into consideration, it’s temperature
attainment, capacity of metals it can hold, the restriction availability of
the materials used, it’s maintainability and portability. The
performance of the project was primarily undertaken to build local
capacity in foundry practice in Nigeria and to encourage the
demonstration of fundamental practice.

Rajam (2018), designed and fabricated a low-cost electrical

resistance-based metal melting furnace for casting application. The
capacity of this furnace is 3.5KW rating with operating temperature of
up to 10000C. Also, the furnace has the capability to hold the melt for
the desired period of time. The design took into consideration both
electrical and mechanical parameters. The performance and test
results involved comparing the heating rate, melting rate for existing
standard furnaces and a temperature of about 700 0C was attained
within 100minutes. The furnace is suitable for laboratory and research
purposes which involves the non-ferrous quantities of metals such as
Zinc, Aluminum and their alloys.

Borot, R S. (2019), designed and developed energy efficient electrical

muffle furnace for melting of aluminum alloys which provides even
heat distribution in furnace with help of cylindrical shaped muffle.

26
Along the muffle is an electrical resistance wire coil in the chamber
walls which are heated and the metal of that chamber radiantly by all
of the side, so that the material being heated has no acquaintances
with flame. Designing of muffle furnace is based on material to be melt
and melting temperature, with the proposed design electricity
consumption target is approximately 2.5KW in less time for designed
specification environment, which is lesser than commercial furnaces.
Hence, heating time of metal and cost of these type of muffle furnace
has enormously reduced.

The Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Power, Government of

India, did a Project on implementation of Gas Fired Radiation Furnace
for Annealing. It was use in a wire drawing plant for annealing. The
process of annealing is done in a furnace, which is fired in some of the
cases of the cluster by wood for annealing MS wire and electricity by
others annealing copper or aluminum. Traditionally for annealing
copper or aluminum, electric furnaces have been used because of the
need of precision control of temperature over time and clean
environment to avoid contamination of the copper/aluminum wire to
be drawn. The electric furnaces in the units typically use nichrome
coils weighing 1 kg to 1.25 kg, twelve in numbers giving a total rating
of 66 kW electrical heating capacity of the furnace and consumed
about 99600 kWh per year out of the 295310 kWh per year for the
entire unit (i.e., a share of ` 8.14 lakh out of a total of ` 24.13 lakh).
Thus, these furnaces use a very costly fuel and the expenditure
towards fuel can be reduced by as much as 15-20% upon replacing
with gas fired radiation furnaces.

Chukwudi B. C. and Ogunedo M. B. (2004), Designed and Developed a

Gas Fired Reverberatory Furnace. The system consists of four main
parts; circular gas burner systems with gas taps and regulators, two
27
 gas cylinders, a furnace (kiln), and a rigid frame. The gas jet regulator
mechanism was incorporated to ensure that designed air-fuel ratio was
obtained to enhance effective combustion, optimum production of heat
(charge) and its effective utilization during the melting/recycling of
aluminum scraps. The furnace was fired with LPG-butane gas flame
from the gas burner and was continuously charged until it attains a
temperature of about 700, which is enough to melt aluminum and
some other nonferrous metals. The reverberatory furnace sidewalls
were lined with standard refractory bricks to ensure radiation of heat
to the scraps (to encourage superheating) and reduce heat losses to
outside environment other than furnace chamber. The device was
observed to use only one-third (1/3) of the time used by the
conventional bituminous coal charged and the anthracite coal charged
reverberatory furnace. This device is affordable, user/environmentally
friendly, and reliable.

2.9 ENERGY SOURCES FOR FIRING FURNACE

Fuel is something that can be burnt to produce energy in the form of

heat or power. Those substances which are classified as fuel must
necessarily contain one or several of the combustible elements:
carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, etc. In the process of combustion, the
chemical energy of fuel is converted into heat energy. To utilize the
energy of fuel in most usable form, it is required to transform the fuel
from its one state to another, i.e. from solid to liquid or gaseous state,
liquid to gaseous state, or from its chemical energy to some other
form of energy via single or many stages. In this way, the energy of
fuels can be utilized more effectively and efficiently for various
purposes.

28
2.9.1 Types of Fuel

Fig 2.12: Classification of fuels

2.8.1.1 Solid Fuel

Solid fuels are mainly classified as wood, coal, etc. The various
advantages and disadvantages of solid fuels are given below:

Advantages:

(a) They are easy to transport.

(b) They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous
explosion.
(c) Their cost of production is low.

29
 d) They posse moderate ignition temperature.
Disadvantages:
(a) Their ash content is high.
(b) Their large proportion of heat is wasted.
(c) They burn with clinker formation.
(d) Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.
(e) Their cost of handling is high.
2.8.1.1.2 Types of Coal

2.8.1.1.2.1 Peat

Peat is considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial importance

as a fuel in some regions, for example, Ireland and Finland. In its
dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil
spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to
make it more able to retain and slowly release water.

2.8.1.1.2 Lignite

Lignite or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal and used almost
exclusively as fuel for electric power generation. Jet, a compact form
of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental
stone since the Upper Palaeolithic. Bituminous coal: Bituminous coal is
a dense sedimentary rock, usually black, but sometimes dark brown,
often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material; it is used
primarily as fuel in steam-electric power generation, with substantial
quantities used for heat and power applications in manufacturing and
to make coke. Anthracite: Anthracite, the highest rank of coal, is a
harder, glossy black coal used primarily for residential and commercial
space heating. It may be divided further into metamorphically altered
bituminous coal and "petrified oil", as from the deposits in
Pennsylvania. Graphite: Graphite, technically the highest rank, is

30
 difficult to ignite and is not commonly used as fuel — it is mostly used
in pencils and, when powdered, as a lubricant.

2.8.1.1.4 Liquid Fuel

Advantages:

(a) They posses higher calorific value per unit mass than solid fuels.
(b) They burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc.
(c) Their firing is easier and also fire can be extinguished easily by
stopping liquid fuel supply.
(d) They are easy to transport through pipes.

Disadvantages:

(a) The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to

solid fuel.
(b) Costly special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
(c) There is a greater risk of five hazards, particularly, in case of highly
inflammable and volatile liquid fuels.
(d) They give bad odour.
2.8.1.1.3.1 Petroleum

Most liquid fuels used currently are produced from petroleum. The
most notable of these is gasoline. Scientists generally accept that
petroleum formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants and
animals by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust. Diesel
Conventional diesel is similar to gasoline in that it is a mixture of
aliphatic hydrocarbons extracted from petroleum. Diesel may cost
more or less than gasoline, but generally costs less to produce
because the extraction processes used are simpler.

2.8.1.1.3.2 Kerosene

31
 Kerosene is used in kerosene lamps and as a fuel for cooking, heating,
and small engines. It displaced whale oil from lighting use. The engine
would start on gasoline, then switch over to kerosene once the engine
warmed up. A "heat valve" on the manifold would route the exhaust
gases around the intake pipe, heating the kerosene to the point where
it can be ignited by an electric. Kerosene is sometimes used as an
additive in diesel fuel to prevent gelling or waxing in cold
temperatures. However, this is not advisable in some recent vehicle
diesel engines, as doing so may interfere with the engine's emissions
regulation equipment.

2.8.1.1.3.3 Biodiesel

Biodiesel is similar to diesel, but has differences akin to those between

petrol and ethanol. For instance, biodiesel has a higher cetane rating
and it acts as a cleaning agent to get rid of dirt and deposits.

2.8.1.1.3.5 Gaseous Fuel

Gaseous fuels occur in nature, besides being manufactured from solid
and liquid fuels.
Advantages
Gaseous fuels due to erase and flexibility of their applications, possess
the following advantages over solid or liquid fuels:
(a) They can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place
of need, thereby eliminating manual labour in transportation. (b) They
can be lighted at ease.
(c) They have high heat contents and hence help us in having higher
temperatures.
(d) They can be pre-heated by the heat of hot waste gases, thereby
affecting economy in heat.
Disadvantages

32
 (a) Very large storage tanks are needed.
(b) They are highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards in their
use is high.
(i) Natural gas

Natural gas is generally associated with petroleum deposits and is

obtained from wells dug in the oil-bearing regions. The approximate
composition of natural gas is: CH4 = 70.9%, C2H6= 5.10%, H2 = 3%,
CO + CO2 = 22% The calorific value varies from 12,000 to 14,000
kcal/m3. It is an excellent domestic fuel and is conveyed in pipelines
over very large distances.

(ii)Coal gas

Coal gas is obtained when it is carbonized or heated in absence of air

at about 1300 degree in either coke ovens or gas-making retorts. In
gas making retort process coal is fed in closed silica retorts, which are
then heated to about 1300o C by burning producer gas and air
mixture. Coal gas is a colourless gas having a characteristic odour. It
is lighter than air and burns with a long smoky flame. Its calorific
value is about 4,900 kcal/m3.

