Personal skills Development Part 2

Unit 8

Anger managment

Anger: A sudden, keen displeasure aroused by real or assumed injury or injustice and usually
accompanied by the desire to punish.

People with large amounts of anger may also have:

Control and management tips

How to cool down

How to calm someone else/ a client down

Anger may be defined as a sudden, keen displeasure aroused by real or

assumed injury or injustice and is usually accompanied by the desire to
punish. Anger is a normal human emotion but problems arise when people
allow anger to control them rather than controlling it.

Anger can be categorised as appropriate or inappropriate anger. Appropriate

anger must fulfill three criteria:

● A real threat must exist. There has to be a logical reason for

experiencing the anger.
● The anger level must be proportional to the level of the threat.
● The action taken should reduce the threat without causing harm to
yourself or others. Wild, harmful actions are considered inappropriate.

Inappropriate anger is damaging to all involved and must be avoided.

It is possible to change a person's response to anger, thereby controlling the

effects of anger. Before a person can control his or her anger, he or she
should learn how to express it. There are certain actions that would normally
take place but should be avoided at all costs:

Evasion Evading anger leads to stress and stress-related illnesses

such as headaches and depression.
 Containment If anger is contained, eventually uncontrolled outbursts or
fits of anger will occur. This could also lead to stress and
other related illnesses.

Displacement Taking out anger on something or someone else who is

not the object of your anger.

Indirect This occurs when the reason for being angry is hidden
expression and blamed on a completely different reason.

Controlling anger
There is a common misconception that it is good to have an outburst of anger.
However, an outburst of anger actually escalates anger and aggression and
does nothing to help resolve the situation. A change of lifestyle and manner of
thinking is required if a person has anger management problems. Take a look
at the following suggestions:

● Regular exercise – Regular exercise helps to reduce stress and

improves a person's mood, which will make it easier to cope with life's
daily uncertainties.
● Do you have control over the situation? – When you start to get angry,
take a few seconds to ask, "do I have any control over this?" or "is this
important enough to get angry over?" For many of life's inconveniences,
such as long queues or traffic jams, you will probably answer "no" to
one or both of these questions. However, if the answer is "yes" to both
of them, it may be worth taking action.
● Identify Triggers - Identifying what triggers your anger is an important
step in resolving the issue. Consider whether it is in certain
circumstances or around certain people that you feel your anger spiking.
Knowing what triggers your anger can help you to better prepare for
situations and to avoid unnecessary tension.
● Root causes of anger – Everyone has been in a situation where they
are irritable over something trivial. Being able to find the real cause of
 the anger will help you to avoid uncomfortable situations where you lash
out over something minor.
● Everyday frustrations – Break the tension by taking a few deep breaths
and relax. Soothing music helps to break the tension.
● Communication – It is important to be able to deal with feelings of
hostility and not to anger others. When you are approached in a hostile
manner, try the following to control anger:
○ Count to ten before you speak. Take a deep breath to calm down.
○ Try to speak as calmly and logically as possible. Try not to say the
first thing that comes to mind. Instead, take a deep breath and
think carefully about what to say.
○ Listen respectfully to what the other person has to say.
○ Avoid all-or-nothing phrases, such as, "you always" or "you
never", which tend to alienate others.
○ Do not make demands such as "I must have …" or "I want …"
Instead, politely state your desires or needs such as "I would like
…" or "It upsets me when …".
○ If one of you is too angry to continue, suggest continuing the
discussion later
● Humour – Humour can be an effective antidote for anger. It can quickly
defuse tense feelings and help put things into perspective. A simple trick
is to put pictures to the phrases you use in anger. Avoid slipping into
nasty sarcasm. Sarcasm is sometimes another unhealthy way of
expressing anger.
● Alternatives – Some people become angry or upset only in certain
situations. To overcome this, for several weeks, keep a record of when
and where you become angry. See if a pattern emerges, and try to
identify what triggers that anger.
● Counselling – If it is not possible to control the anger, and all
suggestions have been tried, then talking to a doctor about anger
management counselling may be the only option left. The doctor can
refer you to a mental health professional.

Using the CALM technique

In case an irate customer approaches you, arguments should be avoided at
all costs so as not to escalate anger levels. This, however, is not always
possible. The CALM technique is an effective method that can be used to
defuse tense situations:

● Calm yourself first – In order to calm an angry person effectively, you

have to be calm yourself. Do not be defensive and remember to use the
techniques discussed previously.
● Acknowledge the client – What the customer says is important and he
or she should be able to see that. Clarify the situation by asking more
about it. Ensure that good eye contact is maintained but do not stare.
● Listen actively – Never interrupt the angry person when he or she is
explaining the situation.
● Make sure the situation is clearly understood – This will ensure that you
have the right information when starting to work on a solution.

