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Chapter Eight

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

MAXWELL’S DISPLACEMENT CURRENT AND ORIGIN OF E.M WAVES

DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
Q. Show that during the charging of a parallel plate capacitor, the rate of change of charge on
each plate equals 𝜖0 times the rate of change of electric flux ∅𝐸 linked with it. What is the
𝑑∅𝐸
name given to the term 𝜖0 .
𝑑𝑡

Consider a charged parallel plate capacitor which is made to discharge through a resistor. The
current travels from P to Q through R .This current flowing through the conducting wire is
called conduction current. Even though there is no current between the two plates. Electric
field E exists between the plates and magnetic field B is set up around the conducting wire
due to the flow of current through it.
It is the current produced by time varying electric field in a given region.
𝑑∅𝐸 𝑑(𝐸𝐴)
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜎
𝑑∅𝐸 𝑑( 𝐴) 𝑄
𝜖0
= where 𝜎 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐴
𝑑∅𝐸 𝑑 𝑄 𝐴
= ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐴 𝜖0
𝑑∅𝐸 1 𝑑𝑄
=
𝑑𝑡 𝜖0 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄 𝑑∅𝐸
= 𝜖0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄
𝐼𝐷 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑∅𝐸
𝐼𝐷 = 𝜖0
𝑑𝑡
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Displacement current does not arise due to motion of charge but it arises due to time variation
of electric flux.
Displacement current :Displacement current is that current which comes into play in
vacuum or dielectric when electric field is changing with time.
Note : Ic is the conduction current. Its value is zero in vacuum and dielectrics and non-
zero in conductors. Id is the displacement current. It is zero in conductors and non-zero
in vacuum and dielectrics.

Q. Why does a galvanometer when connected in series with a capacitor show a momentary
deflection, when it is being charged or discharged ? How does this observation lead to
modifying the Ampere’s circuital law ? Hence write the generalised expression of Ampere’s
law.
During charging or discharging of the capacitor, displacement current between the plates is
produced. Hence, circuit becomes complete and galvanometer shows momentary deflection.

FOR SURFACE S1
S1 is bounded by the loop L and I threading the surface.
Then by Ampere’s circuital law
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼
FOR SURFACE S2
S2 is bounded by the loop but no current threads it. Therefore by ampere’s circuital law
⃗⃗⃗ = 0
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
Hence , it follows that Ampere’s circuital law is not logically consistent, when the electric
circuit includes a capacitor .To overcome this ,Maxwell modified Ampere’s circuital law with
introduction of displacement current.
Modified ampere’s circuital law by maxwell
According to Maxwell ,there is flow of current across the gap between the plates of the
capacitor which is named as displacement current and attributed its origin to time varying
electric field between the plates of the capacitor .This varying electric field is assumed to give
rise to magnetic field.
Let 𝐼𝐶 and 𝐼𝐷 are conduction current and displacement current.
Therefore modified Ampere’s circuital law or Ampere – Maxwells circuital law is
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 (𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐷 )
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
𝑑∅𝐸
𝐼𝐷 is defined as 𝐼𝐷 = 𝜖0 𝑑𝑡
𝒅∅𝑬
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Modified form of ampere’s circuital law ∮ ⃗𝑩 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝟎 (𝑰𝑪 + 𝝐𝟎 )
𝒅𝒕
PROVE THAT 𝑰𝑪 = 𝑰𝑫
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Let q be the instantaneous value of charge and E the electric field between the plates of the
capacitor at that time .If A is area of the plates of the capacitor
𝑞
𝐸=
𝜖0 𝐴
Electric flux between the plates
∅𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴
𝑞
∅𝐸 = 𝐴
𝜖0 𝐴
𝑞
∅𝐸 =
𝜖0
𝑑∅𝐸
𝐼𝐷 = 𝜖0
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑞
𝐼𝐷 = 𝜖0 (1/𝜖0)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑞
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝐼𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝐼𝐷 = 𝐼𝐶
FOR THE SURFACE S1
𝑑∅𝐸
𝐼𝐷 = 𝜖0 =0
𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 (𝐼𝐶 + 0 ) = 𝜇0 𝐼𝐶
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐵
FOR THE SURFACE S2
𝐼𝐶 = 0
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 (0 + ID ) = 𝜇0 𝐼𝐷
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼𝐷
⃗⃗⃗ is same for S1 & S2.
⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
Since 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐷 , the values of ∮ 𝐵
MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
The four basic laws of Physics were stated by Maxwell in the form of four equations ,
called Maxwell’s equations.
𝒒
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
1. ∮ ⃗𝑬 𝒅𝑺 = …(1) ( Gauss’ law in electrostatics ) .The eq (1) is called
𝜺𝟎
Maxwell’s first equation .
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2. ∮ ⃗𝑩 𝒅𝑺 = 𝟎 …(2) ( Gauss’ law in magnetism ) .The eq (2) is called Maxwell’s
second equation .
−𝒅∅𝑩
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
3. ∮ ⃗𝑬 𝒅𝒍 = …(3) (Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction ). The eq
𝒅𝒕
(3) is called Maxwell’s third equation .
𝒅∅
⃗⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
4. ∮ 𝑩 𝒅𝒍 = 𝝁𝟎 (𝑰𝑪 + 𝝐𝟎 𝒅𝒕𝑬 )……(4) (Maxwell - Ampere’s circuital law) . The eq
(4) is called Maxwell’s fourth equation .

