Goel2023 - Metal Oxide Semiconductors For Gas Sensing

Received: 22 July 2022 Revised: 15 November 2022 Accepted: 17 November 2022
DOI: 10.1002/eng2.12604
REVIEW
Metal oxide semiconductors for gas sensing
Neeraj Goel1 Kishor Kunal1 Aditya Kushwaha1 Mahesh Kumar2
1
Department of Electronics and
Communication Engineering, Netaji Abstract
Subhas University of Technology, New The usage of the gas sensor has been increasing very rapidly in the industry and
Delhi, India
in daily life for various potential applications. In the recent years, metal oxide
2
Department of Electrical Engineering,
semiconductors (MOS) become the primary choice for designing highly sensi-
Indian Institute of Technology Jodhpur,
Jodhpur, India tive, stable, and low-cost real-life applications-based gas sensors due to their
inherent physical and chemical properties. Researchers have proposed numer-
Correspondence
Mahesh Kumar, Department of Electrical
ous sensing mechanisms to explain the functionality of MOS-based gas sensors.
Engineering, Indian Institute of In this review, we have comprehensively covered different sensing mechanisms
Technology Jodhpur, Jodhpur 342011, used for MOS. We have also discussed different parameters affecting the sensitiv-
India.
Email: mkumar@iitj.ac.in ity and selectivity of the gas sensors. Moreover, the different techniques used to
enhance the gas sensing response of MOS-based sensors are also extensively cov-
ered. And finally, we give our prospective on recent opportunities and challenges
on the future applications of MOS-based gas sensors.
KEYWORDS
gas sensors, heterojunction, metal oxide semiconductors, sensing mechanism
1 I N T RO DU CT ION
In today’s world, we want to expand the limit of our perceptions. To broaden the limit, a large number of sensors are devel-
oped. Gas sensor is a device that can detect a specific gas even if the amount or concentration of gas is very small.1,2 Sensor
can help us in identifying the information in our surrounding which is relevant to us and also convert this information
into electric signals.2,3 Gas sensors have been widely used in monitoring industry and domestic environments.4 These
sensors have several advantages such as low power consumption, small size, low cost, and high reliability. The demand
of gas sensors is increasing day by day; hence, we need the gas sensors with high sensitivity and better selectivity.5,6 The
sensing material is one of the deciding factors about the performance of gas sensors. The gas sensing industry is domi-
nated by metal oxide semiconductors (MOS) to fulfill the requirement of ideal gas sensors. MOS-based gas sensors have
many applications such as environmental monitoring, fire detection, detection of harmful gases in mines, home safety,
traffic safety, and healthcare, as shown in Figure 1.3,7,8
In the recent years, MOS gas sensors are one of the most researched groups of sensors particularly with the nanoscale
size of 1–90 nm due to their size dependent properties. The ratio between surface area and their volume increases dras-
tically with decrease in material size. Moreover, the size and materials geometry affected the movement of electrons and
holes in the nanomaterials.5,9 Over the past few years, a wide variety of gas sensors (catalytic-type, electrochemical-type,
and MOS type) emerges based on distinct sensing mechanism and sensing materials. Among all the gas sensing materi-
als, MOS sensors performance is higher because of their unique structures, physical, and chemical properties. MOS-based
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FIGURE 1 Application of MOS-based gas sensors in various fields and their inherent characteristics for developing efficient gas sensors
F I G U R E 2 Sensing range comparison of catalytic-type, electrochemical-type, and MOS-type gas sensors. Reproduced from
Reference 10, with permission from Wiley-VCH
gas sensors could detect the gases even in ppt range, whereas the other kinds of sensors could not perform only in ppb or
ppm ranges, as shown in Figure 2.10 The most often used MOS sensing materials are ZnO, SnO2 , MoO3 , TiO2 , WO3 , NiO,
and Cu2 O.11-17 Furthermore, in high-temperature or harsh situations, these MOS have better stability and response times,
which is prerequisite for practical applications.5 The material’s popularity on the market is further aided by low-cost and
easy production procedures.18,19
This review article gives the brief idea about the MOS gas sensor. This is mainly focused on those parameters which
define the gas sensors performance, sensing mechanism, methods to improve the gas sensing, and sensing-related prop-
erties of the MOS. In this article, we have also discussed about the role of heterojunction and noble metal dopants in
improving the gas sensing which is heavily used for developing high-performance gas sensors.
2 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF GAS S ENSORS
Performance of any gas sensor can be defined by several parameters such as sensitivity, stability, response and recovery
time, selectivity, and operating temperature. Ideal gas sensor should have the high sensitivity and selectivity, good stability,
long life cycle, low operating temperature, and fast response and recovery time.20-23
2.1 Sensitivity
Gas sensor sensitivity is defined as the ability to sense gases. The slope of the response curve (also known as the calibra-
tion curve) is typically used to determine the sensitivity. The response curve is a plot between the device response and
GOEL et al. 3 of 22
concentration of gas.24,25 A steeper slope indicates high sensitivity, while a moderate slope signifies a lower sensitivity. In
general, the normalized ratio of response signal over baseline is called the sensitivity of the gas sensors.
2.2 Selectivity
The selectivity of a gas sensor can be explained as the ability to sense target gas in the presence of other gases. Ideal
gas sensor has high selectivity indicating that it mainly senses the target gas and neglecting the other interfering gases.
Hence, high selectivity confirms that the sensor gives the accurate information about the existence and concentration
of gases.
2.3 Stability
Stability indicates the ability of a sensor to produce reliable results over a period of time. MOS-based gas sensors have
low stability that leads to the undesired result or false alarms. To some extent stability can be improved by lowering the
operating temperature.
2.4 Response time
The time taken by the gas sensor to reach 90% of the saturation value after the triggering is called response time.
Logarithmic curve and error function are the common approximations used for the transient response shape.22
2.5 Recovery time
The time taken by the gas sensor to reach 90% of the initial value after “off” the triggering is called the recovery time.
2.6 Operating temperature
Ideally, the room temperature-based gas sensors are preferred in most of the practical applications due to their less power
consumption, high durability, and easy portability. However, in most of the MOS-based gas sensors, high temperature is
required to activate the absorption/desorption process at the sensing surface.
3 NA NOSTRU CTURES FO R GAS SENSING
The morphologies and dimensions of the grown metal oxides strongly influence the sensing performance of gas sensors.
Mixed dimensional MOSs are proved to be the primary study materials for sensing different gas analytes. When one or
more than one dimension of the nanostructures is equivalent to or less than the Debye length, the gas sensor’s response
changes dramatically.26 By developing a new diffusion–reaction equation, Yuan and co-workers examined the effects of
grain radius on the transient conditions of gas molecule transmission and the sensitivity of gas molecules.27 The the-
oretical investigation demonstrated that with an increase in surface-to-volume ratio more active sites on the surfaces
participate in the gas molecule interaction, providing higher performance.
3.1 0D Nanostructure
The term “0D nanostructured materials” describes materials that have all of their dimensions of the order of nanoscale
range. The 0D nanostructure-based gas sensors include MOSs, noble metals, and quasi-0D quantum dots (QDs), as listed
in Table 1. Jaballah and coworkers synthesized the hexagonal structure of a wurtzite aluminum-magnesium co-doped
4 of 22 GOEL et al.
T A B L E 1 Gas sensing performances of different dimension nanostructures