(iii) Water Gas

Water gas is a synthesis gas, containing carbon monoxide and

hydrogen. It is a useful product but requires careful handling due to its
flammability and the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning. The gas is
made by passing steam over a red-hot carbon fuel such as coke: H2O
+ C → H2 + CO (ΔH = +131 kJ/mol) The reaction is endothermic so
the fuel must be continually re-heated to keep the reaction going. In
order to do this, an air stream, which alternates with the vapor
stream, is introduced for the combustion of carbon to take place.

33
(iv) Producer Gas

Producer gas is essentially a mixture of combustible gases carbon

monoxide and hydrogen associated with noncombustible gases N2,
CO2, etc. It is prepared by passing air mixed with little steam (about
0.35 kg/kg of coal) over a red hot coal or coke bed maintained at
about 1100oC in a special reactor called gas producer. It consists of a
steel vessel about 3 m in diameter and 4 m in height. The vessel is
lined inside with fire bricks. It is provided with a cup and cone feeder
at the top and a side opening for the exit of producer gas. At the base
it has an inlet for passing air and steam. The producer at the base is
also provided with an exit for the ash formed.

(v) Wood Gas

Wood gas is a syngas fuel which can be used as a fuel for furnaces,
stoves and vehicles in place of gasoline, diesel or other fuels. During
the production process biomass or other carbon-containing materials
are gasified within the oxygen-limited environment of a wood gas
generator to produce hydrogen and carbon monoxide. These gases can
then be burnt as a fuel within an oxygen rich environment to produce
carbon dioxide, water and heat. In some gasifiers this process is
preceded by pyrolysis, where the biomass or coal is first converted to
char, releasing methane and tar rich in polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons.

(vi) Hydrogen

Hydrogen (H2) is being explored as a fuel for passenger vehicles. It

can be used in fuel cells to power electric motors or burned in internal
combustion engines (ICEs). It is an environmentally friendly fuel that
has the potential to dramatically reduce our dependence on imported

34
 oil, but several significant challenges must be overcome before it can
be widely used.

(vii) Bio Gas

Bio gas is characterized based on its chemical composition and the

physical characteristics which result from it. It is primarily a mixture of
methane (CH4) and inert carbonic gas (CO2). However, the name
“biogas” gathers a large variety of gases resulting from specific
treatment processes, starting from various organic waste - industries,
animal or domestic origin waste etc. Different sources of production
lead to different specific compositions. The presence of H2S, of CO2
and water make biogas very corrosive and require the use of adapted
materials. The composition of a gas issued from a digester depends on
the substrate, of its organic matter load, and the feeding rate of the
digester Blast furnace gas It is a by product flue gas obtained during
the reduction of ion ore by coke in the blast furnace. Its calorific value
is about 1,000 kcal/m3. It contains about 20-25% carbon monoxide
along with CO2, N2, etc. About 1/3 of this gas is used for preheating
air used in blast furnace itself; while the remaining 2/3rd is available
for use in boilers or after cleaning in gas engines. It is also used for
burning in a special type of stoves (called Cowper’s stove) where the
furnace is preheated. This gas contains much dust and is usually
cleaned before use by dust settlers, cyclones or electrolytic
precipitators.

2.9 LAGGING MATERIAL

Lagging is commonly misunderstood in the insulation industry. There

are many people in the insulation industry who may not agree, but I
believe that there is a big difference between lagging and jacketing

35
 materials. I have spent over twenty-five years learning, working and
teaching in this very diverse field. In my opinion, the following
information is greatly needed to help readers understand what
lagging really is and why it is different from jacketing. Lagging is the
finishing material (steel or aluminum) used to cover many types of
insulation, especially on large flat surfaces such as boiler walls, flues,
ducts, precipators, selective catalytic reduction systems, baghouses,
windboxes or fans. Also known as cladding or sheet metal, lagging
ranges in thickness from .032-inch to .063-inch and usually does not
include a vapor barrier. If the lagging material were to be installed by
a union craftsman, the work would be designated to the Sheet Metal
Workers Union. These includes the following such as fibre glass, rock
and slag wool, cellulose and natural fibres to rigid foam boars to
sleek foils.

2.10 RELATED MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE

This furnace is designed to be used for heat treatment process.

The analysis of gas system was made by calculating from the orifice
diameter (do). The major design requirement is for minimum possible
volumetric flow rates at all condition of temperature and pressure and
component sizing. The various equations were based on principles of;
(i) Conservation of mass
(ii) Equation of continuity
(iii) Moment equation
(iv) Steady flow of energy equation
(v) Bernoulis equation
(vi) Enthalpy of combustion
(vii) Flow losses in pipes.

36
2.10.1 Determination of Muffle Volume
To determine the muffle volume, we subtract the furnace chamber
volume from the total volume of the furnace.
 Total volume – furnace chamber volume - - - - - - - - - - - - (2.1)
Total volume =LWH
Where,
L = length of the furnace
W = width of furnace
H = height of furnace
2.10.2 Determination of Furnace Chamber Volume
The furnace chamber volume =LWH ------------- (2.2)
Where,
L = length of furnace chamber
W = width of furnace chamber
H = height of furnace chamber
2.10.3 Determination Stochiometric Equation for Propane Gas
Mass of fuel: C3H8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2.3)
Carbon has an atomic mass 12.011g while Hydrogen has an atomic
mass of 1.008g.
Therefore, 3 atoms of Carbon will weigh 36.033g and 8 atoms of
Hydrogen will weigh 8.064g.
Mass of Oxygen mole: a mole of Oxygen weighs 31.888g therefore,
5O2 will weigh 159.44g --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2.4)
Mass of air:
21
Since oxygen in air is , mass of air to yield 159.44g O2 is
100
759.238g - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
(2.5)

2.10.4 Determination of energy release from gas;

The specific heat formula;

37
 Q=MC∆T - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -(2.6)

Where,

Q= Quantity of heat

M= Mass of gas

C= Specific heat capacity

∆T= Change in Temperature

2.10.5 Determination of safe Working Pressure

2 St
P= - - - - - - - - - (2.7)
D

Where,

P = Internal pressure

S = allowable stress

t = thickness required for the steel cylinder

D = internal diameter

2.10.6 Determination of Gas Flow Analysis

P 1 V 22
= - - - - - - - (2.8)
eg 2 g
Where;
P = gas pressure
e = gas density
V = gas velocity
g = acceleration due gravity
From continuity equation
Q = AV - - - - - - - - (2.9)
Where,
Q = Discharge rate of gas
A = Area of pipe

38
 V = Theoretical Velocity of gas in the system
2
πd
But, A = - - - - - - - (2.10)
4
Where,
d = Diameter of pipe
2.10.7 Determination of Energy Loss due Friction in Pipes
In determining the energy loss (hi) due to friction, in pipe
Darey’s equation was used. It can be expressed mathematically
as
2
L v
hI = f x x - - - - - (2.11)
D 2g
Where;
L = length of pipe
D = diameter
V = average velocity of flow
F = friction factor

To obtain the friction factor we first determine the Reynolds number to

know if the flow is laminar or turbulent
eVD
Re = -- - - - - - - (2.12)
μ
μ = fluid dynamic viscosity in kg/(m.s) = equilibrium 100k
e = fluid density in kg/m3
v = fluid velocity in m/s
d = pipe diameter
2.10.8 Determination of Gas Pressure in the Pipeline
The pressure for which drives the gas and air into the burner is the
pressure of gas in the pipeline. The key equation that relates gas
pressure to flow is Bernoulli’s theorem.
2
p V❑p
+ +z=constant - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2.13)
e 2g

39
 Where,
P = gas pressure(Nm-2)
e = gas density (kgm-3)
V = gas velocity (ms-1)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8ms-2)
z = head (m); for gas z can be ignored
2.10.9 Determination of Orifice Diameter
Orifice diameter can be derived from;
Q = MCv - - - - - - - - (2.14)
Q
But M = - - - - - - - (2.15)
Cv
Also, m= eAV - - - - - - - (2.16)
m
A = - - - - - - - - (2.17)
ev
π d2
Recall from equation 2.10, that A =
4
Therefore
❑
Ax4
d = - - - - - - - - (2.18)
π
Where;
M = mass of gas (kg)
Cv= coefficient of variation
Q= energy transferred (J)
d = orifice diameter (mm)
2.10.10 Determination of Heat Loss Due to Convention
Heat loss due to convention is given as;
Q = hA∆T - - - - - - (2.19)
Where;
Q = heat transfer rate
h = Convection heat transfer coefficient
A = Exposed surface area

40
 ∆T= change in temperature
2.10.11 Determination of Heat Flux
Heat flux is given by Fourier’s law
−λ ∆ T
q = - - - - - - (2.20)
∆x

where;

λ = thermal conductivity constant

∆ T = temperature difference

∆ x = distance

q = heat flux

2.10.12 Determination of Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient

Convection heat transfer coefficient is given by;

q
h= - - - - - - - (2.21)
∆T

where;

q = heat flux density (w/m2)