Uinit 9 stress control

Signs of too much bad stress

Bad stress habits

Managing stress

What is stress?

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'Stress' is a familiar word to most people and is usually equated with worrying
– worrying about losing your job, paying bills, writing an examination, dealing
with customers, or a family member who requires an operation are all
examples of stress-related situations. This, however, is not necessarily the
complete truth. Examine the list below to see if you can identify which items
are sources of stress and which are not:

● You receive a promotion at work.

● Your car has a flat tyre.
● You go to a fun party that lasts until 2 a.m.
● Your dog gets sick.
● Your new bedroom suite is being delivered.
● Your best friend and his wife are coming to stay for a week.
● You get a bad case of hay fever.

Actually, all of these are sources of stress. Stress comes in a variety of forms
which include happy situations, sad situations and physical illnesses. Each of
these forms of stress is a normal part of everyday life and needs to be dealt
with. To understand what stress is, you should examine how the human body
defines stress.

To a person's body, stress is synonymous with change. Changes in a person's

life (good or bad) are considered stressful to the body. Changes in a person's
daily routines, physical health and even imagined changes are interpreted as
stress by the body. (An imagined change is, for example, worrying that you
may lose your job during the next corporate downsizing exercise.)

Stress does have its uses. Stressors (things or events that cause stress) can,
for example cause 'eustress' (the happy kind of stress like a marriage), which
could provide a person with a competitive edge during athletic activities or
help a person to think clearly and express thoughts directly during a job
interview. However, too much stress can cause an adverse and even
dangerous effect on the body, placing it in a state of overstress. Some people
are able to handle much higher levels of stress than others. This is called
Stress Tolerance. One out of ten individuals in most parts of the world has
Low Stress Tolerance (LST). People with low stress tolerance may experience
depression and other physical ailments as a result of stress. Table 9.1
describes some of the physical symptoms of overstress.

Table 9.1 – Physical symptoms of overstress

Affected area of the Symptoms

body

The brain Fatigue

Aches and pains

Crying spells

Depression

Anxiety attacks

Sleep disturbance

The gastrointestinal tract Ulcers

Cramps and diarrhoea

Colitis

Irritable bowel movement

The glandular system Thyroid gland malfunction

The cardiovascular system High blood pressure

Heart attack

Abnormal heartbeat

Stroke
The skin Itchy skin rashes

The immune system Decreased resistance to infections and

neoplasm

Stressors cause these effects on the body and continue doing so over a long
period. It can take up to a year to recover from any given stressor, depending
on the severity.

Types of stress
Part of developing a coping skill is eliminating, postponing, or substituting
stresses to keep stress levels as low as possible. Before this can be done, the
kind of stress being experienced and the causes of stress should be identified.
For the purpose of this learning manual, we will distinguish between eustress
and distress.

Eustress
Eustress is usually associated with stress that comes from happy occasions
or situations. It is the type of stress that is likely to be experienced if the lottery
is won and causes a range of feelings such as relief, ecstasy, euphoria and
wild happiness.

A few examples of stressors that can cause eustress are:

● Purchasing a new home

● Job promotion
● Marriage or birth of a baby
● A holiday

Distress
Distress stems from sad or tragic situations. It is likely that, if not
well-managed, this type of stress can cause serious physical or mental illness.
Examples of stressors that can cause distress are:

● Death of a friend or family member

 ● Financial issues
● Work demands
● Car troubles

Stress and brain chemicals

The first obstacle to overcome in handling stress is to understand how stress
physically affects the brain and the delicate chemical balance required for
making a person feel happy and normal. Three of the brain's chemicals,
serotonin, noradrenalin and dopamine, which are responsible for making a
person feel happy and normal, are easily affected by too much stress.

Serotonin
This chemical is, among other things, responsible for making your body ready
for sleep. If serotonin does not perform its duties correctly, you will not be able
to get any sleep. The brain has an internal 'clock' in the pineal gland located in
the centre of the brain. It is responsible for the production of serotonin which
regulates and synchronises activities in your body. Serotonin is converted to
another chemical called melatonin and then converted back to serotonin. This
process normally takes 25 hours but tends to match its cycle to one earth day
(24 hours).

Noradrenalin
Noradrenalin is a brain chemical similar to adrenalin. It is the chemical that is
released into the body by the adrenal gland when you are frightened. It
increases your heart rate and moves the blood flow from non-essential areas
in the body to the muscles. This prepares you for the 'fight or flight' instinct.
Noradrenalin is responsible for setting your energy levels. If this chemical
does not function correctly, then you would be without energy and would feel
tired.

