∆L= α L0 ∆T ( linear thermal expansion )

∆V= β V0 ∆T ( volume thermal expansion )

Q mc ∆T
= ( heat required to change temperature of a certain mass )

Q nC ∆T
= ( heat required to change temperature of a certain number of moles )

Q = ± mL ( heat transfer in a phase change)

dQ T −T
=
H = kA H C ( heat current in conduction)
dt L

𝐴𝐴(𝑇𝑇𝐻𝐻 −𝑇𝑇𝐶𝐶 )
𝐻𝐻 = (heat current in conduction)
𝑅𝑅

𝐿𝐿
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑘𝑘 (relationship between thermal resistance and thermal conductivity)

H = Aeσ T 4 ( heat current in radiation )

H net Aeσ (T 4 − Ts 4 )
= (net heat current in radiation)

mtotal = nM ( total mass, number of moles, and molar mass)

pV = nRT ( ideal-gas equation)

𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛2
�𝑝𝑝 + 𝑉𝑉 2
� (𝑉𝑉 − 𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑏) = 𝑛𝑛 𝑅𝑅 𝑇𝑇 (van der Waals’ equation)

𝑅𝑅 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑁𝑁𝐴𝐴 (gas constant, Boltzmann constant, Avogadro’s number)

M = NAm ( molar mass, Avogadro's number, and mass of a molecule )

𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑝𝑝2
𝐸𝐸𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = = 2𝑚𝑚 (kinetic energy)
2

𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑣𝑣 (momentum)
𝐸𝐸𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝑚𝑚 𝑔𝑔 ℎ (potential energy near the earth’s surface)

𝑊𝑊 = 𝐹𝐹 𝑠𝑠 (work)

K tr = 3 nRT
2
( average translational kinetic energy of an ideal gas )

1
2
m (υ )
2
av = 3 kT
2
( average translational kinetic energy of a gas molecule )

3kT 3RT
υrms
= (υ=
) 2
av =
m M
( root-mean-square speed of a gas molecule )

CV = 3 R
2
( ideal gas of point particles )

CV = 5 R
2
( diatomic gas, including rotation )

CV = 3R ( ideal monatomic solid)

V2
W = ∫ pdV
V1
( work done in a volume change)

∆U = Q − W ( first law of thermodynamics )

= dQ − dW
dU ( first law of thermodynamics, infinitesimal process)

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑛𝑛 𝐶𝐶𝑉𝑉 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (change of inner energy and temperature for ideal gas, all processes)

C=
p CV + R ( molar heat capacities of an ideal gas)

Cp
γ= ( ratio of heat capacities)
CV

𝑝𝑝 𝑉𝑉 γ = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (reversible, adiabatic process)

𝑇𝑇 𝑉𝑉 γ−1 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (reversible, adiabatic process)

 W Q Q
e= = 1+ C =
1− C ( thermal efficiency of an engine)
QH QH QH

QC QC
=
K = ( coefficient of performance of a refrigerator )
W QH − QC

TC TH − TC
1
eCarnot =− = ( efficiency of a Carnot engine)
TH TH

TC
K Carnot = ( coefficient of performance of a Carnot refrigerator )
TH − TC

2 dQ
∆S =∫ ( entropy change in a reversible process)
1 T

Error Propagation:

In addition and subtraction: errors add

example: z = x – y + w; Δz = Δx + Δy + Δw

In multiplication and division: relative errors add

example: z = x y / w; Δz/z = Δx/x + Δy/y + Δw/w