Nanostructure Sensing material Target gas Concentration Operating temperature Sensitivity Ref.
0D Al—Mg/ZnO H2 2000 ppm 250◦ C 70 (Ra/Rg) 28
NiO/WO3 H2 S 10 ppm 100◦ C 15.031 (Ra/Rg) 29
SnO2 /RGO NO2 4 ppm 200◦ C 4.56 (Rg/Ra) 30
In2 O3 —SnO2 n-Butanol 50 ppm 140◦ C 76.5 (Ra/Rg) 31
CdO/ZnO n-Butanol 200 ppm 300◦ C 148.64 (Ra/Rg) 32
1D Sn—NiO Triethylamine 100 ppm 180◦ C 16.6 (Rg/Ra) 33
34
Au—SnO2 NO2 5 ppm RT 3000 (Ra/Rg)
α-Fe2 O3 /ZnO H2 S 5 ppm 250◦ C 5.98 (Ra/Rg) 35
TiO2 –SnO2 –TiO2 Acetone 1 ppm 280◦ C 13.3 (Ra/Rg) 36
Au—SnO2 /In2 O3 CO 50 ppm 200◦ C 29.2% (ΔR/R0) 37
SWCNTs NO 100 ppb RT 28.64% (ΔR/R0) 38
ZnO–MWCNTs NH3 10 ppm RT 1.022 (Rg/Ra) 39
40
2D TiO2 /Ti3 C2 NO2 125 ppb RT 1.6% (ΔR/R0)
Ni—SnO2 /g—C3 N4 Acetone 10 ppm 125◦ C 142.5 (Ra/Rg) 41
42
ZnO CH4 0.1% RT 62% (ΔR/R0)
Pd—ZnO H2 50 ppm 250◦ C 2.514 (Ra/Rg) 43
ZnO—In2 O3 Ethanol 3 ppm 320◦ C 3.3 (Ra/Rg) 44
Cu2 O/MoS2 NH3 100 ppm RT 268% (ΔR/R0) 45
MXene/SnO2 NH3 50 ppm RT 40% (ΔR/R0) 46
47
Ti3 C2 Tx /WO3 NH3 1 ppm RT 22.3% (ΔR/R0)
W18 O49 /Ti3 C2 Tx Acetone 20 ppm 300◦ C 11.6 (Ra/Rg) 48
49
3D SnO2 NO2 100 ppm RT 35.83 (Ra/Rg)
In2 O3 O3 100 ppb 120◦ C 5.7 (Rg/Ra) 50
ZnO—In2 O3 Ethanol 50 ppm 240◦ C 170 (Ra/Rg) 51
Sb—ZnFe2 O4 n-Butanol 100 ppm 250◦ C 35.5 (Ra/Rg) 52
Co3 O4 /rGO Acetone 10 ppm 160◦ C 4.0 (Rg/Ra) 53
zinc oxide (AZMO) nanostructure using an altered sol–gel technique.28 Compared to undoped ZnO, AMZO screen printed
films demonstrated a significant increase in the sensing performance of the sensor toward CO and CO2 gas molecules.
The improved sensor’s responsiveness was ascribed to the perfect union of distinct characteristics such as reduced particle
size, crystal quality, and donor defect states. Wang et al. have also studied the sensing ability of ZnO nanoparticles upon
exposure to H2 S molecules.54 The ZnO nanoparticles were altered with Ag nanoparticles to obtain a high sensitivity of
298 upon exposure to 10 ppm of H2 S. The improved performance was primarily due to spillover and electron sensitization
effects.
When any two dimensions are in the nanoscale range, then it comes into the 1D nanomaterial category. These 1D nano-
materials include nanorods, nanowires, nanotubes, etc., and have appealing topologies and morphologies for gas sensing
applications, as summarized in Table 1. Tian et al. have shown high sensitivity and fast response of ZnO Nanorods-based
gas sensors toward benzene and ethanol.55 The distinct surface structure due to more exposed facets was the prime factor
in improving the sensing performance. Moreover, doping and surface functionalization of MOSs could further improve
GOEL et al. 5 of 22
the performance of electronic devices. For instance, Lee et al. have demonstrated improvement in the sensing perfor-
mance of SnO2 nanorods-based sensors through doping of noble nanoparticles.56 The doped nanostructure showed a
6 times improvement as compared to the pristine SnO2 -based sensor upon exposure of 1000 ppm H2 at 300◦ C.
In 2D nanostructures, any one of the dimensions is in the nanoscale range. These materials possess stronger bonds
in-plane while they have weak van-der Waals bonding between the monolayers. The 2D nanostructure morphology such
as nanosheets, nanodisks, and nanoplates mainly consists of graphene, metal oxide, hexagonal boron nitride (hBN),
and metal dichalcogenides nanomaterials, as listed in Table 1. They attract the researchers’ attention due to their inter-
esting surface chemistry and quantum confinement effects. Moreover, the versatile physics of 2D materials facilitates
them to form heterojunctions with other dimensional materials without considering their lattice constants. Liang et al.
have reported atomically thin 2D WO3 nanosheets for xylene sensing.57 The ∼4.9 nm thin WO3 nanosheet showed high
sensing performance due to a large number of exposed crystal facets and a high surface-to-volume ratio. Jang et al.
have also demonstrated a 2D SnO2 /CoOx heterogeneous nanosheet-based chemiresistive sensors.58 The sub-10 nm thick
nanosheets showed exceptionally high sensitivity and selectivity upon HCHO exposure due to high porosity and small
grain size.
Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are newly introduced 2D materials that have attracted extensive researchers’
interest. MOFs are a combination of metallic compounds and organic ligands. To create 1D, 2D, or 3D nanostructures,
metal ions/clusters are linked to organic ligands to produce different morphologies based on MOFs.59 MOFs are a spe-
cific type of coordination polymer with tunable porous structures. MOFs are classified as being either microporous,
mesoporous, or macroporous based on the diameter of the pores. Typically, the last two categories are amorphous in
nature. MOFs showed a very high specific surface area and excellent thermal stability ranging from 250◦ C to 500◦ C.
MOFs offer a large number of active sites for the gas molecules to get adsorbed as compared to other porous materi-
als due to their very large surface area. Ali et al. have demonstrated a MOFs-based highly sensitive flexible H2 S gas
sensor.60 The sensor could detect as low as 1 ppm of H2 S even at room temperature. The improved sensing ability was
achieved due to the integration of MOF-5 microparticles into the chitosan organic membrane. The variety of struc-
tural frameworks and the versatility of the pores make this category of materials ideal for a wide range of gas sensing
applications.
In addition to MOFs, MXenes have also shown their great potential for gas sensing applications. MXenes are
hydrophilic in nature and the combination of transition metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides that were found in
2011 at the Drexel University. The general formula of these materials is Mn+1 Xn Tx , where M, X, and Tx denote an early
transition metal (Ti, V, Nb, Mo, Cr, Ta, or Hf), C or N, surface terminations (typically = —O, —OH, —F, or —Cl), and
n varies from 1 to 4.61 MXenes are very helpful in a wide range of applications including energy storage, optoelectronic,
biomedical, and environmental due to their distinctive properties. Hydrofluoric acid is used to selectively etch layers
of transition metal carbides and carbonitrides from the MAX phases to create the first generation MXene. Since then,
several synthesis techniques have been created, such as selective etching in a solution of fluoride salts and other acids,
nonaqueous etchants, and molten salts, enabling the synthesis of novel MXenes with improved control over their surface
chemistries.
In the recent years, MXenes emerge to be one of the most effective gas sensing materials due to their high con-
ductivity, surface reactivity, biocompatibility, and stability. In a very recent study, our group extensively discussed the
chemical detection capabilities of MXenes.62 We have also highlighted various ways such as surface functionalization,
Schottky barrier modulation, and heterojunctions formation for improving the sensing ability of the MXenes-based
gas sensors. MXenes and their nanocomposite gas sensors showed promising results for detecting NO2 , H2 , CH4 ,
and VOCs.
Nanostructures with low dimensions, such as 0D, 1D, and 2D, have demonstrated considerable and promising results
upon exposure to various gas molecules. However, some low-dimensional nanomaterials were unable to maintain their
6 of 22 GOEL et al.
excellent dispersibility and structural stability, leading to degradation in their electrical characteristics (such as sensi-
tivity, response time, and repeatability for gas detection). To overcome this limitation, low-dimensional particles were
used to create a 3D nanostructure (all three dimensions are out of the nanoscale range), which can provide superior gas
sensing performances, as summarized in Table 1. The geometry of 3D MOSs is typically porous or hierarchical with a
less flocculated structure. The 3D MOSs nanomaterials have more precise control over morphologies and pore configu-
rations than other dimensional nanomaterials. Hassan et al. fabricated 3D graphene aerogel hybrid materials decorated
with macroporous ZnO nanoparticles (NPs).63 This macroporous 3D hybrid design, when employed as NO2 gas sensors