∆T = temperature difference

h = heat transfer coefficient

2.10.13 Determination of Heat to Refractory

Calculation can be made to determine the heat transfer to the

Refractory material using the heat transfer equation given below;

H A ∆T
=Q= xk - - - - - (2.22)
t X
Where;

∆T = variation of temperature

X = refractory brick thickness

41
 A = total wall area

H = heat transfer

2.11 REFRACTORIES
Refractory materials or refractories are materials which can
withstand high temperature or heat without undergoing much
deformation or structural and chemical decomposition.
Refractory material can also be describe as ceramic products
whose refractories that is pyrometric cone softening p o i n t in not
less than 1580°C, although certain ceramic products do not
c o m p l y with t h i s definition because their refractories is less
than 1580°C, they however have all the characteristics and they
i n o t h e r words called scale or heat resistance materials.
Refractory of various types and composition are used in blast
furnace, slag handles ingot moulds, soakers, reheaters,
egenerators, and recaperators for the preservation of heat
within chamber. Due to this property, refractoriness
finds much use i n furnace hence they’re exposed t o severest
heating effect and then s e r v e a s logging materials causing much
of the generated heart to be returned in the furnace. Specific type
of refractory materials is recommended for each a p p l i c a t i o n
and c o n s i s t mainly of oxides and impurities of calcium, silicon,
Aluminium, magnesium. etc. for instance, carbon blocks, silicon
bricks. alumina-silicales, Aluminina. Chrone and chrone
magnesit, dolemite, magnesite with special composition of other
high melting point metals.
2.11.1 Types of Refractories
a. Fire-brick: These are the most common type in Nigeria and they
are the major design choice i n the country due to its aviation’s.
When furnace walls are high and much weight are applied fire-brick

42
 with low deformation under. Load is used for electric f i r i n g at high
temperature, high refractory bricks are used. I n sulating pribricks are
used for gaseous fud firing.
b. Carbon Refractories: These are made by moulding a mixture of
carbon with a thermoplastic o r thermosetting brider e.g bitumen
into the shape required and later fired.

c. Mullite-Bricks: These are special fire bricks of high mullite

content; that are stable at high and fluctuating temperature.
Mullite bricks are used up to 1650°C and are made of Al2O3 and
SiO2 in 72:28% r a t i o .
d. Chram Brick: This bran has high resistance to coal ash and
high thermal co-efficient of expansion.
2.11.2 Properties of Refractories
a) High Melting Point: This is the basic refractory property.
it is the ability to withstand high temperature without
breaking down or spelling.
b) Resistance to Thermo-Shock: This is the ability of
the refractories to return to original shape or form without cracking
subject to changes in temperature.
c) Refractoriness: This is the power of the effect of high
material to resist fusion due to the effect' of high temperatures. The
fusion point of the major oxides used in refractories are stated

below in the table below.

Table 2.1: Fusion Point of Some Metal Oxides or Refractory

Material

METAL OXIDE CHEMICAL DEGREE IN

FORMULAR (CENTIGRADE)

43
 Chrome Cr2O3 1990

Iron oxide chrome Fe OCr2O3 1990

Lime CaO 2570

Silicon SiO 1712

Magnesium MgO 200

2.11.3 Chemical and Mineral Composition of Refractories

a. Siliceous in which the refractory base is Si02 (silica quartzite)

b. Alumina-siliceous, where the refractory component is (Al2O3 and

SiO2 (fire clay, semi-acid and high-alumina refractories).

2.11.4 Physical P r o p e r t i e s of Reftractories

(i) Property: The life of refractories is largely dependent on
their porosity which may vary within considerable limit from one
percent in isolative refractory materials pores in refractories may be
open that is communicating with the atmosphere or
closed. At a higher apparent porosity, a refractory
material is less resistant to the eroding action of metal which
c a n p enetrate through pores insides the material.
(ii) Gas Permeability: Is the measure of the easiness with
w h i c h t h e gas can pass through t h e pore of the refractory
materials. Pressure gradient between t h e furnace s p a c e a n d
surrounding, cause g a s e s to penetrate through pores from
o n e side to the other, that is, the material is permeable to
G a s e s -Gas permeability d e c r e a s e s with increasing viscosity
of the gas.

44
(iii) Heat Conductibility: Refractories should have a
low heat conductivity. Heat conductivity depends on the
nature and porosity of a material and on temperature
c rys ta ll in e substances have a higher conductivity than
armorphones ones and heat conductivity diminishes with
increasing porosity.
(iv) Elasticity: Elasticity of a refractory material refers to its
ability to acquire a predetermined shape under high pressure and
to retain the shape when the pressure is removed.
(v) Strength: Durability is another important property of a
refractory material. The refractory material must be strong to
resist the high pressure of the furnace chamber.
(vi) Electric Conductivity: Refractories behave as dielectric
at low temperatures. At higher temperature, when a liquid phase
appears in the material; their electric conductivity may rise. The
electric resistively of refractories depends on temperature of the
furnace chamber.
(vii) Heat Capacity: Heat capacity of refractories is of
importance when selecting materials for furnaces increases with
temperature. Heat capacity of fire clay is 0BKJ.
(viii) Fire Clay Mortars: This are employed for the filling in the
joints between bricks as in common b r i c k -laying; they bind the
brick together a n d the whole structure monolithic.
'
(ix) Building Materials: Apart from refractory materials,
furnaces construction uses common building materials, such as
building brick and building mortars. Building bricks in made of
fusible clay and is employed for the outer lining of furnace walls.
2
The density is 1600 to 1900kg/m and its heat conductivity is
(=0.46 + 0.005) Where, 1 is the heat conductivity T is the actual

45
 temperature from the producer manual, the fire bricks were bakes
to a temperature of 1800°C hence their use in the furnace
construction is justifiable provided this working temperature of the
furnace does not exceed that of the fire bricks. The maximum
working temperature of this furnace is 1200°c.

2.12 HEAT LOSSES AND FURNACE LAGGING.

These furnace losses include:

(i) Losses from the furnace outside walls or structure

(ii)Heat transported out of the furnace by the load conveyors, fixtures,
trays, etc.
(iii) Radiation losses from openings, hot exposed parts, etc.
(iv) Heat carried by the cold air infiltration into the furnace
(v) Heat carried by the excess air used in the burners.
2.12.1 Stored Heat Loss

First, the metal structure and insulation of the furnace must be heated
so their interior surfaces are about the same temperature as the
product they contain. This stored heat is held in the structure until the
furnace shuts down, then it leaks out into the surrounding area. The
more frequently the furnace is cycled from cold to hot and back to cold
again, the more frequently this stored heat must be replaced. Fuel is
consumed with no useful output.

2.12.2 Wall Losses

Additional heat losses take place while the furnace is in production.

Wall or transmission losses are caused by them conduction of heat
through the walls, roof, and floor of the heating device. Once that heat
reaches the outer skin of the furnace and radiates to the surrounding

46
 area or is carried away by air currents, it must be replaced by an equal
amount taken from the combustion gases. This process continues as
long as the furnace is at an elevated temperature.

2.12.3 Material Handling Losses

Many furnaces use equipment to convey the work into and out of the
heating chamber, and this can also lead to heat losses. Conveyor belts
or product hangers that enter the heating chamber cold and leave it at
higher temperatures drain energy from the combustion gases. In car
bottom furnaces, the hot car structure gives off heat to the room each
time it rolls out of the furnace to load or remove work. This lost energy
must be replaced when the car is returned to the furnace.

2.12.4 Cooling Media Losses

Water or air cooling protects rolls, bearings, and doors in hot furnace
environments, but at the cost of lost energy. These components and
their cooling media (water, air, etc.) become the conduit for additional
heat losses from the furnace. Maintaining an adequate flow of cooling
media is essential, but it might be possible to insulate the furnace and
load from some of these losses.
Furnaces and ovens operating at temperatures above 540°C might
have significant radiation losses. Hot surfaces radiate energy to nearby
colder surfaces, and the rate of heat transfer increases with the fourth
power of the surface's absolute temperature. Anywhere or anytime,
there is an opening in the furnace enclosure, heat is lost by radiation,
often at a rapid rate.

47
2.12.5 Waste-gas Losses

Waste-gas loss, also known as flue gas or stack loss, is made up of the
heat that cannot be removed from the combustion gases inside the
furnace. The reason is heat flows from the higher temperature source
to the lower temperature heat

2.13 INSULATION MATERIALS

Within an industrial furnace, there are many different components that

ensure it is performing successfully, and insulation is one of these
important components. There are many benefits of using a high
temperature insulation material in furnaces, and there is a range of
materials that are used as insulation materials, this blog post will
highlight both.