CONCLUSIONS
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 The conduction and displacement currents are individually discontinuous, but the two
currents together possess the property of continuity through any closed electric circuit.
 𝐼𝐶 = 𝐼𝐷 ,when the two are present in different parts of the circuit.
𝑑∅𝐸
 𝐼𝐷 = 𝜖0 𝑑𝑡
 Like 𝐼𝐶 , 𝐼𝐷 is also the source of magnetic field.

The conduction current produces magnetic field due to charges in motion, whereas
the displacement current produces magnetic field due to the time rate of change of
electric field. Thus, in the space between the plates of the capacitor, both the electric
and magnetic fields exist.

Q.Explain the existence of electromagnetic waves in vacuum from Maxwell’s

equations.
Ampere’s law in free space is

Equation (1) shows that a time varying electric field gives rise to a magnetic field.
Equation (2) shows that a time varying magnetic field gives rise to an electric field.
Therefore Maxwell suggested that a wave of electric and magnetic fields exists. Such
a wave is called an electromagnetic wave.

electromagnetic waves

Definition

The electromagnetic waves consists of a fluctuating (varying) electric and magnetic fields of
the same frequency and the same phase, acting at right angles to each other as well as at right
angles to the direction of propagation of waves.

The amplitudes of E and B are different. E0 = cB0 . The intensities of E and B vary
periodically with time. In the propagation of an electromagnetic wave a varying electric field
E gives rise to a varying magnetic field and so on. In this way electric and magnetic fields of
the wave sustain each other.
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The time varying E.F and magnetic field (B) are perpendicular to each other .
The two fields combine to constitute electromagnetic wave , which propagate in space
in a direction perpendicular to the directions of both the fields with a speed of ,

At any instant, the ratio of the amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields is always
constant and it is equal to the speed of electromagnetic waves.

speed of light (constant)

Q. (a) How does oscillating charge produce electromagnetic waves?

(b) Sketch a schematic diagram depicting oscillating electric and magnetic fields of an em
wave propagating along +z direction

(a) …An oscillating charge produces an oscillating electric field in space , which produces an
oscillating magnetic field . The oscillating electric and magnetic fields regenerate each other,
and this results in the production of em waves in space.
The propagation of a plane electromagnetic wave along the z direction . The electric field Ex
is along the x-axis, and varies sinusoidally with z, at a given time. The magnetic field By is
along the y-axis

 The propagation of electromagnetic wave is in the direction of vector

 Since the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to each other and to the
direction of of wave propagation ,the electromagnetic waves are transverse in
nature.