for detecting low concentrations of NO2 gas molecules, showed a very high response. In addition, it also possesses rapid
response-recovery time with superior selectivity and repeatability behavior at room temperature. This improved sensing
ability was mainly ascribed to enhancement in the conductivity, strong interface between p-graphene and n-ZnO, and a
greater number of active sites available at the graphene surface.
4 GA S S ENSING MECHANISM
Based on the operating temperature, MOS can be classified into two categories: the first category involves the materials
which follow the surface conductance effects, while the second category comprises the materials which follow the bulk
conductance effects.5 The first category belong to the oxides operated at low-to-moderate temperature (<600◦ C), whereas
the second category works at very high temperature (>700◦ C).5,64 The operating temperature also defines the mechanism
by which these materials functions. Among popular MOS, SnO2 , and ZnO are some of the oxides which belongs to the
first category and called as surface conductance materials. Bulk conductance effect is slow at the lower temperature and
change in conductance occurs because of the adsorption and removal of oxygen at the surfaces.64 Some examples of
the bulk conductance materials (BCM) are TiO2 , Nb2 O5 . These BCM belongs to the second category and only respond
to variation in the partial oxygen pressure at higher temperature (>700◦ C). They also showed equilibrium between the
atmosphere and bulk stoichiometry.64
MOS-based gas sensors detect the presence of gases primarily by recording the changes occurring in the electric prop-
erties due to the target gas which is in contact with the sensor. The sensing mechanisms explain the physics affecting
the electric properties of a gas sensor upon exposure of target gas molecules. The MOS-based gas sensing mechanisms
can be categorized at microscopic and macroscopic levels. The microscopic perspective explains various mechanism such
as Fermi-level control theory and charge carrier depletion layer theory. While the macroscopic mechanism focuses on
the relationship between the gases and materials. The macroscopic level involves adsorption/desorption processes, bulk
resistance control mechanism and gas diffusion control mechanisms. In most of the MOS-based gas sensors, macroscopic
level is used to explain the gas sensing mechanisms.
When different gases come in contact with the MOS, the conductivity and work function of the MOS changes sig-
nificantly. Most of the gas sensing mechanisms work on the adsorption/desorption principle. The adsorption/desorption
processes explain the physical or chemical changes in the sensor behavior when the gas is in contact with the sensing
surface. Upon exposure of target gas molecules, resistance of the material changes because of the concentration of charge
carrier changes in a significant manner. The carrier concentration changes ascribed to chemisorption and physisorption
process of target gas molecules and ambient oxygen molecules.
Chemical Adsorption/Desorption is one of the dominant gas sensing mechanisms and strongly affect most of the
MOS-based gas sensing devices. When gas comes into direct contact with the sensor, a chemical reaction happens, causing
an electrical signal to change. This change might occur due to the presence of targeted gas or ambient oxygen molecules.
The oxygen adsorption is one of the most common gas sensing mechanisms and strongly affect most of the MOS-based
gas sensing devices. When MOS is brought into air, the oxygen molecules started to adsorb on the material surface and
an oxidizing or reducing reaction took place between the atmospheric oxygen and sensing surface. Based on these reac-
tions, some electrical properties or resistance of the sensing material changes considerably. Various kinds of oxygen ions
(O−2 , O− , and O2− ) are formed in according to the operating temperature after capturing the electrons from the sensing
materials. Hence, the conductivity/resistance of the sensing material changes due to change in surface electron density.
Upon exposure of reducing targeted gases on n-type MOS, the captured electrons by oxygen species released back to sens-
ing material leading to decrease in resistance, as shown in Figure 3A.65 The reduction in the value of resistance could
further be confirmed by decreased barrier height (Δφ) at the interface. While in the presence of oxidizing gases, the elec-
tron density decreases further resulting in increasing the value of resistance. In contrast, upon adsorbing of reducing gases
on p-type MOS surface, reduces the hole accumulation layer due to electron–hole recombination process, as depicted in
GOEL et al. 7 of 22
F I G U R E 3 Gas sensing mechanism of (A) n- and (B) p-type semiconducting metal oxide nanostructures (SMONs) upon exposure of
reducing gases. Reproduced from Reference 65, with permission from Royal Society of Chemistry
Figure 3B.65 As a result, the surface resistance increases of the p-type MOS structure. However, in the presence of oxi-
dizing gases on p-type MOS, the hole carrier concentration significantly increases due to trapping of electrons by the
oxidizing gases and hence the value of resistance decreases.
In addition to chemisorption process, physisorption also play a very important role in understanding of gas sensing
mechanism. According to a physical adsorption process, gas molecules is adsorbed at the surface of MOS material via
coulomb forces and other different types of intermolecular forces without any chemical changes. Physical adsorption
causes a minor difference in the conductivity of MOS materials; hence, this process is not commonly used to explain the
gas sensing mechanism.66-68 Humidity sensors are the most common MOS-based sensors, whose sensing mechanism is
based on the physical adsorption/desorption processes.69 Therefore, chemical adsorption is considered as the dominant
gas sensing mechanism in the majority of MOS-based gas sensors.
Moreover, the resistance of MOS-based gas sensors could also be changed due to the phase transformations of the gas
sensing material. However, this mechanism is only applicable for limited gas sensing materials, such as ABO3 type MOS
composites.70 α-Fe2 O3 and γ-Fe2 O3 are the two different types of phase composition of Fe2 O3 samples which is prepared
by the heating of FeFe(CN6 ).71 Based on the two different phases of the material and their combined phases, gas sensing
experiments were conducted, and various gas sensing mechanisms of two samples of Fe2 O3 were investigated. In the
case of α-Fe2 O3 , the phase structure was relatively stable; therefore, typical O2 adsorption model can describe the gas
sensing mechanism of α-Fe2 O3 . Moreover, due to the changes in the inside structure of γ-Fe2 O3 its resistance changes.72
Hence, α-Fe2 O3 and γ-Fe2 O3 possess different gas sensing properties despite their identical morphological structures. Gao
et al.73 have also demonstrated that WO3 hydrogen gas sensing films stability strongly affected by the phase transition.
The materials present originally as W3 O12 clusters form and by sharing the W-O-W bonds at corner. This whole transition
affects the H2 desorption energy and the HOMO-LUMO gap, resulting in bulk resistance change and improved sensing
performance.
In the gas sensing process, materials and gases are the critical components. The chemisorption and physisorption
processes are primarily reliant on the chemical and the physical characteristics of that material. In addition, there are
some mechanisms largely relying on the process of gas diffusion. Several theories are proposed by scientists indicating
that the gas diffusion controls the sensitivity of semiconductor-based gas sensors.74-76 For better understanding of gas
sensing properties, Wang et al. have developed a canal and hollow sphere model.77 When the temperature is less than
150◦ C then adsorbed O2 at the SnO2 surface was poorly reactive O2− ions, therefore surface chemical reaction controlled
8 of 22 GOEL et al.
the gas sensing reaction. Now some amount of the target gas is oxidized partially, and the remaining part of target gas