Dopamine
Dopamine controls the brain's pleasure centre. The pleasure centre of the
brain allows you to enjoy life. When stress affects dopamine, this part of the
brain becomes inoperative and pleasure activities will cease. There are other
chemicals in the body that can control your sensitivity to pain. These are
called endorphins (chemical painkillers produced by the brain). Dopamine can
also affect the production of these endorphins and can make you more
sensitive to pain. With severe dopamine/endorphin malfunction, life becomes
painful and devoid of any pleasure.

How not to handle stress

People try to handle stress in different ways. In this section, we will discuss
the ways in which you should not handle stress and why.

When people do not feel well, they normally try to do something or take
something to feel better. There are numerous substances that can be injected,
inhaled, or ingested which boost chemicals such as serotonin, noradrenalin
and dopamine. These help to restore temporarily the balance on an
overstressed brain. These substances include but are not limited to:

Sugar: Simple sugars such as honey (glucose), cane

sugar (sucrose), fruit sugars (fructose), and milk
sugars (lactose) are easily absorbed by the body,
increasing the sense of well-being.

Caffeine: Caffeine can be found in coffee, tea, chocolates,

sodas, etc. and is second only to sugar in terms of
abuse. Caffeine is often used to make people feel
energised.

Alcohol: As the third most widely used substance, alcohol

assists the body's clock in functioning, which in turn
may help you sleep. Also, alcohol can be used to
make one feel energised and assertive, and
diminish pain sensation, increasing pleasure.

Tobacco, marijuana, All of these are substances which directly boost or

cocaine, heroin and affect chemicals in the brain responsible for making
amphetamines: you feel normal and happy. They are potent and
highly addictive.
Adrenalin: Your own adrenalin, when released into the blood
stream, instantly increases the production of
noradrenalin in the brain, making you feel
energised. It is not surprising that people often
make use of gambling or high-risk sports to feel
normal and happy.

Remember, these substances only temporarily boost the chemicals in your

brain. When the effects wear off, the level of each chemical in the brain will
drop significantly, leaving you feeling even worse than before. It is not
possible to balance the chemicals in the brain using these substances. This
may develop into a vicious cycle where further abuse of these substances
takes place after their effects have worn off.

Another physical effect that results from the use of these substances is
adaptation. The body quickly adapts to these substances, which means
increasing quantities are required to gain the same effect. Cigarettes, for
example, may seem beneficial in the short term but actually cause severe
bodily harm. Most smokers start with one or two cigarettes a day which
eventually leads to smoking a pack or two each day.

Developing coping skills

The following guidelines are provided as better alternatives to managing
overstress instead of substance abuse:

● Make your life as regular as clockwork – Overstress disrupts the body's

clock, affecting your sleep pattern. It can be very difficult to fall asleep
and stay asleep or, conversely, a person may be sleepy all the time,
depending on which position the clock was in when it stopped working.
Set a reasonable wake-up time and bed-time and stick to them until the
body's clock has reset itself. One may lie in bed awake and not be able
to get to sleep. In this case, read a book or do something around the
house because, sooner or later, you will feel sleepy. Remember that it
takes the body's clock three weeks to adjust to new sleeping schedules.
 ● Give yourself a break – The body needs adequate time to heal and
repair itself. If symptoms of overstress are experienced, then every
morning, create a list of things you wish to be done that day. Prioritize
that list from highest priority to least. Once that has been done, start
working on tasks that have a higher priority on your list. If you have
done at least all high priority tasks then you may move the remainder
tasks to the next day.
● Lighten the load of social engagements – Have someone else organise
the holiday dinner for the family. If not, learn to say no. Say no in a polite
manner, for example "I am flattered by the invitation, but I simply cannot
do it this time."
● Postpone changes in your living environment – Remember that change
is stress. Postpone redecorating your home or moving to a new house
or apartment.
● Reduce the number of hours you spend at work or school – If you are a
workaholic or spend too much time at school, you need to reduce the
energy drain you are placing on your body.
● The overstress diet – Sugar is the number one substance abused by
most individuals in attempts to boost their sense of well-being. This, of
course, is actually an added stress. Maintain a constant blood sugar
level by trying to avoid simple sugars and eat complex sugars found in
pastas, bread, etc. Eat more vegetables because they can boost the
production of serotonin in the brain. Finally, supplement your diet with a
good multivitamin.
● Reduce your substance abuse – Reduce the intake of simple sugars,
caffeine, alcohol, etc.
● Avoid allergies (if applicable) – Allergies are a major source of stress for
some people. Try to avoid things that may trigger your allergies.
● Start enjoyable exercises – The value of a 20 minute to two-hour
workout three times a week cannot be overemphasised. Most people do
not worry while they are exercising, giving their brains a well-deserved
rest. There are many other ways to relax the mind, e.g. listening to
music, reading, working on a hobby, playing a musical instrument, etc.