Industrial furnaces operate at extremely high temperatures, so high

temperature insulation materials are critical to ensuring that the
furnace runs safely and efficiently. One use for insulation within an
industrial furnace is to ensure operator safety. The outer body of an
industrial furnace can become extremely hot when the furnace has
been in use, so operators who are transporting samples in and out of
furnaces are at risk of being burnt.

The use of high temperature insulation can ensure that the heat is not
transferred to the outer body, reducing the risk of burns to operators.
Insulation is also important to improve the efficiency of an industrial
furnace. When the chamber within the furnace is heated, some of this
heat can escape, so more heat is needed to reach the required
temperatures. High temperature insulation can reduce the amount of
heat dissipation, making the industrial furnace more efficient.
Insulation within the chamber also ensures a uniform heat is reached,

48
 which ensures heat treatment is carried out more effectively.
Insulation materials for Furnaces include; ceramic fibre, natural fibres
and locally made materials such as kaolin, ash, charcoal etc.

2.13.1 Natural Fiber Insulation Materials

Some natural fibers--including cotton, sheep's wool, straw, and

hemp--are used as insulation materials.
1. Cotton
Cotton insulation consists of 85% recycled cotton and 15% plastic
fibers that have been treated with borate--the same flame retardant
and insect/rodent repellent used in cellulose insulation. One product
uses recycled blue jean manufacturing trim waste. As a result of its
recycled content, this product uses minimal energy to manufacture.
Cotton insulation is available in batts and costs about 15% to 20%
more than fiberglass batt insulation.
2. Sheep's Wool
For use as insulation, sheep's wool is also treated with borate to resist
pests, fire, and mold. It can hold large quantities of water, which is an
advantage for use in some walls, but repeated wetting and drying can
leach out the borate. Sheep's wool batts for a 2 by 4 inch and 2 by 6
inch stud-framed wall offer an R-13 and R-19 value, respectively.
3. Straw
Straw bale construction, popular 150 years ago on the Great Plains of
the United States, has received renewed interest.
The process of fusing straw into boards without adhesives was
developed in the 1930s. Panels are usually 2 to 4 inches (5 to 102
mm) thick and faced with heavyweight Kraft paper on each side. The
boards also make effective sound-absorbing panels for interior
partitions. Some manufacturers have developed structural insulated
panels from multiple-layered, compressed-straw panels.
49
 4. Hemp
Hemp insulation is relatively unknown and not commonly used in the
United States. Its R-value is similar to other fibrous insulation types.
5. Ceramic fibre insulation materials.

2.13.2 Thermal Properties Of Insulating Materials

Thermal insulation is based on the use of substances with very low

thermal conductivity and low surface emissivity. It is important to note
that the factors influencing performance may vary over time as
material ages or environmental conditions change. Key properties of
insulation materials are:

1. Thermal Conductivity.
Thermal conductivity, measured in W/mK describes how well a
material conducts heat. Note that Fourier’s law applies for all matter,
regardless of its state (solid, liquid, or gas), therefore, it is also
defined for liquids and gases. It is the amount of heat (in watts)
transferred through a square area of material of given thickness (in
metres) due to a difference in temperature. The lower the thermal
conductivity of the material the greater the material’s ability to resist
heat transfer, and hence the greater the insulation’s effectiveness. In
general, gases have a low thermal conductivity (e.g. air has 0.025
W/mK) whilst metals have a high value (e.g. copper has 400 W/mK).
Commonly used insulants tend to have a thermal conductivity
between 0.019 W/mK and 0.046 W/mK.

2. R-Value – Thermal Resistance.

R-value (thermal insulance factor) is a measure of thermal resistance.
The higher the R-value, the greater the insulating effectiveness.
Thermal insulance has the units [(m 2K)/W] in SI units or

50
 [(ft2°Fhr)/Btu] in imperial units. It is the thermal resistance of unit
area of a material. The R-value depends on the type of insulation, its
thickness, and its density. An area and a temperature difference is
required to solve for heat transferred. The construction industry makes
use of units such as the R-value (resistance), which is expressed as
the thickness of the material normalized to the thermal conductivity,
and under uniform conditions it is the ratio of the temperature
difference across an insulator and the heat flux density through it. The
higher the R-value, the more a material prevents heat transfer. As can
be seen, the resistance is dependent on the thickness of the product.

3. U-value – Thermal Transmittance.

Thermal Transmittance describes how well the material conducts
heat. Thermal Transmittance is the inverse of the R-value (i.e. 1/R)
and the lower the U-value the better the insulation. The U-value is
defined by an expression analogous to Newton’s law of cooling.

Surface Emissivity. As was written, heat transfer through any of these

insulation systems may include several modes: conduction through
the solid materials, conduction or convection through the air in the
void spaces and radiation exchange between the surfaces of the solid
matrix. Therefore, the emissivity of a material plays also very
important role. The emissivity, ε, of the surface of a material is its
effectiveness in emitting energy as thermal radiation and varies
between 0.0 and 1.0. Emissivity is simply a factor by which we
multiply the black body heat transfer to take into account that the
black body is the ideal case. The surface of a blackbody emits thermal
radiation at the rate of approximately 448 watts per square metre at
room temperature (25 °C, 298.15 K). Real objects with emissivities
less than 1.0 (e.g. aluminium foil) emit radiation at correspondingly
lower rates (e.g. 448 x 0.07 = 31.4 W/m2).
51
 4. Specific Heat Capacity
The Specific Heat Capacity of a material is the amount of heat needed
to raise the temperature of 1kg of the material by 1K (or by 1oC). A
good insulator has a higher Specific Heat Capacity because it takes
time to absorb more heat before it actually heats up (temperature
rising) to transfer the heat. High Specific Heat Capacity is a feature of
materials providing Thermal Mass or Thermal Buffering (Decrement
Delay).

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This chapter presents the methodological approach in the conversion

of an electric fired muffle furnace to gas fired muffle furnace. The
procedures include removal of the existing heating elements, designing
the piping network and layout, combustion analysis, gas burners
design and associated analysis. Other areas covered are; design of
temperature control unit, material selection and construction details
which include furnace walls perforation, floor lining and
construction/assembly of temperature control unit.

3.1 MATERIALS

The following are the materials and equipment used in the course of

52
 this project;

(i) Stainless steel 304

(ii) Refractory Bricks
(iii) Solenoid Valve
(iv) Gas Pressure Regulator
(v) Thermostat
(vi) Electrical Temperature Controller
(vii) Ball Valve
(viii) Gas hose
(ix) Gas cylinder
(x) Ceramic Fiber

3.2 METHODS

The methods employed in this project work are as follows;

(i) Identifying faulty components of the furnace.

(ii) Removal of heating element.
(iii) Design of piping network layout and gas burners.
(iv) Design of temperature control unit.
(v) Material selection for various components.
(vi) Construction procedure/assembly for various components/units.

3.2.1 Description of Furnace Unit/Component

The muffle furnace comprises the following;

1. Frame structure [Furnace stand]: this is the structure that ensures

that the lining is not mechanically stressed while tilting the furnace.

2. Gas burner: this is the component that converts chemical energy from
gas into heat energy.

53
 3. thermocouple, compare it to the set point and calculate the amount of
time heating should continue/sustained to maintain a constant
temperature.

4. Furnace casing: it is a metal structure that provides superior structural

strength for the refractory bricks.

5. Insulator: this is a poor heat conducting materials that helps the

atmosphere. It minimizes heat losses in the surrounding of the
furnace.

6. Furnace lining: the lining is a protective covering that protects the

inside surface of the furnace.

3.2.2 Present Condition of Furnace Components/Units

A visual inspection was carried out to ascertain the state of each

component and unit of the furnace prior to the conversion, and this
shown in fig.3.1

54
 Fig. 3.1: State of the furnace before rehabilitation.

The conditions of the various components/units inspected are presented in

Table 3.1

Table 3.1 Conditions of Furnace Components/Units

S/N Units/Components Present Condition Remarks

1 Furnace stand Good No repair required

2 Furnace lining Bad completely Require re-casting
and cannot be
repaired
3 Heating element Bad completely Conversion to gas
and cannot be firing required
repaired
4 Temperature Not available Redesign of a new
Control Unit one

The component of the electric muffle furnace that was replaced

(converted) is the heating element.

The gas burners and the their associated piping layout/network were
design. Also, the temperature control unit which was not available was
design and constructed.

3.2.3 Design Specifications/Considerations

The specifications of the furnace and various factors considered in

designing the temperature control unit are presented in table 3.2 and

55
 3.3 respectively

Table 3.2: Furnace Specifications

S/N Unit/Components Types of Materials Dimension(mm)

1 Furnace Casing Mild Steel 770 x 1130 x

1570
2 Furnace Lining High temperature
fibre glass
3 Gas burner stainless steel
304
4 Insulators Ceramic fibre

5 Thermocouple Platinum/ -500C - 14800C

Rhodium (S-type)

3.2.3.1 Design Consideration for Temperature Control Unit.

The following design factors were put into consideration when

designing the temperature control unit;

The Temperature Limit: The temperature limit of the muffle furnace is

0o - 1100oC. Therefore, every of the components used for the design of
the temperature control unit must meet the temperature requirement.