diffuses into inner pores and undergo some chemical reactions. When the temperature is in the range of 150–200◦ C or
greater than 200◦ C, then O− and O2− are the formed, so surface chemical diffusion process is more active now. Hence,
complete oxidation and ionization of target gases inside the hollow sphere improves the sensing response.78-80
5 METHODS TO IMPROVE GAS SENSING
Gas sensors are mainly used to detect the harmful gases which are threat to human health even at a very low concentra-
tion. Therefore, highly sensitive and selective gas sensors are prime need of the electronic industry.81-84 The adsorption
of gas molecules on the sensing surface could significantly be improved by increasing the number of adsorption sites,
increasing the oxygen vacancy, and by enhancing the surface catalytic activity. The sensing material’s chemical compo-
sition and electronic structure can be modulated by oxygen vacancy engineering. For creating the additional adsorption
sites facilitating higher adsorption of target gas molecules, the oxygen vacancies transfer the electrons into the conduction
band and cause more electrons to arrive on the surface of the sensor material. Moreover, in the case of electron depletion
layer/ hole accumulation layer,85,86 gas sensing could be improved by barrier reducing and also by the increasing the flow
of electrons. Some of the methods to improve the gas sensing are:
5.1 Doping with noble metals
Introducing noble metals is one of the most effective and widely used methods for fast catalytic chemical reactions.
Normally, Au, Ag, Pt, and Pd are some of the noble metal dopants used for improving the gas sensing response in the
case of MOS sensing materials. There are several steps involved to explain the role of noble metals in improving the
sensing response. Firstly, adsorption activation energy is decreased, and adsorption of additional oxygen anions and
analyte gas molecules occurs. Secondly, the redistribution of excitons causes the band bending and created a Schottky
barrier at the interface, which alters the movement of charge carriers. Lastly, activation energy of the process is low-
ered by the spillover impact. Due to the addition of the noble metal dopant, the adsorption capacity of gases increases.
For example, In the case of W18 O49 , when Pd was added then it adsorbed H2 approximately 900 times of its own
volume. Due to this greater adsorption, the effective collision frequency between gas molecules also increased signif-
icantly.87 In other terms, due to this development, the adsorption energy would get decreased after adding the noble
metal dopant.
Xue et al. demonstrated the sensing behavior of pristine SnO2 and Pt-SnO2 upon exposure of CH4 molecules through
first-principle calculations.88 The adsorption energy of oxygen on the SnO2 and Pt-SnO2 are −0.92 and −1.32 eV, respec-
tively, on the exposed crystal planes (110). The obtained results showed that the adsorption of oxygen molecules was more
on the noble metal modified SnO2 as compared to pristine SnO2 . From Figure 4A,B, it can be clearly visible that adsorp-
tion energy is decreased remarkably for all the three adsorption sites when SnO2 is doped with Pt, confirming that CH4
is more adsorbed on the surface of Pt-SnO2 as compared to the SnO2 .91-93
Moreover, in most of the cases, the work function of MOS gas sensitive materials is less than the noble materials;
therefore, redistribution of charge is necessary for achieving the equilibrium. Once the physical contact between metal
and MOS is made, the band bending due to charge transfer at the interface formed a Schottky barrier at the junction
of MOS and noble metals. The conduction band electrons of MOS sensing material moved into the noble metal par-
ticles and form a layer called dipole layer interface (Figure 4C). This layer at the interface prevents the electron–hole
pair recombination process; therefore, the MOS’s gas response is increased. This phenomenon is called electronic
sensitization.89,94-96
Figure 4D–F provides an illustration of the factor contributing to the excellent sensing qualities, which has to do with
the incorporation of Au-doped atoms. To enhance the chemo-resistive gas sensors’ sensing capabilities, metal catalysts
such as Au, Pd, Pt, and Ag were frequently utilized. The sensing film functionality was enhanced by catalytic pro-
cesses on the nanosensors material, which also lead to excellent gas sensor characteristics (such as sensitivity, selectivity,
and response and recovery times).97-100 The two different methods (i.e., electro-chemical sensitizations) explain why Au
nanoparticles have improved sensing performance.90,101,102 The mismatch in the work functions of Au (i.e., ΦAu = 5.1 eV)
and WO3 (i.e., ΦWO3 = 5.7 eV), which causes the electrical sensitization, leads to a rise in base resistances as seen in
Figure 4G.103 According to Figure 4F, the electron transmission from semiconducting WO3 to the Au nanoparticles results
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F I G U R E 4 (A) Pt-SnO2 Computational model, and (B) Different adsorption sites calculated results. (C) Typical band structure of
In2 O3 —Au. (D–F) an illustration of the factor contributing to the excellent sensing qualities due to incorporation of Au-doped atoms. (g) The
mismatch in the work functions of Au and WO3 , which causes the electrical sensitization, leads to a rise in base resistances. Panels (A, B) are
reproduced from Reference 88, with permission from Elsevier. Panel (C) is reproduced from Reference 89, with permission from Elsevier.
Panels (D–G) are reproduced from Reference 90, with permission from Elsevier.
in an enhancement in resistance, which is implied by an increment in the sizes of the electron depletion zones. Conse-
quently, there were fluctuations in resistance of WO3 nanosheet due to the treatment of NO2 analyte gas molecules, which
causes enhancement in sensitivity in the WO3 nanosheets. The second phenomenon, known as chemical sensitization
i.e., the catalytic impact, which happens when the Au nanoparticles size is less than 5 nm. Due to the catalytic process
and strong contact seen between NO2 molecules and hydrocarbons occur from the weakening of Au-Au bonds and the
modification of d orbitals as Au nanoparticles size reduces.104 The oxygen molecules were then encouraged to split apart
by the Au doped nanocluster in the WO3 nanosheets, and the resulting reactive oxygen ions. These oxygen ions were
diffuse into the WO3 to act as chemical sensitizers. Due to this active site were increased and this process is known as
spill-over effect.
For highly efficient reactions occurring in numerous significant processes (e.g., electrochemistry, gas sensing, and
photoreactions), single-atom catalysts (SACs) also provide novel prospects for these reactions. SACs can offer higher
reactivity and superior selectivity during the adsorption of gas molecules and electron transmission due to their specific
electronic and chemical characteristics. Utilizing SACs increase the sensing selectivity and sensitivity toward particular
gases. Recently, it is observed that SACs containing both noble metals (e.g., Pt, Pd, Au, and so on) and non-noble metals
10 of 22 GOEL et al.
(e.g., Mn, Ni, Zn, and so on) can be extremely helpful in enhancing sensing performances. The oxidation state of the met-
als has been proposed to play a significant role in the electronic as well as chemical properties of the sensing material,
which will enhance the gas sensing characteristic. The noble metal catalysts for gas sensors contribute oxidation states
that help to enhance the sensing characteristic. The equilibrium of the Fermi levels of the oxidized metal and the semi-
conductor modifies the carrier concentration of the semiconductor sensing layers. In addition, the noble metal catalyst’s
spillover effects encourage the separation of molecular oxygen into more active surface atomic oxygen species leading to
a very high sensing response. Xu et al. designed Pt conjugated SnO2 -based resistive gas sensor using the ALD method to
detect triethylamine (TEA).105 A surprising high improvement in the sensor response and a reduction in the operating