If the guidelines above do not help and the symptoms of overstress (fatigue,
aches and pains, anxiety, problems sleeping, etc.) are still experienced, then
visit a doctor. Physical illnesses such as thyroid disease, calcium imbalance,
anaemia, diabetes, etc. place too much stress on the body and can cause
overstress. A thorough examination by a doctor will reveal the physical causes
of a condition, if any.

A doctor may also prescribe brain chemical re-balancers. These are different
types of medication designed to either boost or lower chemical production in
the brain in attempts to reach a balance. Consult a physician for more
information on these.

Finally, seek the help of a professional counsellor. Counsellors may help to

handle general life problems in less stressful ways. Specifically, seek
instruction in cognitive therapy, assertiveness training, self-relaxation,
meditation and the like. These techniques are very useful in reducing stress
by helping to relax the mind.

Unit 10 Problem solving skills

Introduction
A number of technical subjects (IT engineering, Computer Science, etc.)
require well-developed problem-solving skills from the student. Some people
find it difficult to reach the required problem-solving skill level. The reasons for
this phenomenon are both emotional and cognitive. In the following sections,
we will outline the emotional and cognitive barriers to problem-solving and
developing problem-solving skills.

Barriers to problem solving

Emotional and psychological barriers
In many cases, individuals question their own abilities to effectively solve
problems. Thinking patterns, anxieties and other fears contribute to these
inhibitions. This could be because each individual learns by means of different
styles and because people process information in different ways. Based on
the ways in which people process information, we can distinguish between the
following intelligences:
 ● Intrapersonal intelligence – People who possess this intelligence work
best alone. They are highly self-aware and self-motivated.
● Interpersonal intelligence – People in this category are very sociable.
Teamwork and group interaction are very important to them.
● Logical/mathematical intelligence – Here, people have the ability to
detect patterns and think logically. They need to see reasons for ideas
and be able to link ideas to one another.
● Musical/rhythmic intelligence – People with musical (rhythmic)
intelligence can recognise tones and music, and understand rhythm.
These people would feel more relaxed when music is playing.
● Visual/spatial intelligence – People in this intelligence category are
influenced by colours and shapes. They use diagrams and colours to
explain concepts and ideas.
● Bodily/kinaesthetic intelligence – The people in this category have
control over body movements and enjoy physical activities. Having an
object to play with while listening is typical of this intelligence.
● Verbal/linguistic intelligence – Stories and analogies appeal to those in
the verbal intelligence category. They enjoy listening and speaking.
● Naturalistic/environmental intelligence – People in this category are
more comfortable in a natural setting such as a garden.

Cognitive barriers
There are numerous cognitive barriers to problem-solving. The most inhibitive
of these is the inability to identify and use concepts and procedures in
analogous situations. Some people often find difficulty in recognising the
analogy and transferring the theory to the current problem. Certain
methodological (cognitive) methods can be used to solve problems effectively:

● Algorithmic procedures – Ohm's law, Pythagoras's theorem, BODMAS

(Brackets, Of, Division, Multiplication, Addition and Subtraction), etc. are
all examples of algorithmic procedures. These methods can easily be
applied to solve problems.
● Heuristics – These are general plans (schemas) designed to help solve
a wide variety of problems. Acronyms are commonly used to help
people remember the steps in the scheme. For example, the IDEAL
problem-solving process.
The IDEAL problem solving process
This problem-solving process is familiar to most people and often happens
unconsciously. It consists of a number of consecutive steps from recognising
that there is a problem up to the evaluation of the solution to the problem.
Problem-solving entails finding a solution to something that is uncertain. It is
influenced by a number of variables such as the nature of the problem or the
people that are involved.

Solving a problem could happen by chance, through trial and error, or by

theoretical means. Following the steps in the problem-solving process does
not guarantee a solution, but it breaks down the process into logical steps
which makes it much more likely to find a solution.

The following heuristic method, designed by physiologists J.D. Bransford and

B.S. Stein, is easily remembered and applied:

IDENTIFY the The first step to solve any problem is to identify its nature.
problem "What is the problem?" "What does the problem ask for?"

DEFINE and Problems come in a variety of forms or patterns. Problems

represent the can be simple or complex. They may or may not exhibit
problem recognisable patterns. It is essential to identify the structure
of the problem. Look for any patterns or analogies that can
help in arriving at a solution. If the problem is complex, then
break it down into smaller, more manageable problems.

EXPLORE Deriving solution strategies is the next step to solving the

possible problem. – "What can I do to solve the problem?" "Where
solution can I get more information?" Look for more than one
strategies possible solution strategy. Brainstorming ideas with others
who have some knowledge of the problem is effective.
Remember to note all the possible strategies you can use.
ACT on the Act on the simplest and most efficient strategy you noted.
strategies Sometimes there is a time constraint in solving the
problem.