Durability: The materials selected for the designing of the temperature

control unit should have specific mechanical properties that meets the
temperature requirement to ensure durability.

Reliability: Materials selected for the designing of the temperature

control unit should be able to withstand frequent impact as a result of
continuous usage and still maintain its required level of accuracy.

Table 3.3: Furnace Design Considerations

S/N Components Rating

56
 1 Ambient Temperature 30°C
2 Temperature Rating 1100°C
3 Power Rating 10 Kw
4 Frequency Rating 50Hz
5 Voltage Rating 415volts
6 Current Rating 14A

3.2.3.2 Design of the Gas Burners

The preheating chamber is an integral part of the burner and is

designed to all gas to circulate and mix with air efficiently.

3.2.3.3 Factors Considered in The Design of Gas Burner

The following factors were considered in the design of the gas burners;

i. Energy source: Gas is substituted for electricity.

ii. Furnace operating temperature is 1000 0C maximum with minimum

heat losses and fuel consumption.

iii. Ambient temperature is 300C

iv. Eco-sustainability would be ensured by avoiding incomplete

combustion.

v. Cost: The redesign furnace ensures that readily available materials

are used while at the same time ensuring reliability, safety and
maintainability.

vi. Aesthetics: The redesign of the furnace ensures that it is

aesthetically pleasing without unnecessarily jeopardizing the
performance of the function.

3.3 DESIGN CALCULATIONS

57
3.3.1 Determination of Muffle Volume

To determine the muffle volume, we subtract the furnace chamber

volume from the total volume of the furnace.

Recall from equation (2.1)

 Total volume – furnace chamber volume

LWH - lwh

= (72 x 63 x 86) – (42 x 30 x 49)

= 390096 – 61740

= 328356cm3

= 0.328m3

3.3.2 Determination of Furnace Chamber Volume

The furnace chamber volume, was calculated using equation (2.2)

Furnace chamber volume = L x W x H

= 42 x 30 x 49

= 61740cm3

= 0.06174m3

3.3.3 Adiabatic Flame Temperature of Propane Gas

This refers to the maximum temperature attainable in a combustion

process in a case of no limiting heat loss to the surrounding. It
depends on the state of reactants, the amount of air used in the
combustion process and the degree of completion of the reaction.

Assumptions:

(i) The combustion chamber is adiabatic.

58
 (ii) This is a steady flow combustion process.

(iii) Air and the combustion gases are ideal gases.

(iv) There are no work interactions.

(v) Changes in potential and the kinetic energies are negligible.

3.3.3.1 Analysis:

Stoichiometric Equation for Propane Gas

The stoichiometric air fuel ratio was calculated mathematically using

the given equation
spark( SI )
Fuel + oxygen Carbon dioxide + water energy
hightemperature (CI )
Looking at the oxidation reaction of propane (the fuel gas)
For complete combustion
C3H8(g) + 02(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g)
balancing the equation
C3H8(g) + 502(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
Given the standard atomic weight for each atom as;
Hydrogen = 1.008
Carbon = 12.011
Oxygen = 15.999
Calculating the mass of fuel, which is in mol of propane, made up from
3 atom of carbon and 8 Atoms of hydrogen.
Mass of fuel was calculated using equation (2.3)
Mass of fuel: C3H8
Mass of fuel = 3 x 12.011 + 1.008 = 44.097g
Calculating the mass of oxygen, which Consists of 27moles each mol
made up from 5 atoms of oxygen
Mass of Oxygen was calculated using equation (2.4)
Mass of oxygen = 5 x 15.999 159.99g
59
Calculating the necessary mass of air which contains the calculated
mass of oxygen taking into account that air contains around 21%
oxygen.
Mass of air was calculated using equation (2.5)
100 100
Mass of air = , mass of oxygen = 157.99 = 761.857g
21 21
Calculating the air – fuel using the equation
100 761.857
Air fuel ratio = = = 17.28
mass of fuel 44.097
Remark: In order to burn completely 1kg of propane, we need 17.28kg
of air.
This calculation was applied in this project (conversion of electric fire
muffle furnace to gas fired muffle furnace) in order to know the actual
amount of air that is required in order to mix the gas to produce non-
luminous flame required for heat treatment purpose.

Table 3.4: Adiabatic Flame Temperature

Fuel Adiabatic Flame Temperature (K)

Oxygen as Oxidizer Air as Oxidizer

Acetaldehyde 3817 2228

Acetone 3705 2253
Acetylene (C2H24) 3997 2607
Benzene (C6H63) 3784 2363
Cyanogen 4855 2596
Cyclohexane 3865 2250
Cyclopropane 3904 2370
Decane 3833 2286

60
 Ethane (C2H61) 3903 2222
Ethanol 3730 2238
Hexane 3855 2238
Hydrogen (H2) 3473 2483
Methane(CH41) 3953 2236
Methanol 3656 2222
Propane (C3H81) 2526 2250
Propylene (C3H62) 3902 2528
P-xylene (C8H303) 3788 2483

(Source: Helmenstix, A. M. (2019) https//www.thoughtco.com)

3.3.4 Enthalpy of Combustion

This refers to the amount of heat released when 1kg of fuel is

completely burned during a steady flow combustion process.

A common base or reference used to calculate enthalpy of combustion

is referred to as enthalpy of formation.

It is the heat transfer required to form the compound from its

elements at 250C, 1atm.

The assumptions in this case are similar to those of adiabatic flame

temperature.

3.3.4.1 Analysis:

Stoichiometric equation for propane gas is

The stoichiometric air fuel ratio was calculated mathematically using

the given equation
spark( SI )
Fuel + oxygen Carbon dioxide + water energy
hightemperature (CI )

61
 Looking at the oxidation reaction of propane (the fuel gas)
For complete combustion
C3H8(g) + 02(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g)
balancing the equation
C3H8(g) + 502(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
Given the standard atomic weight for each atom as;
Hydrogen = 1.008
Carbon = 12.011
Oxygen = 15.999
Calculating the mass of fuel, which is in mol of propane, made up from
3 atom of carbon and 8 Atoms of hydrogen
Mass of fuel = 3 x 12.011 + 1.008 = 44.097g
Calculating the mass of oxygen, which Consists of 27moles each mol
made up from 5atoms of oxygen
Mass of oxygen = 5 x 15.999 159.99g
Calculating the necessary mass of air which contains the calculated
mass of oxygen taking into account that air contains around 21%
oxygen
100 100
Mass of air = , mass of oxygen = 157.99 = 761.857g
21 21
Calculating the air – fuel using the equation
100 761.857
Air fuel ratio = = = 17.28
mass of fuel 44.097
Remark: In order to burn completely 1kg of propane, we need 17.28kg
of air.
This calculation was applied in this project (conversion of electric fire
muffle furnace to gas fired muffle furnace) in order to know the actual
amount of air that is required in order to mix the gas to produce non-
luminous flame required for heat treatment purpose

3.3.5 Energy Released from Gas

62
 Recall equation (2.6)

Q = M x C x ∆T

Q = 25000 x 1630 x (1273 – 303)

Q = 25000 x 1630 x 970

Q = 39528kJ

3.3.6 Furnace Energy Requirement

Energy required to raise temperature of charge to 1000 0C is

determined as follows:

Combustion heat = heat to furnace + heat to refractory +heat to

charge materials.

3.3.7 Determination of Safe Working Pressure

In order to determine the safe working pressure of the system, the

safe operations pressure capacity of the pressure cylinder is
determined based on its design parameters as considered.

Hoop’s stress of cylinder is determined using equation (2.7)

2 St
P=
D

Given, t = Thickness required for the steel cylinder = 2.5mm

D = 250mm
But, allowable stress is determined as;
Yield strength
S=
Factor of safety

Table 3.5: Factor of Safety

EQUIPMENT FACTOR OF SAFETY (F0S)

63
 Aircraft components 1.5 – 2.5

Boilers 3.5 – 6

Bolts 8.5

Cast-iron wheels 20

Engine components 6–8

Heavy duty shafting 10 – 12

Structural steel work in buildings 4–6

Structural steel work in bridges 5–7

Pressure vessels 3.5 – 6

Source: Rutheravan, M. (2001) Automotive Engineering.