temperature of the sensor was obtained by single atom Pt catalysts that was coated on the 9 nm SnO2 layer. Therefore, at
an optimum temperature of 200◦ C, Pt deposited SnO2 sensors exhibit the highest response of 136.2 toward 10 ppm of TEA
gas molecules. Furthermore, the Pt/SnO2 -based gas sensor has a quick response time (∼3 s) and recovery time (∼6 s), an
ultra-low limit of detection (LOD) of 7 ppb, and excellent sensitivity of 8.76 ppm−1 .
5.2 Doping metals other than noble metals
Another effective way to improve the gas sensitivity is addition of heteroatom doping with another metal. When the
metal heteroatom is added to the sensing material then it changes the size, porosity and surface area of the MOS, as
a result, gas molecules adsorption sites and diffusion paths are modified.3 In most of the cases, base atom of the MOS
is replaced by the metal heteroatom and causes the reduction in grain size. When the size of the grain is less than
twice of the length of the Debye then the entire grain size is occupied by the electron depletion layer. Therefore, the
MOS gas sensing property is improved.106-108 Now, this is not the case that every heteroatom metal doping increased the
gas response. As shown in Figures 5A,B, when atoms of Al, Ga, and Zr are added in the In2 O3 , then it improves the
response toward formaldehyde.109 However, when atoms Ti, Mo, and W are added in the In2 O3 , then it decreases the
material’s Fermi level; therefore, this has a negative impact on the gas sensing response. Hence, for using this specific
strategy, it is highly recommended that choose the alternative metal heteroatom for doping into the sensing material
very carefully for improving the gas sensing performance.80 A plausible concept was put out to show how a variation
in the Fermi level affects the oxide semiconductor’s surface sensitivity and this process was well-known sensing pro-
cess104,110 and explained by theory related to semiconductor physics.111,112 This variation in Fermi level is introduced
due the absorption of oxygen molecules. Three stages are involved in the sensing process of In2 O3 nanomaterial to
analyze the formaldehyde gas molecules, as depicted in Figure 5C–E. Firstly, at 150◦ C temperature, oxygen molecules
present in air get adsorbed on the surface of In2 O3 nanosheet and consequently withdraw the free electrons from the
conduction band, resulting in an upward bending in the energy band diagram. Secondly, under the equilibrium the
absorbed oxygen molecule LUMO level and In2 O3 Fermi level both keep at the same energy level. Lastly, absorbed
oxygen combines with formaldehyde gas molecules which cause reduction in energy banding. The energy level mis-
match between the semiconductor and adsorbed oxygen molecule combined system in Al-doped In2 O3 having relatively
high Fermi levels (Figures 5F–H) in contrast with undoped In2 O3 , resulting in higher absorption of oxygen molecule
on the Al-doped In2 O3 nanosheet surface in air at equilibrium condition. As a result, Al-doped In2 O3 responds more
strongly toward formaldehyde gas molecules than undoped In2 O3 , because it has more chemisorbed oxygen molecules
to respond.
5.3 Developing heterostructures
Regardless of which sensing material is used, it is nearly impossible to get the maximum of all performance parameters.
Therefore, two or more MOS materials are combined to build a heterojunction for overcoming their individual short-
comings. When two distinct materials with different work functions are used for the heterojunction, then the electrons
will flow from the lower work function to the higher work function at the interface and this would lead to the electronic
depletion and enrichment areas, respectively.113 The heterojunction gives the appreciative advantage and increase the
gas sensing response significantly due to increased catalytic activity and a greater number of available active sites for
adsorption of gas molecules. The heterojunctions could be divided into the n-n junctions, p–p junctions, and p-n junctions
depending on the type of constituent materials.
GOEL et al. 11 of 22
FIGURE 5 (A) Metal heteroatom-doped In2 O3 structural model. (b) Fermi levels of ten different kinds of metal heteroatom-doped into
the In2 O3 sensing materials. (c-e) Three stages involved in the sensing process of In2 O3 nanomaterial to analyze the formaldehyde gas
molecules. (F–H) The energy level mismatch between the semiconductor and adsorbed oxygen molecule combined system in Al-doped
In2 O3 having relatively high Fermi levels, in contrast with undoped In2 O3 . Reproduced from Reference 109, with permission from American
Chemical Society
The charge carrier dynamics at the heterointerface is explained by Figure 6. When p-n heterojunctions are consid-
ered, electrons are transferred from n-type to the p-type MOS and holes are moved in the opposite direction till the
nanocomposites Fermi level reaches the equilibrium condition. Therefore, resistance will change at the interface of the
heterojunction due to the expansion in electron depletion layer.116 Now, when material is kept in the reducing gas envi-
ronment, then target gas and adsorbed O2 react with each other on the materials surface and electrons returned to the
n-type MOS conduction band, as illustrated in Figures 6A,B.114 Moreover, some electrons also enter the conduction band
of p-type MOS. Consequently, the recombination of electrons and holes will occur, as a result carrier concentration is
reduced on either side of the p–n junction.65,117,118 Due to the limitation of carrier diffusion, reduction in barrier at the
interface is occurred. And apart from that heterojunctions also provides greater adsorption and reaction sites, resulting
improved catalytic activity as compared to monomers.119,120 Gao et al. have demonstrated the H2 S sensing ability of n-n
heterojunction using MoO3 and SnO2 MOS.115 The developed sensor showed high sensitivity and fast response at a lower
value of temperature (115◦ C) due to larger number of gas adsorption sites at the sensing surface. Upon making physi-
cal contact between MoO3 and SnO2 , electrons started moving from lower work function SnO2 to higher work function
MoO3 . The electrons transfer resulted in bend bending having a barrier height φeff , as shown in Figure 6C. Upon expo-
sure to H2 S, the trapped electrons by the oxygen ions and targeted gas molecules, returned to the constituent materials
leading to a very high value of sensitivity ascribed to reduction in the potential barrier at the interface.
F I G U R E 6 Schematic illustrations of the energy band diagram at interfaces of (A) p–n, (B) n–n heterojunctions in air and upon
exposure of H2 S gas molecules. Energy band diagram of MoO3 /SnO2 hybrid in (C) air and (D) H2 S environment. Panels (A, B) are reproduced
from Reference 114, with permission from Elsevier. Panels (C, D) are reproduced from Reference 115, with permission from American
Chemical Society.
The sensing performance of the heterojunction-based sensors could also be optimized through changing the bar-
rier height at the heterointerface. In very recent studies, Lou et al. have discussed several strategies to improve MOSs
formaldehyde sensing performance.121,122 They have shown the effect of sensitization on the sensing performance of
SnO2 nanosheets. The hybrid structure showed a response of 4.5 upon exposure to 20 ppm of formaldehyde at 220◦ C.
The charge movement between SnO2 nanosheets was explained with the double Schottky barrier model. The high sen-
sitivity was achieved due to a reduction in barrier height upon diffusion of formaldehyde molecules. In another work,
Lou et al. have also highlighted the role of SnO2 /ZnO heterostructure in improving the sensing behavior of the device.123
The sensing response of the hybrid device became four times that of pristine SnO2 with 1 ppm formaldehyde at 200◦ C.
Higher response of the device directly corresponds to the higher concentration of surface absorbed oxygen species in
the hybrid device. The remarkable performance of heterojunction-based sensors confirms their suitability particularly to
detect toxic gases.
