CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE ACADEMY

SERVICE BEFORE SELF

BIOLOGY 5070

11.7. THE SKELETON AND LOCOMOTION

The skeleton is the frame work of the body of an organism.
There are three types of skeletons in animals: Hydrostatic skeleton, Exoskeleton and
Endoskeleton
Hydrostatic skeleton
This type of skeleton is made up of water. It is found in soft bodied animals such as earthworms
and jellyfish
The body cavity of such organisms is filled with a fluid that produces pressure when muscles
contract, bring about support and movement.

Exoskeleton

Exoskeletons are made of chitin and are found on the outside body of an organism.
Chitin is a rigid but light polysaccharide secreted by the
epidermis. Animal undergoes periodic moulting or ecdysis to
allow growth.

Endoskeleton

Endoskeleton are made of living bones and cartilage

It is found inside the body of vertebrates like amphibians, birds,
reptiles and mammals

Functions of the skeleton

It is the frame work of the body giving the shape of an organism

It supports the soft tissues of the body
 It protects vital organs like the brain, heart and lungs
It cause movement of the body limbs independent of each other.
It produces red blood cells in the bone marrow of long bones
It helps in breathing by movement of the rib cage

It stores calcium

It transmits sound from the middle ear to the inner ear

It causes locomotion of the entire body of the organism

The skeleton of an insect

All insects have three main body parts; the head, thorax and abdomen. The body is
covered by an exoskeleton also called the cuticle.
The cuticle is made up of a polysaccharide called Chitin. The
cuticle is made of a waxy thin outer layer which prevents excess
loss of water.
The exoskeleton does not permit continuous growth moulting or
ecdysis occurs to allow growth.

Joints, muscles and limbs of a grasshopper

The hard and rigid cuticle are absent in the joints to allow
joints to bend easily.
Joint is moved by a pair of antagonistic muscles.
The muscle responsible for bending the joints is called the
flexor muscle
The muscle responsible for extending the joint is called the
extensor muscles

Movement of limbs

To bend the joint, the flexor muscle contract while the

extensor muscle relaxes.
To extend the joint, the extensor muscle contracts while the
flexor muscle relaxes.
 The Mammalian skeleton
The human skeleton is made up of 206 bones and
cartilage, which are connected together through
joints.
The human skeleton is divided into the; axial
skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
The axial skeleton is made up of the skull,
ribcage and vertebral column
The appendicular skeleton consists of the
pectoral girdle, arms, pelvic girdle and legs

The skull

The cranium protects the brain from physical

damage. The cranium is made up of the
immovable bones formed by joints called
sutures.
The eye sockets (orbit) protect the eye balls from
physical damage.

Cranium

Mandible
The Ribcage
The ribcage is made up of the sternum and the
ribs which are attached to the vertebral column
at the back.
The ribcage protects the heart and the lungs
from physical damage.
The ribcage helps in breath as it moves up and
down due to contraction and relaxation of
intercostal muscles.
 The Vertebral Column

The vertebral column protects the spinal cord

from mechanical damage.
The vertebral column is made up of fivetypes
of vertebra namely the cervical, thoracic,
lumbar, sacral and caudal vertebrae.
All the vertebrae have the same basic
structure.

Vertebrae Structure
Neural canal
is where the spinal cord passes.
Neural arch protects the spinal cord.
Neural spine and transverse process are used for
muscle attachment and ligaments.
Centrum produces the intervertebral disc and forms a
cartilaginous joint with the next vertebra.
Facets are used for articulation to other bones.

Atlas vertebrae:

The atlas is the first cervical

vertebrae.

The atlas is broad to provide a

large surface area for articulation
with the skull.
It has no centrum

Axis vertebrae

The axis is the second cervical vertebrae

The axis has odontoid process (dens) to
allow turning of the head
Cervical vertebrae

Cervical vertebrae have branched Neural

spine to provide a large surface area for
muscle attachment
They have a wide neural canal for
passage of the spinal cord.
They have small transverse process with
a vertebraterial canal to allow passage
of blood vessels and vertebral nerves.

Thoracic vertebrae

Thoracic vertebrae have a long neural spine that

provides a large surface area for attachment of
muscles.
They have facets on the transverse process for
articulation with the ribs.
They also have a wide neural canal for the
passage of the spinal cord and a broad centrum
for support.

Lumbar vertebrae
Lumbar vertebrae have long transverse processes to increase surface area for muscle
attachment.
It has no facets on the transverse process. It has a large centrum to support the weight of the
vertebrae column.
The neural canal is narrow

Sacral vertebrae

Several vertebrae are fused together to form sacrum for

support and to transmit the weight of stationary animal to the
rest of the body
They also have a broad bases to provide a large surface area
for attachment of muscles and numerous posterior foramen
(canal) for passage of spinal nerves and blood vessels
Humans have no external tail there are four caudal
vertebrae which are fused together to form the coccyx.