From Table 3.4 above, Reliable factor of safety used in the design
construction is 4
The currently used material for LPG cylinder is low carbon steel.
The low carbon steel cylinder is designed according to the Indian
standards (IS 3196)
Yield strength of low carbon steel = 250Mpa
250
S= = 62.5Mpa
4
2 St
P=
D
2 x 62.5 x 2.5
P=
250
P = 16929N ≃ 16.929Kpa
3.3.8 Gas Flow Analysis
This is to determine the flow characteristics of propane gas taking
cognizance of the losses at bends and constriction. In this analysis,
gauge pressure was used as already established and in turn towards
determining the nozzle diameter of the burners, considerations were
made at two points;

64
Point (1) is the cylinder outlet to the furnace
Point (2) is the inlet to the burner.
Using Bernoulli’s equation

PRESSURE
CYLINDER

Fig. 3.2 Gas Flow Analysis

P 1 V 21 P2 V 22
+ = +
eg 2 g eg 2 g
V 21
At point (1) =0 (KE at nozzle outlets)
2g
P2
Also at point (2) =0
eg
Since nozzle opens to atmosphere as analysis is based on gauge
pressure.
Recall equation (2.8)
2
16929 V2
=
493 2 x 9.81
V2 = √ 673.73
V2 = 25.96m/s
V2 = Theoretical Velocity of gas in the system
To determine the discharge rate of gas in the system

65
 Recall equation (2.9)
2
πd
But, A =
4
π d2
Q= xV
4
π ( 0.0127 2 )
Q= X 25.96
4
3.142 ( 0.0127 2 )
Q= X 25.96
4
Q = 0.0033m3/s
3.3.8.1 Energy Loss Due to Friction in Pipes
In determing the energy loss (hi) due friction, equations (2.11) and
(2.12) was used.
493 x 0.0886 x 0.003
Re = = 0.04399
2.979
Thus Re < 2000 = laminar flow
Friction losses in laminar flows
64 64
F= = = 1454.876
ℜ 0.04399
0.889
hL = 1454.876 x x ¿¿
0.03
hL = 17.249NM
3.3.9 Pressure of Gas in The Pipeline
The pressure for which drives the gas and air into the burner is the
pressure of gas in the pipeline. The key equation that relates gas
pressure to flow is Bernoulli’s theorem.
Recall equation (2.13)
p
 + ¿¿
493
p
 = - ¿¿
493
19.62p = - (0.0886)2 x 493

66
 19.62p = 0.00785 x 493
3.8700
p= = 0.1972Nm-2
19.62

3.3.10 Determination of The Orifice Diameter

Recall from the flow equations (2.14), (2.15), (2.16), and (2.17)
Q = M x CV
Q
M= C
v

0.0033
M=
28.095
= 1.175 x 10-4Kg/s
Also,
m = eAV
m
A=
eV
1.175 x 10−4
=
1.808 x 25.96
= 0.0000025034m2
A = 2.5035mm2
ᴨ d2
A=
4
ᴨ d2
2.5035 =
4
2.5035 x 4
d2 =
ᴨ
d2 = 3.187
d = 1.785mm ≃ 2mm
3.3.11 Heat Losses in Furnace
Mode of heat transfer

67
 Heat flows across temperature differences. For the purpose of this
project there are two modes of heat transfer in and around the
furnace.

In the furnace heat is transfer by convection (which is described as

conduction in a fluid (gas) as enhanced by the motion of the fluid.
While around the furnace heat is transfer by conduction (which is an
exchange of energy by direct interaction between molecules of a
substances containing temperature differences).
By conduction
Heat transfer by conduction can be used to model heat loss through a
wall. For a barrier of constant thickness, the rate of heat loss is given
by;
KA ( T 2−T 1 )
Q=
d
Table 3.6: Thermal Conductivity

MATERIAL THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

THERMAL (W/m K)
CONDUCTIVITY
(cal/sec)/(cm2C/cm)

Diamond … 1000

Silver 1.01 406.0

Copper 0.99 385.0

Gold … 314

Brass … 109.0

Aluminum 0.50 205.0

Iron 0.163 79.5

Steel … 50.2

Lead 0.083 34.7

68
Mercury … 8.3

Ice 0.005 1.6

Glass, ordinary 0.0025 0.8

Concrete 0.002 0.8

Water at 200C 0.0014 0.6

Asbestos 0.0004 0.08

Snow (dry) 0.00026 …

Fiberglass 0.00015 0.04

Brick, insulating … 0.15

Brick, red … 0.6

Cork board 0.00011 0.0 4

Wool felt 0.0001 0.04

Rock wool … 0.04

Polystyrene … 0.033
(Styrofoam)

Polyurethane … 0.02

Wood 0.0001 0.12 – 0.04

Air at 00C 0.000057 0.024

Helium (200C) … 0.138

Hydrogen (200C) … 0.172

Nitrogen (200C) … 0.0234

Oxygen (200C) … 0.0238

Plaster of paris …. 0.1185

(source: Young, H. D. (2017) University Physics)

From the thermal conductivity Table 3.4 Shown above;

The thermal conductivity of insulating materials is given by the formula:
69
Thermal conductivity of insulating material = thermal conductivity of
refractory bricks + thermal conductivity of plaster of paris

Refractory bricks = 0.15W/Mk

Plaster of paris = 0.1185W/Mk

K = 0.15 + 0.1185

= 0.2685W/Mk

For wall surface area

A = 2(LW + LH +WH)

= 2[(42 x 30) + (49 x 30) + (42 x 39)]

= 9576cm2

= 0.009576m2

Thickness of insulating materials

Refractory bricks = 5cm = 0.05m

Plaster of paris = 0.01m

d = 0.05 + 0.01

= 0.06

∆T = T2 – T1

= (1000 – 30)0C

Q = KA∆T

0.2685 x 0.009576 x (1000−30)

=
0.06

70
= 41.567W

Heat loss due to convection

Recall equation (2.19)

Q = hA∆ T

q
But, h =
∆T

Thermal conductivity of the insulating `materials;

Refractory bricks = 0.15w/mk

Plaster of Paris = 0.1185w/mk

= 0.15 + 0.1185 = 0.2685w/mk

∆ T = (1000 – 30) = 9700C

Converting temperature from degree Celsius to kelvin

= (970 + 273) K

≃ 1243k

q (heat flux) is given according to Fourier’s law using equation (2.20)

−λ ∆ T
q=
∆x

−( 0.2685 x 1243 )
q=
0.05

q =6674.91w/m2

This means that every second of 6674.91joules of heat is transferred

through 1m2 every of the wall.

71
 h (convection heat transfer coefficient is given by equation (2.21));

q
h=
∆T

6674.92
h= = 5.37w/m2k
1243

Recall equation,

Q = hA∆T

Q = 5.37 x 0.009576 x 1243

= 63.91w ≃ 0.0639kw

Heat to Refractory

Calculation can be made to determine the heat transfer to the

Refractory material using the heat transfer formula in equation (2.22)
given below;

H A ∆T
=Q= xk
t X

Total wall area of furnace ‘A’ = 9576cm2 = 0.0009576m2

Refractory brick thickness ‘X’ = 5cm = 0.05m

∆T = Variation of temperature

Ambient temperature = 300 = 303k

Final temperature = 10000 = 1273k

Thermal conductivity of refractory brick ‘k’ = 0.15w/mk

Recall equation (2.22)

H ( 1273−303 )
= Q = 0.009576 x x 0.15
t 0.05

72
 970
= 0.009576 x x 0.15
0.05

= 0.009576 x 19400 x 0.15

= 27.866w/m

3.3.12 Material Requirements and Selection

The following were the materials selection considered during the
course of this project:
Table 3.7: Material Selection
Materials Materials selected/Reasons for selection

Stainless Steel This material was selected for the gas burners
piping system, because it provides corrosion
resistance along with superior resistance to
oxidation.

Refractory Bricks This was used as insulating material inside the

combustion chamber due to its ability to
withstand the high temperature.

Ceramic Fiber Light weight insulating material placed at the

base in the combustion chamber to prevent direct
contact between the specimen and the gas
burners.

Solenoid Valve Electromechanical control valve, use to control

the gas flow.

Thermostat Sensor that continuously sense data to controller

Plaster of Paris Also used in the combustion due to high fire

resistance

3.4 Construction Procedure of the Gas Burners

The following procedures were used for the construction of the

temperature control unit and they include;

(i) The materials (stainless304) was purchased.

73
 Fig. 3.3 Steel Pipes

(ii) The material (stainless 304) was cut to the required dimensions.

Fig. 3.4 Cut steel pipe

(iii) The various parts of the pipe were joined using a tungsten inert
gas welding machine to form T-joints

Fig. 3.5 T-joint steel pipe

The burner after construction was inserted in the walls of the furnace
body.

3.4.1 Construction of the Gas Burners

i. Upon careful analysis during the course of material selection and

requirements, stainless steel pipe was chosen for constructing the gas
burners.

74
 ii. The material was measured a length of 35inches using measuring
tape and twelve pieces was cut.

iii. The 12 piece of pipe cut from the stainless material was measured and
points marked severally with a centre-to-centre distance of 8mm along
the vertical axis.

iv. The points were drilled using a 2mm drill bit as derived from the orifice
calculation.

v. The pipes drilled were joined with a tungsten inert gas welding process
to form shape with 3 pipes joined closely on each side of the furnace
wall and a pipes located at the base of the furnace.

vi. The pipe outlet was connected to 2/2 – way solenoid valve which has
inlet and outlet and also have two position (open or closed).

vii. The gas hose from the cylinder was connected to the inlet of the
solenoid valve to control gas flow.

viii. A ceramic fibre was placed on top the base of the gas burner pipes to
prevent direct contact of test specimen on the burners.