A novel Co3 O4 /NiOx heterostructure-based gas sensor synthesized by atomic layer deposition (ALD) also showed
promising gas sensing behavior.124 This novel architecture was designed to enable the controllable management of oxy-
gen vacancies. NiO-ALD cycle optimization controlled the number of oxygen vacancies. Thus, there was a boost in the
carrier concentration enhancing the material’s conductivity. Due to oxygen vacancy engineering, the gas sensor based
on the modified Co3 O4 /NiOx sensing layer demonstrates substantially improved performance toward detection of tri-
ethylamine gas molecules, at lower working temperature, and possesses excellent sensing characteristics such as higher
sensitivity, and lower limit of detection. Similarly, based on the oxygen vacancy engineering and ALD method, Xie
et al. manufactured In2 O3 /NiO heterostructure-based gas sensor which showed enhanced sensing characteristics toward
NO2 gas molecules.125 The optimized In2 O3 /NiO-based gas sensor shows a higher response (∼532.2) toward a 10 ppm
concentration level of NO2 at 145◦ C and a lower limit of detection (∼6.9 ppb).
Bhangare et al. proposed a novel SnO2 /rGO assembled nanohybrids with a minimum detection limit of 0.5 ppm.30
The SnO2 /rGO assembled nanohybrids successfully identified NO2 gas molecules below their permissible limit. At a
working temperature of 200◦ C, the 3-fold sensor response was obtained for NO2 gas molecules having concentrations
level of 3 ppm. The nanohybrids showed improved response kinetics with response and recovery timings of ∼10 s
and ∼ 40 s, respectively. SnO2 has a particle size of about 5–7 nm in nanohybrids, which is about twice that of its
Debye length (∼3 nm) and boosts both charge transport and sensor response characteristics. In another similar
work, SnO2 -rGO (SR) and N-doped SnO2 -rGO (SRN) assembled nanohybrids were made using an easy hydrother-
mal technique by Modak et al.126 The manufactured assembled nanohybrids’ gas sensing capabilities were investigated
against different gas molecules. At low operating temperature (∼120◦ C) and low gas concentration level (∼0.5 ppm),
it was observed that SR and SRN nanohybrids demonstrated improved NO2 gas sensing response, that is, 55.2% and
84.5%, respectively. Furthermore, SR and SRN demonstrated amazing stability up to 90% over 30 days in addition
to outstanding selectivity toward NO2 . SnO2 with CuO as a catalyst could also be used for detection of H2S gas
molecules.127
5.4 MOS modified with the two-dimensional TMDs materials
The performance of MOS-based gas sensors significantly improves after combining them with TMDs due to their syn-
ergistic electronic, chemical, and geometrical effects. The active area of the sensing device for the gas molecules to get
adsorbed increases considerably due to the hybridization of MOSs with TMDs. Moreover, the hybridization also facili-
tates selective diffusion of target gases and efficient carrier transport upon exposure of gas molecules.61 MX2 is the general
form of transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), where M represents the transition metal element (Mo, Ti, etc.) and
X refers the chalcogen elements such as S and Se.128-131 TMDs is very promising 2D family in the gas sensing applica-
tions because of its unique physical and chemical properties. Molybdenum disulphide (MoS2 ) and MOS composites are
one of the most used composites in the gas sensing applications.86,132,133 Zhang et al. prepared MoS2 and Co3 O4 compos-
ite sensor with 1 layer, 3 layers, 5 layers, and 7 layers on a substrate using layer by layer (LBL) self-assembly method.132
Upon comparing the sensing performance of all those four different layers composite of MoS2 and Co3 O4 , it was observed
that the five-layer composite gives the best response upon NH3 exposure at room temperature. They also synthesized
MoS2 and CuO composites by using the LBL technology.133 By using this sensor they achieved high sensitivity, quick
response and excellent stability for H2 S gas molecules.129 The gas sensing mechanism for this composite is attributed to
synergistic effect of energy band structure and creation of p-n heterojunction, as shown in Figure 7A,B. For better under-
standing of gas sensing mechanism between H2 S and CuO, X-ray diffraction analysis was performed between MoS2 and
CuO nanocomposites. After exposing to NH3 , some CuS peaks appeared confirming formation of CuS upon CuO and H2 S
reaction. Both CuO and MoS2 have the different work functions and band gaps as depicted in Figure 7B. Hence, charge
transfer will take place until the Fermi level reaches at equilibrium at the heterointerface. The charge distribution forms a
depletion layer at the junction and increases the resistance of the composite material. Upon exposure of H2 S, p-type CuO
converted into metallic form and the p–n type heterojunction transformed into metal–semiconductor junction as shown
in Figure 7B. This transformation drastically reduces the sensor resistance and hence a very high value of sensitivity
was obtained.
In addition to MoS2 , other TMDs such as WS2 , WSe2 , SnS2 , MoSe2 , and NbS2 could also be combined with MOSs to
improve the sensing ability of the devices. Qin et al. have demonstrated the NH3 sensing ability of WS2 at room tempera-
ture.134 They examined the sensing response of bulk to monolayer WS2 and observed that the sensing response enhanced
significantly with a decrease in thickness of WS2 film. In another study, Hao et al. combined flower-like SnS2 nanostruc-
tures with SnO2 to increase the number of active sites for NO2 adsorption.135 The hybrid structure showed a very high
response of 51.1 upon exposure of 1 ppm of NO2 at 100◦ C. The flower-like SnS2 structure facilitates more NO2 adsorption
and the SnS2 /SnO2 heterojunction played important role in enhancing the sensing response of the device. In a very recent
study, Zhou et al. fabricated MoO3 /MoSe2 hybrid for trimethylamine sensing.136 The nanocomposite showed high sen-
sitivity, low value of detection limit, fast response, good stability, and exceptional selectivity even at room temperature.
The unique flower shaped MoSe2 morphology and the formation of heterojunction were the main driving factors for the
high gas sensing performance.
5.5 Light-induced room temperature gas sensing
Light activation is used as a promising approach in sensing applications for oxide layers such as ZnO, TiO2 , WO3 ,
etc137-139 In MOS-based gas sensing processes, high temperature is required for adsorption and desorption of targeted
F I G U R E 7 (A) Gas sensing mechanism of H2 S on the composite of CuO and MoS2 . (B) The energy band structure of MoS2 /CuO
sensor (here, W1 and W2 are the work function, Eg1 and Eg2 are the band gap, Ec1 and Ec2 are the conduction band bottom, Ev1 and Ev2 are
the top of valence band and Ef are the Fermi energy level). Reproduced from Reference 133, with permission from Elsevier
gas molecules. The energy provided by the external heating element could also be supplied by UV light source
resulting in less power consumption and room temperature operation of the developed sensor.140,141 In addition,
UV light also decrease the measurement time and used for cleaning the gas sensing surface after exposing with
targeted gases.137 The 1/f noise factor in resistive gas sensors is quite strong and dominates the background
noise up to 10 kHz. When potential barriers between the grain’s boundaries vary, it leads to the generation of
low-frequency noise. The gas sensor’s temperature and surrounding atmosphere can be specifically affected by the
barrier’s variations because it relies on the adsorption and desorption mechanisms. The 1/f noise is shown to rise
with decreasing grain size in experimental data. Furthermore, when gas-sensor nanomaterial grain size reduces, the
sensitivity of sensor get enhanced and noise fluctuations becomes even more sensitive than that of variations in
DC resistance.142
Smulko et al. have discussed the application of photo activation for improving the gas sensing ability of the sen-
sors at lower value of operating temperature.143 The change in DC resistance (Rs) of sensor is compared after the
