SICANGCO, JABEZ M.

ETHICS

I.
a.) Why do I have to pass you?
- I reflected in my part that I almost failed this subject. Now that I have realized and learned from my
mistake and negligence, after doing the task that I have to accomplish and learning a lot more in our
lessons, I believe that I deserve to pass in this subject. Therefore, I will need to pass this subject to
complete Architecture course.

b.) What did you learn from our subject?

- I learned a lot about Moral ethical theories and principles that include philosophers and human action
considering right and wrong, Moral beliefs, values, the moral nature of human beings, and the different
terms on ethics that I almost perform every day but didn’t notice before. Since I learned about our subject,
Ethics, I am now able to determine and conclude my reasoning and beliefs. Thus, every philosopher has
different theories and beliefs. Therefore, the ideas I have learned are enough to fulfill my realizations.

c.) Undertaking that you will do better next time, and you will finish college.
- I, Jabez M. Sicangco, pledge that this incident will serve as a lesson to do better next time and to finish
college. I will never let any of my subjects have an incomplete task again, nor will I fail any of my minor
or major subjects.

II.
1. Meta-Ethics – (Metaethics) focuses on moral reasoning and foundational questions that explore the
assumptions related to moral beliefs and practice. It attempts to understand the presuppositions connected to
morality and moral deliberation. Metaethics explores, for example, where moral values originate, what it
means to say something is right or good, whether there are any objective moral facts, whether morality is
(culturally) relative, and whether there is a psychological basis for moral practices and value judgements.

2. Normative Ethics -  A branch of moral philosophy, or ethics, concerned with criteria of what is morally right
and wrong. It includes the formulation of moral rules that have direct  implications for what human actions,
institutions, and ways of life should be like. It is typically contrasted with theoretical  ethics, or metaethics,
which is concerned with the nature rather than the content of ethical theories and moral judgments,
and applied ethics, or the application of normative ethics to practical problems.

3. Cognitivism – It is a learning theory that focusses on how information is received, organized, stored, and
retrieved by the mind. It uses the mind as an information processer. Therefore, cognitivism looks beyond
observable behavior, viewing learning as internal mental processes.

4. Non-Cognitivism - Is a meta-ethical view that moral utterances lack truth-value and do not

assert propositions. A non-cognitivist denies the cognitivist claim that "moral judgments are capable of being
objectively true, because they describe some feature of the world." [1] If moral statements cannot be true, and if
one cannot know something that is not true, noncognitivism implies that moral knowledge is impossible.

5. Moral Objectivism - A moral truth or value exists irrespective of human perception or opinion, according to
the philosophical perspective known as moral objectivism. It maintains that some moral standards and
judgements are true and are legitimate independent of one's own beliefs, cultural background, or personal
preferences.
6. Moral Empiricism - An ethical theory that emphasizes the role of empirical evidence and observations in
determining moral principles and judgments. It suggests that moral knowledge is derived from our
experiences, observations of the world, and the consequences of actions.

7. Moral Rationalism - Emphasizes the role of reason and rationality in determining moral principles and
judgments. It asserts that moral knowledge and truths can be discovered through rational inquiry, independent
of empirical observations or subjective experiences.

8. Nicomachean Ethics - is eudaimonia, Aristotle's most important study of personal morality and the ends of
human life, has for many centuries been a widely read and influential book. This emphasizes how spiritual
growth can be achieved only by working on yourself every day, and how the process never really ends,
although you become self-actualized on the way.

9. Eudaimonia – In Aristotelian ethics, the condition of human flourishing or of living well.  It is often simply

rendered as '"happiness"' or '"the good life."' The focus is on a whole life rather than any particular moment
within it. Eudaimonia is the highest human good, the only human good that is desirable for its own sake (as an
end in itself) rather than for the sake of something else (as a means toward some other end).

10. Self-Realization - is the truth of who we are, what we are, or it is the ability to turn oneself into something
one is worthy of being, according to Abraham Maslow. Understanding that there are many intelligences rather
than only one is one method of self-realization.

11. Phronesis - is a Greek term which means ‘practical wisdom’ that has been derived from learning and
evidence of practical things.  Phronesis leads to breakthrough thinking and creativity and enables the
individual to discern and make good judgements about what is the right thing to do in a situation.

12. Virtues of Intellect – Is about a rational part of the soul, are methods by which people arrive at truth, and
come in two categories: the scientific (having to do with things that are eternal and invariable) and the
calculative or deliberative (having to do with things that are variable or contingent).