3.4.2 The Constuction Procedure for Furnace Floor

The furnace floor was constructed using ceramic fiber the construction
process of refractory ceramic fibre lining includes:

1. Inspection and cleaning: before the construction, the size and flatness
of the steel structure surface shall be checked, and the surface shall be
clean and dry, so as to facilitate the construction and ensure the
service time of the industrial furnace lining;
2. The concrete implementation process of refractory ceramic fiber lining
construction is as follows:

75
 (1) Marking: according to the prepared drawings, determine the
midpoint position of the components to ensure that the requirements
are met, and complete the marking steps in a reliable way;

(2) Welding: after the anchor midpoint is determined, it is accurately

welded, and then full welding is carried out after the position is
determined; besides the anchor material, the high temperature
strength of the anchor is also related to the size and thickness of the
anchor;

(3) Auxiliary materials for laying ceramic fiber blanket: the auxiliary
materials include: backing blanket, sandwich blanket, etc. the gap
between each layer is staggered and overlapped, and the butt joint is
tight; in the laying of top sandwich blanket, the “U” type fixation shall
be adopted. After laying, the collision and other physical gravity
impact shall be prevented to avoid the deviation of the midpoint
position;

(4) Installation of ceramic fiber module: after the installation of the

above two layers, select the parts to be installed to install the ceramic
fiber module. Insert the middle point of the cold surface anchor of the
module into the guide rod, initially fix the middle point position, and
after confirming that it is seamless, fasten the middle point nut by nine
parts for later adjustment. After completion, the corresponding
inspection should be carried out to ensure the flatness and beauty and
extend the service time.

3.5 Design of Temperature Control Unit

The Printed Circuit Board was modeled using computer aided design
(CAD) and produced using computer aided manufacturing (CAM). The
board was milled using a PCB miller.

76
 The control Box was purchased but modifications were made using
CNC Miller and the parts were produced by 3D printer.

The thermocouple of the furnace (type ‘S’ thermocouple) was

calibrated against an already calibrated high performance
thermocouple (though a type ‘K’ thermocouple). The type ‘K’
thermocouple has a temperature limit of 800 oC as compared with the
‘S’ which has a temperature range of over 1100 oC. to achieve the S
type temperature range, we calibrated up to 800 oC and extrapolated
the data to 1100oC.

3.5.1 Material Requirement and Selection

i. The Thermocouple: the required temperature for the furnace is

1100oC. The thermocouple selected (used) was a Type-S which has a
temperature range of -500C to 14800C

ii. The Printed Circuit Board: Is a flat laminated composite made from
non-conductive substrate materials with layers of copper circuitry
buried internally.

iii. Electric Control Unit: it is an embedded system in the furnace control

box that controls one or more of the electrical systems. It comprises
of the following in the table 3.4 below

Table 3.8: Material Requirement and Selection

S/N Components Type of Materials

1 Transformer Copper
2 Relays Iron
3 Heater Plastic
4 Thermocouple Platinum/Rhodium
5 Door switch Plastic
6 Contactors Plastic
7 Push buttons Plastic

77
3.5.2 Construction Procedure

The following procedures were used for the construction of the

temperature control unit and they include;

(i) The control box was purchased

(ii) A circuit diagram was designed for the printed circuit board
(PCB).

Fig.
3.6: PCB
Circuit
Diagram

(iii) The circuit flow chart was designed for the printed circuit board
(PCB) using the circuit diagram, with Computer Aided Design
(CAD).

78
 Fig 3.7: Flow Diagram of Electrical/Control

(iv) The PCB was then modelled using Computer Aided Design

(CAD).

Fig. 3.8: PCB CAD Model

(v) The modelled board was produced through Computer Aided

Manufacturing (CAM) using a PCB miller.

(vi) Modifications were made on the box using CNC miller to create
openings for the control buttons and the regulating knob.

79
 Fig. 3.9: Control box under fabrication

Fig. 3.10: 3D CAD Image of Completed Control Box.

The thermocouple of the furnace (type ‘S’ thermocouple) was

calibrated against an already calibrated high performance
thermocouple (though a type ‘K’ thermocouple). The type ‘K’
thermocouple has a temperature limit of 800 oC as compared with the
‘S’ which has a temperature range of over 1100 oC to achieve the S
type temperature range, we calibrated up to 800 oC and extrapolated
the data to 1100oC.

3.5.3 Calibration of Temperature Control Unit

Simulation of Actual Temperature using an already calibrated electric

muffle furnace

80
 This procedure is accomplished through the use of an electric muffle
furnace as the source of temperature. The electric muffle furnace has
the advantage of generating the actual temperature where the
thermocouple or RTD is exposed to, as required by specifications.

Pre-calibration Requirements:

Warm-up time: At least 1 hour for proper stabilization

Temperature: 23 +/- 5oC

Humidity: 50 +/- 30%

Perform 3 trials for each range or test points

3.6 Measurement Data Sheet (MDS)

Calibration Procedure with electric muffle furnace:

1) Observe proper care and safety, the electric muffle furnace is

capable of generating a high temperature which can cause burn
and damage.

2) Check the temperature controller and its probe for any visual
defects that can affect its accuracy. Discontinue calibration if any
defect is noted.

3) Prepare the measurement data sheet (MDS) and record all

necessary details or information (Brand, Model, serial, etc.).

4) Determine the range of the temperature controller (an example is

from -260 to 1260oc), choose at least 5 test point.

5) Turn on the electric muffle furnace and set to the desired

temperature, starting from low to high temperature.

6) Carefully insert the probe on the holes of the electric muffle

furnace until it touches the metal block in the bottom. There are

81
 different sizes of holes so choose the one that fits properly to
ensure maximum heat absorption and accuracy.

7) Wait for the display to stabilize (approximately 15 min) then get

the reading, perform at least 3 trials with 2 min interval. Record
readings on the MDS.

8) Continue steps 4 to 7 until all ranges are finished.

9) Check readings if within the accuracy defined by the manufacturer,

for example, accuracy = +/-2 of reading.

10) If the readings are already within limits update the corresponding
record, do labeling and sealing, otherwise, do necessary repair or
adjustment.

11) End of calibration.

3.7 Voltage and Temperature

Figure 3.8 shows the graphical representation depicting the

relationship of voltage and temperature.

Table 3.9: Shows The Voltage and Temperature Readings

82
 Temprature
300

250
f(x) = 244.400148001171 x + 95.8699490534431

200
Temperature (oC)

150

100

50

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

voltage (V)

Fig. 3.11 Graphical Representation Depicting the Relationship of

Voltage and Temperature.

Since the control unit does not understand temperature but voltage,
the signal from the thermocouple is converted to voltage which then
sends the correct signal to the circuit to trigger on/off action based on
the pre-set temperature value for the given heat treatment operation

83
 CHAPTER FOUR

TEST AND RESULTS

This chapter presents the functionality and operational test of the gas
muffle furnace. The results obtained during the furnace various test were
evaluated graphically to determine the heating temperatures of the furnace
at specific time intervals. Other areas covered are bill of engineering
measurement and evaluation as well as safety measures for the furnace.

4.1 TEST ON THE FURNACE

The gas muffle furnace test was conducted to determine if the gas muffle
furnace will perform successfully in functionality and in operation. The test
was done in two stages which are;

84
Fig. 4.1: 3D Model of Heat-Treatment Muffle Furnace with Door Open

4.1.1 Functionality Test of the Furnace

The functionality test was carried out to test whether the furnace after
conversion is working i.e. functional. This was done by connecting the
furnace to a gas supply via a hose. In order to ensure the exact
amount of gas flow into the combustion, a pressure regulator was
fixed along the supply line (hose). It was observed that the furnace
does not completely depends on gas to fuel the entire parts as the
temperature control unit requires electricity for operation. The gas
regulator located on the gas cylinder was then turned ON to allow the

85
 flow of gas into the mixing chamber (where air and gas was mixed in
sufficient rate).
To allow flow into the combustion chamber after circulation of the fuel
into the chamber, ignition was possible using a spark plug which was
triggered by the controller to charge the gas muffle furnace. Upon
completion of the test, it was observed to be successful prior to the
operational test.
4.1.2 Gas Leakage Test
Gas leakage can occur in the gas supply line to the furnace. Gas
leakage test was conducted by mixing a teaspoon of soup into the cup
of water solution and to get a concentrated solution. And usually
inspected to look for bubbles to show up upon the application of the
procedure, bubble were observed to be seen at the inlet. This indicated
that there was gas escaping from that area and a gas clip was installed
and tighten between the valve inlet and gas hose, to prevent gas
escape at the terminal.
4.1.3 Operational Test of the Furnace

A 3kg scrap metal (mild steel specimen) was kept inside the furnace.
According to the metal and furnace heat capacity the required
temperature was set at 10000C and after that gas was allowed to flow
up to required temperature by switching on the gas supply using the
gas regulator on the cylinder. As the gas was released, the solenoid
valve controls the flow of gas inside the furnace. And the controller
which is connected with the solenoid valve and thermocouple
controlled the inside temperature of the furnace body. The controller
take data from thermocouple (temperature sensor) and maintain the
required temperature inside the furnace by switching on/off the
solenoid valve. The time was monitored using the temperature
controller, and the result for 100% gas pressure was evaluated

86
 graphically to determine the amount of time that will raise the
temperature of the material.