We can write Ex and By as follows:

Ex= E0 sin (kz–ωt) (for electric field )

By= B0 sin (kz–ωt) (for magnetic field )

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Where k is the magnitude of the wave vector (or propagation vector) and its direction
describes the direction of propagation of the wave Here k is related to the wave
length λ of the wave

ω is the angular frequency.

The speed of propagation of the wave ,

𝛚 = 𝐜 ….(1)

where and or 𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝝑

eq (1) becomes

𝒄=𝝑 𝛌

PROPERTIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

The various properties of Electromagnetic waves are:

1. Electromagnetic waves propagate in the form of varying electric and magnetic fields
such that the two fields are perpendicular to each other and also to the direction of
propagation of the wave . ie E.M waves are transverse in nature.

2. Electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerated charges .

3. The existence of medium is not essential for propagation.

4. The velocity of electromagnetic wave in vacuum is 3 × 108 m / s. In free space

In material medium

Where 𝜇 − 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝜀 − 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

5. The refractive index ‘n’ of a material medium

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and

6. E.M waves obey principle of superposition

7. The variations in the amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields in the E.M waves
always takes place at the same time and at the same point in the space .

8. The energy in electromagnetic waves is divided equally between the electric and
magnetic field vectors.
𝑢𝐸 = 𝑢𝐵

𝑢 = 𝑢𝐸 + 𝑢𝐵 = 2𝑢𝐸 = 2𝑢𝐵

10. E.M waves have momentum

The momentum transported by electromagnetic waves,

Where U is energy transported by electromagnetic waves in a given time and c is the

speed of a electromagnetic waves in free space.

What is radiation pressure? Give an expression for radiation pressure?

Ans: Electromagnetic wave carries momentum. So an em wave can exert pressure on

a surface, which is called radiation pressure. If ‘U’ is the total energy transferred to a
surface in a time‘t’, then total momentum delivered to the surface.

…….

..
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11. The intensity of electromagnetic waves---It is defined as energy crossing per second
per unit area of a surface held perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
electromagnetic waves.

Intensity

By using

Let

By using the values of 𝐵0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇0 in eq (1)

Intensity,

12. There is no deflection on account of magnetic or electric field.

13. They can exhibit diffraction and interference.

Q: Give the expressions for energy density of electric and magnetic fields in electromagnetic
waves.

Average energy density of E M waves

The average electric energy density between the plates of the capacitor,

The time varying electric field gives rise to a time varying magnetic field between the
plates of the capacitor

Since energy is conserved, 𝑢𝐸 = 𝑢𝐵

Where 𝑢 is the average magnetic energy density.
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Arrange the seven electromagnetic waves in the decreasing order of their wave length ( or
increasing order of frequency)

Ans: Radio waves, Micro waves, Infrared radiations, Visible light, Ultraviolet rays, X- rays
,Gamma rays

ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

What is meant by electromagnetic spectrum?

Ans: It is an orderly arrangement of electromagnetic waves from radio waves of largest wave
length to gamma rays of shortest wave length.
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The electromagnetic spectrum consists of the full range of known electromagnetic waves,
including gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet light, visible light, infrared light, microwaves, and
radio waves. All of these are produced by various forms of oscillating charges or currents.
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves which travel at the speed of light and involve
oscillating electric and magnetic fields at right angles to each other.

READ AND STUDY PAGE NO 280., 281,282,283

How the different electromagnetic waves are produced? How they can be detected? Give their
wave length ranges.
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Radio waves
Radio waves are produced by the accelerated motion of charges in
conducting wires.

They are used in radio and television communication systems.

They are generally in the frequency range from 500 kHz to about 1000 MHz.

Microwaves
Microwaves (short-wavelength radio waves), with frequencies in the
gigahertz (GHz) range.

They are produced by special vacuum tubes (called klystrons, magnetrons

and Gunn diodes).

Due to their short wavelengths, they are suitable for the radar systems
used in aircraft navigation.