increment in heating voltage upon UV irradiation (365 nm) by the help of T5F UV diode.144 This diode was placed approx-
imately 5 mm away from the sensing layer and its DC current (Id) was controllable up to a maximum of 20 mA. This
recorded curve shape depends on the surrounding atmosphere as this was examined for synthetic air and ethanol. It
was observed that the recorded data is quite similar for both the cases whether it was UV light or temperature mod-
ulation.143 But one thing is very noticeable that power consumption is lesser in UV light than the power required for
temperature modulation. Hence, by using the UV light, sensor can work at lower temperature, which is very appealing
characteristic.143
FIGURE 8 (A) Schematic illustration of flexible NO2 sensors using WSe2 nanosheets. (B) Sensing mechanism upon exposure to NO2
on WSe2 nanosheets. Reproduced from Reference 145, with permission from Elsevier
Yang et al. have demonstrated flexible NO2 sensors using WSe2 nanosheets, as shown in Figure 8A.145 The
device showed bifunctional selectivity toward triethylamine and NO2 under different conditions. Moreover, in pres-
ence of UV illumination, the sensor displayed a very low limit of detection (8 ppb) for NO2 at room temperature.
The UV illumination assists in the generation of a greater number of electron–hole pairs. Therefore, a high con-
centration of electrons would be available for NO2 , as shown in Figure 8B leading to a very high value of sensi-
tivity. In a similar study, Lu et al. have also improved the sensing ability of monolayer WSe2 through UV activa-
tion.146 The electrons get trapped from WSe2 upon exposure to NO2 resulting in an increasing the hole concen-
tration. After UV illumination, the new electron–hole pairs are generated facilitating more NO2 molecules to get
adsorbed.
5.6 Nanostructures with exposed facets
Nanostructured exposed crystal facets exhibit large difference in their gas sensing abilities because of their dis-
tinct surface properties. The crystal facets with more defect sites possess a higher value of surface energy, there-
fore they have more active physicochemical features.147-149 Exposed crystal facets of MOS materials have been used
very often in the photocatalysis and recently MOS materials have also showed enormous potential in the realm of
gas sensing.150,151 Overall, the improvement in gas adsorption ascribed to greater density value of dangling bonds
and coordination of unsaturated oxygen. For example, upon observing every crystal planes atomic structure dia-
gram of ZnO and calculating the densities of dangling bond of every plane, it revealed that the crystal plane (0001)
has higher density.18 Dangling bonds due to the Zn2+ have unsaturated O2 coordination on the surface and when
the gas sensing reaction starts then target gases and O2 anions are adsorbed at these locations. Kaneti et al.152
used density function theory to examine the ZnO sensing response upon exposure to ethanol. They observed that
the exposed crystal plane (0001) interacted with the surface oxygen; the H—O bonds are then shortened and
reduces the adsorption energy. Hence, in the case of (0001) crystal plane, an excellent gas sensitivity could be
obtained.18
When target gas and sensing materials surface comes in contact, then there is a higher charge transfer and stronger
electron interaction between the target gas and the high energy crystal facet resulting in quicker and greater gas
response, as shown in Figure 9A,B.153 To investigate the selectivity of particular gases (such as acetone, ethanol,
H2 , H2 S, NH3 , and NO2 ), the responses of several nanocrystals to distinct gases each having concentration level
of 100 ppm at 320◦ C were examined as shown in Figure 9C. It was discovered that NS-010 displays a noticeably
stronger acetone response when contrasted to other gases, demonstrating superior acetone sensing selectivity, whereas
NS-101 (NS denoted TiO2 nanocrystals with anatase have been fabricated with different facets) displays a substan-
tially lower acetone selectivity. The outcomes showed that the crystal facet tuning can be used to achieve selective
recognition for the acetone. At concentration level of 100 ppm acetone response was measured on the TiO2 nanosheet
as sensing materials, and this experiment were conducted continuously for 15 days in order to examine stability
as shown in Figure 9D. The obtained results showed a great consistency of the TiO2 nanostructures, as evident
from the fact that both NS-010 and NS-101 sustain about 95% of the initial reaction even afterwards being tested
for 15 days.
F I G U R E 9 Schematic diagram of charge transfer between a target gas molecule and facets (A) TiO2 (010) and (B) TiO2 (001). (C) The
responses of several nanocrystals to distinct gases each having concentration level of 100 ppm at 320◦ C was examined. (d) At a concentration
level of 100 ppm acetone response was measured on the TiO2 nanosheet as sensing materials, and this experiment were conducted
continuously for 15 days in order to examine stability. Reproduced from Reference 153, with permission from Elsevier
6 CO NCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES
The MOS has been the focal point for developing efficient gas sensors due to their inherent characteristics. This review
article provides the in-depth knowledge of different types of gas sensing mechanism and different types of methods
responsible for improvement of gas sensing. We have also discussed about different kinds of MOS nanostructures such as
nanorods, nanobelts, nanofibers, nanosheets, and their composites. The recent progress in sensing mechanism for detect-
ing different kinds of hazardous and flammable gases including NO2 , NH3 , H2 S, H2 , and volatile organic compounds have
also been summarized.
The study of MOS-based gas sensor still faces many opportunities and challenges. There are still some questions which
cannot be explained by using the existing gas sensing mechanism. Therefore, it is necessary to do more research in this
topic for the better understanding of the topic. In this area, more experiments are required using the modern technique
such as situ analysis to know about the effect of different type of gas sensing mechanism on the performance of gas
sensors. By studying the unexplored physics, we can select the appropriate and accurate gas sensing mechanism in the
future.
The chemisorbed oxygen species on the MOS surface slow down the desorption process and requires some external
energy to improve the speed of the sensor. Thermal and photo energy appears to be the most widely used external sources
to expedite the desorption mechanism. However, these techniques increase the power consumption and restrict the porta-
bility of the sensor. Research on the topic of MOS-based gas sensor is increasing day by day, but attention paid to this topic
is still not sufficient; therefore, most articles have failed to give accurate information regarding the role of heterojunction
in the gas sensing, gas sensing mechanism and the best material for sensing particular gases.
AU THOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Neeraj Goel: Conceptualization (equal); formal analysis (equal); supervision (equal); writing – original draft (equal);
writing – review and editing (lead). Kishor Kunal: Formal analysis (equal); writing – original draft (supporting); writ-
ing – review and editing (supporting). Aditya Kushwaha: Writing – original draft (equal); writing – review and editing
(supporting). Mahesh Kumar: Supervision (equal); writing – review and editing (supporting).
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflict of interest to report.
PEER REVIEW
The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.com/publon/10.1002/eng2.12604.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.
ORCID
Neeraj Goel https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8740-6737
Mahesh Kumar https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5357-7300
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How to cite this article: Goel N, Kunal K, Kushwaha A, Kumar M. Metal oxide semiconductors for gas sensing.
Engineering Reports. 2023;5(6):e12604. doi: 10.1002/eng2.12604