The furnace was able to reach 1000 ̊C in 2hours, 10mins and 4secs
using 25kg propane gas. The furnace consumed 1kg-1.5kg of propane
gas from the gas cylinder in that particular time.

4.2 TEST ON TEMPERATURE CONTROL UNIT

The functionality test carried out on the `1temperature control unit is

to ascertain if this device can measure the rated temperature of
10000C inside the furnace. Due to the low capacity of the circuit
breaker, a heat generating device (hot air gun) was used to test the
functionality of an amplifier (LN358) which read on the scale of 0-0.5,
1-3 etc. and produces output in mill volts. This amplifier has limit of
200 - 300oC.
A type-S thermocouple which was incorporated in the furnace to
measure heat temperature generates voltage in mill volts. This small
voltage was amplified to a range suitable for micro-controllers used in
temperature control unit. The micro controllers used for amplification
is the ATMEGA358 and it has a maximum input signal of 5volts. The S-
thermocouple has a temperature range of 100 – 1700 oC corresponding
to 8 – 10millivolts as depicted in a standard chart of thermocouple
potential vs temperature.

87
 R1

R1

Fig. 4.2: Circuit Diagram of the Amplifier

4.3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

As the furnace is being charged, the valve opened and temperature

inside the furnace body start increasing rapidly but when the
temperature has reached the required temperature the controller
switched off the valve. But due to enclosed surface temperature goes
beyond the required level. As the valve remain closed the temperature
inside the furnace started decreasing again. Whenever its goes below
the required level the controller will switch on the solenoid valve and
similar procedure will be followed again.

The result of the test running the gas muffle furnace, the performance
involved in running the furnace, are here presented when a 3kg scrap
metal (mild steel) is being heated inside the furnace chamber.

4.3.1 Temperature Vs. Time

When the design and fabrication of the project was done, the testing of
the furnace was carried out. The furnace was heated up and the time
taken for the furnace to reach 1000 ̊C was considered. The readings
were read from the digitally programmed control mechanism.

88
 Furnace incumbent Temperature

After running the furnace, it was noticed that the furnace’s

temperature is a function of time. Below is a representation of the
furnace temperature as it varies with time when a 3kg scrap metal was
being heated inside the furnace chamber.

4.1: Table Results on Temperature Against Time

TEMPERATURE (℃) TIME (Min)

100 10.43

200 19.76

300 32.40

400 46.19

500 64.20

600 70.68

The testing ranged from (100-600) oC. However, by interpolating, the

time taken to reach temperature 7000C, 8000C, 9000C and 10000C can
be gotten

89
90
 Table 4.2: Results Temperature Against Time from
Interpolation

TEMPERATURE (℃) TIME (Min)

700 85.60

800 100.25

900 119.46

1000 130.40

1200

1000 1000
900
800 800
Temperature (OC)

700
600 600
500
400 400
300
200 200
100
0
3 6 .4 9 .2 8 .6 5 6 4
0 .4 9 .7 32 6 .1 64 0 .6 85 0 .2 9 .4 3 0.
1 1 4 7 10 11 1

Time (S)

Fig. 4.3 A Graph of temperature (0C) Against Time (S)

90
 The ambient temperature derived in design consideration as 30 0C was
noted and as the furnace charges it was observed to raise the
temperature up to 1000C at a time of 10mins 43secs. This value was
tabulated and the reading were recorded at every 100 0C interval until
the desire temperature was obtained. From the graph it was seen that
as temperature increases from the graph it was observed that as
temperature increases the time varies for each intervals due to energy
losses

The furnace was able to reach 1000 ̊C in 2hours, 10mins and 4secs
using 25kg propane gas. The furnace consumed 1kg-1.5kg of propane
gas from the gas cylinder in that particular time.

4.4 SAFETY PRECAUTION FOR THE FURNACE

The following precautions to be observed when working on the heat-

treatment furnace are as follow:

i. Muffle Furnace and the controller must not exceed 85% in relative
humidity, no workplace conductive dust, explosive gas or corrosive
gases.
ii. Where parts with metallic materials are to be heated, a large number
of volatile and corrosive gases will affect the surface of the heating
element, so there is destruction and shortened life expectancy.
Therefore, when heating, timely prevention and good openings sealed
containers should be eliminated.
iii. The controller should be limited to use in an ambient temperature
range of 0-40°C.
iv. According to the technical requirements, always check the furnace
regularly, check if each controller wiring is good, whether the
phenomenon stuck stranded indicator pointer movement and
electricity meter calibration potentiometer because magnets,

91
 demagnetization, rose silk, shrapnel errors caused by fatigue,
increased destruction balance situation
v. Do not suddenly pull out the thermocouple at high temperatures to
prevent jacket burst.
vi. The flame should never be directed against the crucible, but always
enter the furnace barrel tangentially in order that the flame and heat
take a spiral path around the crucible.
vii. Keep the furnace clean, timely removal of things like the furnace
oxide.

92
Fig. 4.4 Orthographic View of Gas Muffle Furnace

93
Fig. 4.5 Exploded View of Gas Muffle Furnace

94
Fig. 4.6 Isometric View of Gas Muffle Furnace

95
Fig. 4.7 Modeled View of Gas Muffle Furnace

96
4.5 BILL OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT EVALUATION (BEME)

The cost of materials used in this project as at (July, 2021) are

presented in table 4.2. However, the total cost of rehabilitation also
include cost of labour and miscellaneous expenses.

Table 4.3: Bill of Engineering Materials

S/N Item Description Qty Unit Price Total Price

(N) (N)
1. Resistors 12 20 200
2. Capacitor 22µf 2 20 40
3. Capacitor 0.1µf 1 40 40
4. 16 Type Potentiometers 1 40 7800
5. Op Amp LM358 1 1260 1260
6. 16 pins JTAG connector 1 5320 5320
7. Oscillator 16MHz 1 100 100
8. 2N2222 transistor 4 50 200
9. PCB double sided 1 11530 11530
10. 8 pin Header male &female 4 50 200
11. 4 pin Header male and 2 100 200
female
12. Screw Terminal Connector 4 1500 6000
13. 5V Relay 2 1150 2300
14. Electronic Box 1 11200 11200
15. DC Power Generation Unit 1 2300 2300
16. LCD 1 5300 5300
17. Push Buttons 4 50 200
18. At mega 328 Micro 1 1500 1500
Controller
19. Refractory Cement 1 11000 11000

97
20 Stainless 304 2 5000 10000
21 Gas Hose 2 3000 6000
22 Gas clips 4 100 400
23 Pressure regulator 1 20000 20000
24 25kg gas cylinder 1 45000 45000
25 Filling of the gas cylinder 16000 16000
26 Solenoid valve 1 12000 12000
TOTAL 151970

98
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

The conversion of electric fired to gas fired muffle furnace in the

mechanical engineering department, foundry workshop turned out to

be successful as the set objectives were met. The test results showed

that the various components of the furnace are functioning effectively.

It was observed that the maximum heating temperature that could

operate on is 600OC which was 60% efficient. The short fall from its

designed capacity was due to the non-availability of an air blower to

facilitate optimal combustion. However, the furnace is easy operate

and capable of retaining heat due to the effective lagging.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Having achieved the set objectives of this project, the following

recommendations are made:

(i) The gas cylinder should be installed outside the workshop where the

furnace is located to avoid explosion.

(ii)Gas detector device should be readily available for the detection of

gas leakage.

(iii) An industrial gas regulator should be installed on the gas cylinder to

ensure normal flow of gas pressure.

99
(iv) Air blower should be incorporated to facilitate proper combustion.

(v) Research should be carried out on the use of solar power for firing

the furnace.

(vi) For safety purposes, safety interlock switch for furnace door should

be installed to stop furnace operation when the door is opened, thus

ensuring safety of the operator.

(vii) Yearly furnace maintenance. Annual schedule maintenance is highly

recommended for the furnace. A technician or a specialist in furnace

repairs and maintenance should be consulted annually to check the

working condition of the furnace, tighten components, replace bad

parts and check for cracks. This will ensure the furnace performance

is at optimum at all times.

100
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