LOOK back Look back and evaluate the effectiveness of the strategy
and evaluate that you have employed. Has the problem been solved
and, if so, how? Ascertain whether the solution can be
reused to solve other, similar problems and if
documentation is necessary.

In the next section, we will illustrate the use of the IDEAL process by applying
it to a particular example.

Applying the IDEAL problem-solving process

Identify the Graham is not present at the Monday morning progress

problem: meetings.

Define the Graham is not present at the Monday morning progress

problem: meetings because he arrives late for work. Other
employees are also arriving late for work.

Explore a The cause of employees being late for work needs to be

strategy or a determined. A list of possible solutions needs to be drawn.
solution:
Act on the Most of the suggested strategies provide solutions, but do
selected not determine the cause of the problem. If the cause is not
strategy or determined, then the same problem may arise at a later
solution: stage. The best proposed solution is to schedule a meeting
with each of the relevant employees to discuss the problem
and to determine the cause.

Look back and With the new strategies in place, Mr. Anderson, the
evaluate: manager, will have to constantly monitor whether the new
strategies are effective. Employees are requested to attend
a monthly private meeting with the counselor to continually
assess the situation to ensure that they are motivated,
determined and, most of all, content.

Decision-making and problem-solving tools and techniques

In this section we will discuss three tools and techniques that can be used to
help in the decision-making and problem-solving processes. They are, SWOT
analysis, cause-and-effect diagrams and Gantt charts. They all contribute to
well-informed decisions.

The SWOT analysis

A SWOT analysis examines the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and
Threats of an organisation or a specific scenario. An organisation knows its
position and can make decisions about the future as soon as it knows its
strengths and weaknesses, the opportunities that are available and the threats
that it may face.

For example, a management team has conducted a SWOT analysis and the
results are as follows:

● Strengths – Strong points of the organisation (What the organisation is

good at).
 ○ Strong product line
○ Good marketing skills
○ Good reputation
● Weaknesses – Areas in which the organisation does not perform well.
○ Unreliable delivery services
○ High staff turnover
○ Inefficient procurement processes
● Opportunities – External possibilities that the organisation can explore.
○ Foreign expansion
○ New networking possibilities
○ New international product offerings
● Threats – External factors that may threaten the success of the
organisation and its operations.
○ Unknown economic environment
○ Foreign competition
○ Changing market preferences

If the strengths and opportunities outweigh the weaknesses and threats, the
proposal will be much more viable. Considering the results of the SWOT
analysis, management has a clearer picture of the organisation's current
position and future influences. They should aim to turn its weaknesses into
strengths and its threats into opportunities to enhance its future success.
Conducting the SWOT analysis enables the management team to make a
much more informed decision.

Cause-and-effect diagram
The cause-and-effect diagram (Figure 10.1), also known as the Fishbone
diagram or Ishikawa diagram, is a graphical tool that helps to identify all the
possible causes or contributing factors of a problem. The concept behind a
cause-and-effect diagram is to identify the effect (problem) and to link any
possible or potential causes to the effect.

Compiling a cause-and-effect diagram is generally a team effort which,

according to Hellriegel et al. (2001), consists of the following four steps:

● Define the effect

 ○ The team needs to reach consensus on what the effect (problem)
is and write the problem statement on the right-hand side of the
diagram.
● Identify categories of causes
○ The main factors that may lead to the effect need to be identified.
The four most frequently used categories are people, materials,
methods and equipment. However, these do not have to be used
at all – it is entirely up to the team. Once the general categories
have been established, they can be refined in the third step.
● Identify causes within each category
○ The causes which contribute to each category need to be
identified. The causes of each category need to be refined until
the root cause is established.
● Complete diagram
○ Once the effect and all the causes (general and specific) have
been identified, the most important causes in each category
should be added to the diagram to complete it.

he Gantt chart
A Gantt chart is another visual tool that can be used to support the
problem-solving and decision-making processes. A Gantt chart, named after
its inventor Henry Gantt, displays the progression of tasks which form part of a
larger project over time.

Each task is listed and a specific time frame is assigned to the completion of
that task. The tasks are plotted horizontally on the chart. For example, the
process of building a house can be seen as a project with a number of tasks
which need to be completed. The steps for creating a Gantt chart will be
explained with the example of building a house:

Step 1: Define the project and all its major related tasks

● Lay foundations and electrical conduits.

● Lay floor slabs.
● Build walls.
● Build roof.
● Install windows and doors.
 ● Plaster and paint wall.

Step 2: Determine the duration of each task

● Lay foundations and electrical conduits – Ten days.

● Lay floor slabs – Ten days.
● Build walls – Five days.
● Build roof – Five days.
● Install windows and doors – Five days.
● Plaster and paint walls – Ten days.