Infrared waves
Infrared waves are sometimes referred to as heat waves.

Infrared waves are produced by hot bodies and molecules.

Infrared radiation plays an important role in maintaining the earth’s warmth

or average temperature through the greenhouse effect.
Visible rays
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It is the part of the spectrum that is detected by the human eye.

It runs from about 4 × 1014 Hz to about 7 × 1014 Hz or a wavelength range

of about 700 – 400 nm.

Visible light emitted or reflected from objects around us provides us

information about the world.

Ultraviolet rays
It covers wavelengths ranging from about 4 × 10–7 m (400 nm) down to 6
× 10–10 m (0.6 nm).
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation is produced by special lamps and very hot bodies.

The sun is an important source of ultraviolet light.

Ultraviolet radiations can be focussed into very narrow beams for high
precision applications such as LASIK (Laser assisted in situ
keratomileusis) eye surgery.
Ultraviolet lamps are used to kill germs in water purifiers

X-rays
It covers wavelengths from about 10‒8 m (10 nm) down to 10‒13 m (10‒4
nm).
One common way to generate X-rays is to bombard a metal target by high
energy electrons.

X-rays are used as a diagnostic tool in medicine and as a treatment for

certain forms of cancer.

Gamma rays
The wavelengths of Gamma rays are from about 10‒10 m to less than 10‒14
m.
Gamma rays are produced in nuclear reactions and also emitted by
radioactive nuclei.
They are used in medicine to destroy cancer cells.

PRODUCTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ( 1 mark )

According to Maxwell ,an accelerated charge produces a sinusoidal time varying

magnetic field ,which in turn produces a sinusoidal time varying electric field. The two field
so produced are mutually perpendicular and are sources of each other. The mutually
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perpendicular time varying electric and magnetic field constitute electromagnetic waves
,which propagate in space in a direction perpendicular to the directions of both the fields.

.Write two uses of microwaves. [Foreign 2011]

Ans

Write two uses of X-rays. [Foreign 2011]

Ans

Which of the following has the shortest wavelength? Microwaves, ultraviolet

rays, X-rays. [All India 2010]
Ans

14. Arrange the following in descending order of wavelength. X-rays,

radiowaves, blue light, infrared light. [All India 2010] Ans

Which part of electromagnetic spectrum has largest penetrating power?

[Delhi 2010]
Ans

16. Which part of electromagnetic spectrum is absorbed from sunlight by

ozone layer? [Delhi 2010]
Ans
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17. Which part of electromagnetic spectrum is used in RADAR systems?

[Delhi 2010]
Ans Micro Waves

18.Name the electromagnetic radiation used to destroy cancer cells and write
its frequency range. [Foreign 2010]
Ans

Name the electromagnetic waves used for studying crystal structure of solids.
What is its frequency range? [All India 2009]
Ans

22.Write the following radiations in ascending order in respect of their

frequencies X-rays, microwaves, ultraviolet rays and radiowaves. [Delhi 2009]
Ans

Name the electromagnetic radiation to which waves of wavelength in the range

of 10-2 m belongs. Give one use of this part of electromagnetic spectrum. [Delhi
2009, 2008]
Ans

24.Name the electromagnetic radiation which can be produced by a klystron or

a magnetron valve. [Foreign 2009]
Ans
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25.Why is ozone layer on top of the stratosphere crucial for human

survival? [All India 2009C]
Ans

26.State the reason why microwaves are best suited for long distance
transmission of signals. [Foreign 2008]
Ans

4.Welders wear special goggles or face masks with glass windows to protect
their eyes from electromagnetic radiation. Name the radiations and write the
range of their frequency. [All India 2013]
Ans

.Answer the following questions.

• Name the waves which are produced during radioactive decay of a

nucleus. Write their frequency range.
• Welders wear special glass goggles while working. Why? Explain.
• Why are infrared waves often called as heat waves? Give their one
application. [Delhi 2014]
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Ans