13. Golden Mean – or "middle way" is an ancient concept described in various traditions. The concept was often
discussed within ethical contexts and considered as a virtue. Thus, It is a tool to gauge where virtue falls
between two vices, excess and deficiency. Aristotle describes ethical virtue as a disposition. That is, a
tendency induced by our habits to have feelings apropos to a given situation. Defective dispositions,
according to Aristotle, are tendencies to have inappropriate feelings.

14. Morally Virtuous Man - An individual who consistently embodies and practices virtuous qualities in their
character and conduct. They cultivate and exhibit virtues that promote ethical behavior, and their actions are
guided by their virtuous disposition rather than external rules or outcomes.

15. Natural Law - refers to laws of morality ascertainable through human reason. Moral philosophers have
posited that such laws are antecedent and independent of positive, man-made law. The understanding of
natural law is varied and complex, dependent upon the role morality plays in determining the authority of
legal norms and rules. 

16. Divine Law - Divine law is derived from eternal law as it appears historically to humans, especially through
revelation. A need for a well-ordered society and the capacity to create such order is rooted in human nature,
and the Divine Law shares this function with other legal systems. 
17. Synderesis - turns human nature to good and objects to evil. It gives awareness of the principles of morality
to be applied to actions. Synderesis concerns knowing the principles applicable to all actions, and conscience
applies knowledge to a specific act. Thus, conscience comes from synderesis.

18. Acquired Habits - Disposition to perform certain types of action. If this disposition involves an enhanced
cognitive control of actions, it can be considered a “habit-as-learning”. The current view of habit in
neuroscience, which lacks cognitive control, and we term “habit-as-routine”, is also covered by the
Aristotelian conception. 

19. Infused Habits - refer to patterns of behavior that are acquired through repeated practice and become
ingrained in an individual's character. Ethical habits or virtuous habits are those behaviors that reflect
consistent adherence to moral values and virtuous principles. By consciously practicing and repeating
virtuous behaviors, individuals can internalize these habits and make them a natural part of their character.

20. Theological – In ethics refers to an approach to ethics that is grounded in religious beliefs, doctrines, or
principles. It involves examining moral questions and dilemmas within the framework of a particular religious
tradition. Otherwise, Theological ethics seeks to understand and determine ethical norms, values, and
obligations based on religious teachings, scriptures, divine commandments, and theological concepts.

21. Moral Virtues - also known as ethical virtues, are qualities or dispositions of character that are considered
morally praiseworthy and contribute to the development of a good and virtuous person. The actions to
promote individual and collective well-being includes generosity, compassion, honesty, solidarity, fortitude,
justice, and patience.

22. Inclinations - refer to natural tendencies or desires that individuals have towards certain actions or behaviors.
These inclinations can influence moral decision-making and ethical behavior. While inclinations alone do not
determine the moral worth of an action, they play a role in shaping individual choices and actions within the
context of ethical frameworks.

23. Goodwill - a fundamental concept in ethics, particularly within the framework of Immanuel Kant's moral
philosophy. According to Kant, Goodwill is the only thing that is intrinsically good and morally praiseworthy.
It is the basis for moral actions and the source of moral worth.

24. Acts from the Motive of Duty - The term "acts from the motive of duty" refers to behaviors that are carried
out without any other motivations or wants other than what is considered morally correct. Immanuel Kant's
ethical philosophy, particularly his deontological perspective, is based on this idea.

25. Categorical Imperative - is a central concept in the ethical philosophy of Immanuel Kant. It is a principle
that serves as a fundamental guideline for moral decision-making and the basis for Kant's deontological
ethical theory. It emphasizes the concept of duty and rationality as the foundation of morality.

26. Hypothetical Imperative – A conditional in nature and is based on achieving a particular goal or end. It
outlines what action one should take if they desire a specific outcome. In other words, it is a command that
applies only if one desires a certain result. According to Kant, moral actions should be guided by principles
that can be rationally and universally justified, rather than being contingent on subjective desires.

27. The Formula of Humanity – also known as the formula of respect that states: "Act in such a way that you
treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always as an end and never merely
as a means.” This formulation emphasizes the inherent worth and dignity of human beings and emphasizes
 that individuals should never be treated as mere tools or objects for the achievement of one's own goals.
According to Kant, rational beings possess intrinsic value and should be respected as ends in themselves.

28. Rights Theory - also known as rights-based ethics or deontological ethics, is an ethical framework that
emphasizes the importance of individual rights as the foundation for moral reasoning and decision-making. It
posits that individuals possess certain fundamental rights by virtue of their humanity, and these rights should
be respected and protected.

29. Plain Scalar Consequentialism - Of any two things a person might do at any given moment, one is better
than another to the extent that its overall consequences are better than the other's overall consequences . This
theory implies that the actions with the best consequences are morally best, but it does not say that if you do
the second-best you are doing something morally wrong. It says nothing about right and wrong.