Step 3: Determine the order of the tasks

● Identify which tasks are dependent on each other and Consecutiv

which ones can take place simultaneously. e
● Lay foundations and electrical conduits.
● Lay floor slabs.
● Build walls.

● Build roof. Concurrent

● Install windows and doors.
● Plaster and paint walls.

Step 4: Create the chart outline and plot all the tasks in order (vertically) as
shown in Figure 10.2.

March April

Task Weeks: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 Lay foundations and electrical conduits

 2 Cast concrete floor slabs

3 Build walls

4 Build roof

5 Install windows and doors

6 Plaster and paint walls

Figure 10.2– Gantt chart: Building a house outline with tasks

Step 5: Indicate the duration of each task (horizontally) as shown in Figure

10.3. Pay attention to the interdependencies between tasks.

he Gantt chart
A Gantt chart is another visual tool that can be used to support the
problem-solving and decision-making processes. A Gantt chart, named after
its inventor Henry Gantt, displays the progression of tasks which form part of a
larger project over time.

Each task is listed and a specific time frame is assigned to the completion of
that task. The tasks are plotted horizontally on the chart. For example, the
process of building a house can be seen as a project with a number of tasks
which need to be completed. The steps for creating a Gantt chart will be
explained with the example of building a house:

Step 1: Define the project and all its major related tasks

● Lay foundations and electrical conduits.

● Lay floor slabs.
● Build walls.
● Build roof.
● Install windows and doors.
 ● Plaster and paint wall.

Step 2: Determine the duration of each task

● Lay foundations and electrical conduits – Ten days.

● Lay floor slabs – Ten days.
● Build walls – Five days.
● Build roof – Five days.
● Install windows and doors – Five days.
● Plaster and paint walls – Ten days.

Step 3: Determine the order of the tasks

● Identify which tasks are dependent on each other and Consecutiv

which ones can take place simultaneously. e
● Lay foundations and electrical conduits.
● Lay floor slabs.
● Build walls.

● Build roof. Concurrent

● Install windows and doors.
● Plaster and paint walls.

Step 4: Create the chart outline and plot all the tasks in order (vertically) as
shown in Figure 10.2.

March April

Task Weeks: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 Lay foundations and electrical conduits

 2 Cast concrete floor slabs

3 Build walls

4 Build roof

5 Install windows and doors

6 Plaster and paint walls

Figure 10.2– Gantt chart: Building a house outline with tasks

Step 5: Indicate the duration of each task (horizontally) as shown in Figure

10.3. Pay attention to the interdependencies between tasks.

March April

Task Weeks: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 Lay foundations and electrical conduits

2 Cast concrete floor slabs

3 Build walls

4 Build roof

5 Install windows and doors

6 Plaster and paint walls

Figure 10.3 – Gantt chart: Building a house

From this example, we can see which tasks are dependent on each other
(e.g. the floor slabs cannot be cast until the foundations are completed) and
which tasks can occur simultaneously (e.g. the walls can be painted while the
windows are being installed).

This is a very simplified example, but the concepts should be clear. Each task
can be further divided into subtasks, for example building the roof (an overall
process of five days) involves making or purchasing the trusses, treating the
wood, joining them to the load-bearing walls, fastening beams, laying the roof
tiles and installing down pipes.

The following information can be deduced from the Gantt chart:

● All tasks relating to a project

● The order of tasks
● The duration of each task
● The duration of the entire project
● The progress at any given time
● Dependencies between tasks

Some Gantt charts include milestones which indicate more important tasks. A
milestone is a significant event that normally has no duration on a project,
which serves as a marker to help to identify necessary activities, set schedule
goals and monitor progress. A Gantt chart enables the project manager to
identify any problems that may arise in the sequencing of events. The project
manager may choose to allocate additional time to some of the tasks as
contingency.

Figure 10.3 – Gantt chart: Building a house

From this example, we can see which tasks are dependent on each other
(e.g. the floor slabs cannot be cast until the foundations are completed) and
which tasks can occur simultaneously (e.g. the walls can be painted while the
windows are being installed).
This is a very simplified example, but the concepts should be clear. Each task
can be further divided into subtasks, for example building the roof (an overall
process of five days) involves making or purchasing the trusses, treating the
wood, joining them to the load-bearing walls, fastening beams, laying the roof
tiles and installing down pipes.

The following information can be deduced from the Gantt chart:

● All tasks relating to a project

● The order of tasks
● The duration of each task
● The duration of the entire project
● The progress at any given time
● Dependencies between tasks

Some Gantt charts include milestones which indicate more important tasks. A
milestone is a significant event that normally has no duration on a project,
which serves as a marker to help to identify necessary activities, set schedule
goals and monitor progress. A Gantt chart enables the project manager to
identify any problems that may arise in the sequencing of events. The project
manager may choose to allocate additional time to some of the tasks as
contingency.