Goel2023 - Metal Oxide Semiconductors For Gas Sensing

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Received: 22 July 2022 Revised: 15 November 2022 Accepted: 17 November 2022

Metal oxide semiconductors for gas sensing

Neeraj Goel1 Kishor Kunal1 Aditya Kushwaha1 Mahesh Kumar2

Engineering Reports. 2023;5:e12604. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/eng2 1 of 22

2 PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF GAS S ENSORS

2.4 Response time

2.5 Recovery time

2.6 Operating temperature

3 NA NOSTRU CTURES FO R GAS SENSING

T A B L E 1 Gas sensing performances of different dimension nanostructures

0D Al—Mg/ZnO H2 2000 ppm 250◦ C 70 (Ra/Rg) 28

NiO/WO3 H2 S 10 ppm 100◦ C 15.031 (Ra/Rg) 29

SnO2 /RGO NO2 4 ppm 200◦ C 4.56 (Rg/Ra) 30

In2 O3 —SnO2 n-Butanol 50 ppm 140◦ C 76.5 (Ra/Rg) 31

CdO/ZnO n-Butanol 200 ppm 300◦ C 148.64 (Ra/Rg) 32

1D Sn—NiO Triethylamine 100 ppm 180◦ C 16.6 (Rg/Ra) 33

TiO2 –SnO2 –TiO2 Acetone 1 ppm 280◦ C 13.3 (Ra/Rg) 36

Au—SnO2 /In2 O3 CO 50 ppm 200◦ C 29.2% (ΔR/R0) 37

SWCNTs NO 100 ppb RT 28.64% (ΔR/R0) 38

ZnO–MWCNTs NH3 10 ppm RT 1.022 (Rg/Ra) 39

ZnO—In2 O3 Ethanol 3 ppm 320◦ C 3.3 (Ra/Rg) 44

Cu2 O/MoS2 NH3 100 ppm RT 268% (ΔR/R0) 45

MXene/SnO2 NH3 50 ppm RT 40% (ΔR/R0) 46

ZnO—In2 O3 Ethanol 50 ppm 240◦ C 170 (Ra/Rg) 51

Sb—ZnFe2 O4 n-Butanol 100 ppm 250◦ C 35.5 (Ra/Rg) 52

Co3 O4 /rGO Acetone 10 ppm 160◦ C 4.0 (Rg/Ra) 53

5 METHODS TO IMPROVE GAS SENSING

5.1 Doping with noble metals

5.2 Doping metals other than noble metals

5.3 Developing heterostructures

5.4 MOS modified with the two-dimensional TMDs materials

5.5 Light-induced room temperature gas sensing

5.6 Nanostructures with exposed facets

6 CO NCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVES

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

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