Appendicular skeleton

The appendicular skeleton is made up of: the pectoral girdle, pelvic girdle, fore limbs and
hind limbs.
The pectoral girdle
The pectoral girdle is made up of a pair of clavicles (collar bones) and the scapula
(shoulder blade).
The glenoid cavity where the humerus fits.
The scapula spine is used for muscle attachment.
 Pelvic girdle

The pelvic girdle consists of two halves, each half is composed of three bones, the
ilium, ischium and pubis. In females, the pelvis bone widens forming a large
pelvic cavity which is important for the birth process.

Acetebulum is where the femur fits

Fore limbs:

The fore limb is made up of a long

humerus, two lower arm bones called
radius and ulna, wrist bones(carpals)
palm bones (metarcapals) and the
phallanges (fingers).

Humerus

Head fits into the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the
ball and socket joint
Shaft provides a large surface area for attachment of biceps
and triceps.
Trochlea articulates with the ulna and radius forming a
hinge joint.

Hind limbs

The hind limbs in humans are used for walking.

It is made up of the long femur, the tibia, fibula, tarsal,
metatarsals and phalanges.
The femur is the large bone which has a ball shaped head
that fits and articulates in the acetabulum of the pelvic
bone.
The lower part of the femur articulates with the tibia and
fibula at the knee joint.
At this joint is a triangular bone called the patella or knee-cap. The knee-cap protects the joint
and makes movement easier.
femur

Head articulates with the acetabulum of the pelvic gridle.

Shaft is long to provide a large surface area for muscle attachment.
Condyle articulate with the petalla.

Lesser and greater trochanter provide

attachment for ligaments

Bone tissue
A bone is considered as a living tissue because it contains
bone cells called osteoblast.

Blood vessels supply the bone cells with nutrients and

oxygen and carry metabolic wastes through harvesian
cana.

Red bone marrow forms red blood cells and yellow

bone marrow which maakes white blood cells. The
bone like any other living tissue ia prone to attack by
certain diseases and disorders such as bone marrow
cancer, and tuberculosis of the bone.

Bone defects

Bone marrow cancer (leukemia)

develops when the patient makes an
abnormally high number of immature
white blood cell.
It leads to formation of a tumor
inside the bone called myeloma.
It is treated through radiotherapy or
chemotherapy.
Tuberculosis arthritis occurs when
tuberculosis attacks the bone tissue.

It is characterized by swelling of
joints and thorax, itching effect in the
bones and sclerosis.
It can be treated using normal TB
antibiotics and through surgery of the
affected area
 Skeletal Muscles

A skeletal muscle is spindle shaped i.e. tapers at both ends.

They are striped as such they are striated hence the name striated muscles. For a muscle
fibre to contract it requires energy.
Each muscle fibre contains many and larger mitochondria that supply energy to the muscle
through cellular respiration.
Bending and straightening the arrm

Biceps and triceps are the muscles responsible for

movement at the elbow.
To bend the arm the biceps contract while the triceps
relax.
The biceps thus pulls on the radius and raises the lower
arm and the arm bends.
To straighten the arm, the triceps contract while the
biceps relax.

The triceps pulls on the ulna thus bringing the bones of

the lower arm into a straight line
Bending and extending the leg

Extensors (quadriceps) and flexors (hamstring) are the muscles responsible for
movement at the knee.
o bend the leg, the Flexors at the back of the thigh contracts while Extensors on the front
of the thigh relaxes.
The flexors pulls on the fibula into a bend position.
To extend the leg, the Extensors contract while the flexors relax.
The extensors thus pulls on the tibia extending the leg.

Antagonistic muscles of the iris

When light intensity is low, the radial muscles of the iris contract while the circular muscles
relax.
The pupil dilates (becomes wider) and more light enters the eye to enable you to see in less
light.
When light intensity is high the circular muscles of the iris contract while the radial muscles
relaxes.
The pupil constricts (becomes smaller) and less light enters the eye.
 Ball and socket joints

The ball and socket joints are found in the

hip and shoulder.
In these joints a round ball-like head of the
joint fits into a caplike socket.
This joint allows 360o movement in all
three planes.

Hinge joints

The hinge joints are found in the elbow,

knee, wrist and ankle.
In these joints one bone has a convex
surface while the other has a concave
surface in which the concave surface
articulates.
This joint allows 180o movement.

Joint disorders

The most common disorders of joints are: Gout and Arthritis

Gout is a disease characterized by swelling of big toe and other joints.
Swelling of the joint causes severe pain
It is caused by accumulation of sodium urate crystals in the joint due to excessive intake
of meat accompanied by excessive consumption of alcohol.
Arthritis is an inflammatory disease, which affects the synovial joints.
It is characterized by pain swelling and stiffness in the joint.
The affected joints then become tender and swollen and also feel warmer than other parts
of the body.
It causes difficulty in standing and walking.
The synovial joint

Cartilage prevents friction and the grinding of bone against bone. It acts as a shock absorber.
Ligament connects bone to bone and prevent dislocation of the joint. They keep the joint
stable.
Synovial fluid is a lubricating fluid that reduces friction in the joint and It also acts as a shock
absorber.
Synovial membrane secretes the synovial fluid.