Unit 11 Research skills

Research as a Life Skill

Our ability to find an answer to a question or a solution to a problem is defined
as research skills. The ability to gather information about your topic, review
that information, and analyse and interpret that information in a way that leads
us to a solution are all examples of research skills. Research allows you to
pursue your interests, learn something new, hone your problem-solving skills
and push yourself in new directions.

Undergraduate students who participate in research reap numerous benefits.

Undergraduate students can benefit from research experience by better
understanding published works, learning to balance collaborative and
individual work, determining an area of interest and launching their careers as
researchers.

Advancements that have improved some lives and saved others may not have
been possible without research. For institutes of higher learning, the research
component allows for a more comprehensive educational experience in which
students can investigate and assess the impacts of implementing new thought
processes.

Examples of Research Skills

Research skills include:

Searching for information

All research entails the gathering of reliable data that you may examine and
apply to arrive at a conclusion or solution.

Attention to detail
When conducting research, the ability to pay close attention to detail is often a
necessary talent.

Taking notes
Note-taking skills involve the ability to gather the most important information
being presented to you and summarise it in writing so you can reference it
later.

Time management
Time management abilities are the ability to break down work into
manageable chunks, create a deadline-oriented plan and execute each piece
of your plan by the deadline you set. Setting objectives, planning, organising,
delegating and prioritising activities are all examples of time management
abilities.

Problem-solving
Problem-solving skills refer to the ability to handle difficult situations and
overcome complex challenges. Problem-solving skills involve the ability to
break a problem down into its parts, think critically about each element,
analyse the information you find and use that information to form an effective
solution.

Communicating results
The ability to grasp and communicate information in a way that others can
understand is referred to as communication skills. Active listening, observation
and speaking are all important communication abilities. To communicate the
outcomes of your research, you will need solid communication abilities.

How to Develop Research Skills

Everyone is born with the ability to conduct research. You are using research
skills whether you are looking for the best price on a product or researching a
topic for a school project. To improve those skills, take the following steps:

1. Make an outline
The first step in beginning any research project is to create an outline to help
guide your research. Your outline should include a strategy for researching the
questions you need to answer and the information you need to make a
decision. It should also include a strategy for breaking down your research
project into manageable chunks and a timeline for when each piece of your
project should be completed.

2. Know your sources

The Internet has made it easier to find information, but not all sources are
reliable. It is critical to understand how to locate credible sources and analyse
information to determine its credibility. To ensure that you are gathering
accurate information, try to cross-reference information from one source with
information from another. Locate the original source of the information to
ensure its accuracy.

3. Learn to use advanced search techniques

When conducting research on the Internet, most search engines allow
you to use advanced search preferences to tailor your search results.
These search techniques will assist you in finding the information you
seek from credible sources more efficiently.
4. Practice
Practice is one of the most effective ways to improve any new or existing skill.
You can practise developing research skills by assigning yourself small
research projects that will assist you with a current life event. For instance, if
you are planning a vacation, you can practise researching various activities as
well as hotel and transportation prices. If you are looking for work, you can
practise researching different positions and companies.

Tips for Highlighting Research Skills

Since research skills are so important to employers, it is also crucial to
emphasise them throughout your job hunt. These abilities can be
demonstrated on your resume, cover letter and during the job interview. Here
are a few pointers on how to emphasise your research abilities at every stage
of your job search

Research skills for your resume and cover letter

Many research-related abilities are important keywords to include in your
resume and cover letter. Many organisations, for example, seek applicants
with abilities such as attention to detail, time management, critical thinking,
problem-solving, communication and project management. Use these
keywords in your summary statement and while detailing your relevant
experience to demonstrate these skills throughout your resume and cover
letter.

Research skills for the job interview

Before your next job interview, do some research on both the position
and the organisation. Preparing sufficiently for your interview is the first
step toward demonstrating to your interviewer that you can gather and
analyse relevant data. You can demonstrate your research abilities
during your interview by using the facts you obtained during your
preparation to respond to the interviewer's queries. This demonstrates
to the interviewer that you can discover and analyse essential data and
successfully express it while presenting your research.
What Skills Do You Gain From Research?
· Report writing.

· Data collection.

· Analysis of information from different sources.

· Finding information off the Internet.

· Critical thinking.

· Planning and scheduling.

· Interviewing.

· Critical analysis.