30. Double Consequentialism – this term emphasizes the importance of both foresight and hindsight when
assessing the moral worth of an action. It recognizes that while individuals may have good intentions, the
actual consequences of their actions may differ from what was initially anticipated.

31. Dual Consequentialism – define as the word “right” is ambiguous. It has a moral sense and an objective
sense. Thus, the objectively right action is the action with the best consequences, and the morally right action
is any action with the best reasonably expected consequences.

32. Expectable Consequentialism - says that an action can be right even if I do not think reasonably about it at
all, so long as it is the action, I would have estimated to have the best consequences if I had done a reasonable
job of making an estimate.

33. Reasonable Consequentialism - An action is morally right if and only if it has the best reasonably expected
consequences. Reasonable Consequentialism says that for an action of mine to be right, I must come to a
reasonable conclusion beforehand about the consequences.

34. Friendly Consequentialism - is a variant of consequentialism that focuses on promoting friendly or

cooperative behavior to achieve positive outcomes. It combines the principles of consequentialism with an
emphasis on fostering positive relationships and cooperation among individuals.
35. Egoistic Consequentialism - Egoistic consequentialism is a moral theory that falls under the broader
category of consequentialism. This focuses solely on the consequences of actions for the individual agent. In
other words, it centers on the self-interest and well-being of the person making the moral decision.

36. Act Utilitarianism - an action's moral goodness or badness is based on how it affects the world, and the ideal
action is one that affects the world in the best way by producing the largest quantity of net happiness for
people in general. Unlike rule utilitarianism, act utilitarianism does not consider whether the person followed
a rule when they acted; the action is the only important consideration.

37. Rule Utilitarianism - a philosophical theory about the distinction between moral and immoral choices. It
claims that people should follow whichever moral rules will have the best overall impact. Under this view, the
moral choice in each situation is not determined by the concrete results of that specific choice, but by the
long-term effects that would occur if people generally followed whatever rule the person uses to make the
choice.

38. Principle of Utility - A principle that actions are to be judged by their usefulness in this sense: their tendency
to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good, or happiness. It prioritizes the individual's self-interest and
 well-being. It stands in contrast to traditional utilitarianism, which seeks to maximize overall happiness for all
individuals affected by an action.

39. Hedonic Calculus - Hedonic Calculus is one of the central ideas of Bentham's Act Utilitarianism. Created by
combining hedonism, (the pursuit of pleasures and avoidance of pains) and democracy (majority rule) the
hedonic calculus is used to evaluate how much pleasure or pain would be caused by an action.

40. Secondary Principles - are principles that can be derived directly from first principles, but that are not
themselves fundamental. In the realm of ethics, this means rules that people should follow to fulfill the first
ethical principle of maximizing utility or promoting the general happiness.

41. Higher Pleasures - One of John Stuart Mill's most well-known claims concern the distinction between higher
and lower pleasures. Higher pleasures—which are, roughly, 'mental' pleasures—are, says Mill, always
preferable to lower pleasures—the pleasures of the body.
42. Lower Pleasures - lower pleasures are those that are more basic, physical, and immediate in nature. These
pleasures are often associated with bodily sensations, sensual indulgence, and immediate gratification.
Examples of lower pleasures may include eating, drinking, sensual experiences, and other bodily enjoyments.
43. Social Justice - “Social justice is the view that everyone deserves equal economic, political and social rights
and opportunities. Social workers aim to open the doors of access and opportunity for everyone, particularly
those in greatest need.”
44. Distributive Justice - refers to the perceived fairness of an allocation or, more broadly, to how people judge
what they receive. It was probably the first type of justice to gain the attention of organizational justice
scholars and continues to receive wide attention.

45. Egalitarianism - a philosophical perspective that emphasizes equality and equal treatment across gender,
religion, economic status, and political beliefs. It may focus on income inequality and distribution, which are
ideas that influenced the development of various economic and political systems.
46. Capitalism - Ethical perspectives on capitalism can be broadly divided into two categories: those that defend
capitalism as morally justifiable and those that criticize or raise ethical concerns about its consequences.
47. Socialism - is the social system which institutionalizes envy and self-sacrifice: It is the social system which uses
compulsion and the organized violence of the State to expropriate wealth from the producer class for its redistribution
to the parasitical class.
48. Inclusive Growth - is about narrowing inequalities through the process of economic growth. While there are
lots of policy interventions that narrow inequalities through other means, they do not all constitute inclusive
growth.
49. Progressive Tax System - involves a tax rate that increases (or progresses) as taxable income increases. It
imposes a lower tax rate on low-income earners and a higher tax rate on those with a higher income. This is
usually achieved by creating tax brackets that group taxpayers by income range.