How to Write a Research Paper

A research paper is a piece of academic writing that contains in-depth
independent research analysis, interpretation and argument. Research papers
are comparable to academic essays, but they are usually longer and more
extensive assignments that are used to evaluate not just your writing abilities,
but also your scholarly research abilities. A research paper needs you to
exhibit a thorough understanding of your subject, engage with a number of
sources and contribute something unique to the discussion. From
understanding your assignment to editing your final document, this
step-by-step tutorial will walk you through the whole writing process.

1. Understand the assignment

Completing a research paper successfully means accomplishing the specific
tasks set out for you. Before you start, make sure you thoroughly understand
the assignment task sheet:

· Read it carefully, looking for anything confusing you might need to clarify
with your professor.
· Identify the assignment goal, deadline, length specifications, formatting
and submission method.

· Make a bulleted list of the key points, then go back and cross completed
items off as you are writing.

· Carefully consider your timeframe and word limit; be realistic, and plan
enough time to research, write and edit.

2. Choose a research paper topic

There are various ways to come up with a research paper topic, from
brainstorming with a pen and paper to discussing it with a classmate or
lecturer. You can try free writing, which entails deciding on a wide topic and
writing constantly for two or three minutes to find anything pertinent that might
be fascinating. Other studies can also serve as a source of inspiration. Ideas
for other specific areas that warrant further investigation are frequently
included in the discussion or suggestions sections of research publications.
Once you have a wide subject area in mind, focus it down to a topic that
interests you, satisfies the requirements of your assignment and is
researchable. Aim for ideas that are both original and specific.

3. Conduct preliminary research

Make a mental note of any debates that seem relevant to the topic and try to
narrow down a problem to which you can devote your paper. To guarantee
you don't miss anything important, consult a range of sources, including
journals, books and reputable websites. Not only should you double-check
your ideas, but you should also hunt for sources that contradict them. You
might find it helpful to establish some research questions at this point to guide
you.

4. Develop a thesis statement

A thesis statement determines the goal and position of your article by stating
your key point. The thesis statement should answer the research question if
you started with one. It should also state what facts and logic you'll use to
back up your claim. The thesis statement should be brief, controversial and
well-organised. That is, it should summarise your thesis in a phrase or two,
make a claim that requires additional proof or analysis, and make a logical
point that connects all sections of the work. The thesis statement will most
likely be revised and refined as you conduct more research, but it can act as a
guide throughout the writing process.

5. Create a research paper outline

A research paper outline is simply a list of the main themes, arguments and
evidence you want to include, split into parts with headers so you can get a
general idea of how the paper will appear before you begin writing. It's worth
devoting some time to creating a structural plan because it may make the
writing process much more efficient.

6. Write a first draft of the research paper

Paying close attention to proper arrangement and logical grouping of
paragraphs and phrases will aid in the second draft. Use as few words as
possible to express your ideas so that you can remember what you were
attempting to convey when you return to the text. You do not have to begin
with the introduction. Start where it seems most natural for you – some people
prefer to finish the toughest portions first, while others prefer to start with the
easiest. Use your outline as a road map while you are working. Large chunks
of text should not be deleted. The essential building elements of research
papers are paragraphs. Each one should concentrate on a particular point or
concept that contributes to the paper's broader argument or goal.

7. Write the introduction

The research paper introduction should address three questions: What, why
and how? After finishing the introduction, the reader should know what the
paper is about, why it is worth reading, and how you will build your arguments.

8. Write a compelling body of text

The major struggle faced by most writers is how to organise the information
presented in the paper, which is one reason an outline is so useful. However,
remember that the outline is only a guide and, when writing, you can be
flexible with the order in which the information and arguments are presented.

9. Write the conclusion

The purpose of the research paper conclusion is to guide the reader out of the
article's argument by providing a sense of closure. Follow the flow of the
paper, focusing on how it all comes together to establish your argument. Make
sure the reader knows how you have resolved the concerns highlighted in the
beginning to give the article a feeling of closure. You could also talk about the
argument's broader implications, outline what the paper has to offer future
students of the subject and suggest any questions the paper's argument
raises but can't or won't try to answer.

10. The second draft

There are four main considerations when it comes to the second draft.

· Check to see if your vision for the paper matches the initial draft
and, more crucially, if your paper still responds to the task.

· Identify any assumptions that may require (more) explanation,

keeping your reader's point of view in mind. Remove these points if you
can't back them up with more evidence.

· Be willing to rearrange your thoughts. Check to see if any parts are

out of place or if your thoughts might be better structured. If you realise
that previous concepts do not fit as well as you had hoped, eliminate or
compress them. You could also come up with new and well-suited ideas
while writing the first draft.

11. The revision process

The goal during the revision and proofreading process is to ensure you have
completed all the necessary tasks and that the paper is as well-articulated as
possible.

Finally,double-check that your work is prepared appropriately according

to the requirements of the citation style you have chosen.
Key Terms
· Research skills

· Research paper