@BENEDICT

PESA HOPEFUL 2023

UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND

TECHNOLOGY, TARKWA

ENGINEERING DRAWING

MC/PE/RN/NG 156

Compiled By:
GIDEON QUARTEY

2021/2022
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................. 2
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................. 1
DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES AND PATTERNS ...................................................... 1
1.1 Overview ............................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Methods of Development .................................................................................. 2
1.5 Development of Prisms ....................................................................................... 3
1.6 Development of a Cylinder................................................................................. 4
1.7 Development of a Square Pyramid ................................................................... 5
1.8 Development of Pentagonal Pyramid ............................................................... 6
1.9 Development of a Cone ...................................................................................... 7
1.10 Development of a Truncated Pentagonal Prism ........................................... 7
1.11 Development of a Truncated Hexagonal Prism ............................................ 8
1.12 Development of Frustum of Square Pyramid .............................................. 10
1.13 Truncated Hexagonal Pyramid ...................................................................... 11
1.14 ASSIGNMENT 1 ................................................................................................ 11
CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................... 14
SECTIONAL VIEWS .................................................................................................... 14
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 14
2.1.1 Cutting-Plane Line .......................................................................................... 15
2.2 Section Lining ..................................................................................................... 16
2.3 Types of Section Views ..................................................................................... 17
2.3.1 Full Sections .................................................................................................... 18
2.3.2 Half Sections.................................................................................................... 19
2.3.3 Offset Sections ................................................................................................ 19
2.3.4 Broken-out Section ........................................................................................ 20
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2.3.5 Aligned Section ............................................................................................... 21

2.3.6 Revolved Sections........................................................................................... 22
2.3.7 Removed Section ............................................................................................ 23
2.4 Parts Not Sectioned ........................................................................................... 24
2.5 Sample Questions .............................................................................................. 26
2.6 ASSIGNMENT 2................................................................................................... 28
CHAPTER THREE ....................................................................................................... 29
ASSEMBLY DRAWING............................................................................................... 29
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 29
3.2 Universal Joint .................................................................................................... 30
3.2.1 Exercise ............................................................................................................ 31
3.3 Knuckle Joint....................................................................................................... 31
3.3.1 Exercise ............................................................................................................ 32
3.4 Screw Down Stop Valve .................................................................................... 32
3.4.1 Exercise ............................................................................................................ 33
3.5 ASSIGNMENT 3................................................................................................... 33
3.6 Bolts and Nuts .................................................................................................... 33
3.6.1 Approximate Method of Drawing a Hexagonal Nut (Figure 3.4) ............. 34
CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................... 36
CURVES OF INTERSECTION ..................................................................................... 36
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 36
4.2 Intersection of Two Cylinders .......................................................................... 36
4.3 Intersection of a Cylinder and a Square Prism .............................................. 39
4.3.1 ASSIGNMENT 4 ............................................................................................... 39

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CHAPTER ONE
DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES AND PATTERNS

1.1 Overview
If a machine part or an element thereof is cut by a plane, then a plane figure is obtained
on the cutting plane. This figure is called a section. Construction of projections of such
sections is often necessary in making drawings of various machine parts. In addition,
developed surfaces of machine parts cut by a plane have to be constructed to enable
sheet material to be cut out for parts of various ducts, ventilating devices, machine
casings, machine-tool guards, etc. (see Figure
1.1).

Figure 1.1: Development of Surfaces

1.2 Objectives
After studying the material in this chapter, the student should be able to construct the
development of:

1. Cylinders

2. Cones

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3. Prisms

4. Pyramids
1.3 Introduction
A layout of the complete surface of a three dimensional object on a plane is called the
development of the surface or flat pattern of the object. The development of surfaces
is very important in the fabrication of articles made of sheet metal.

The objects such as containers, boxes, boilers, hoppers, vessels, funnels, trays etc., are
made of sheet metal by using the principle of development of surfaces.

In making the development of a surface, an opening of the surface should be determined

first. Every line used in making the development must represent the true length of the
line (edge) on the object.

The steps to be followed for making objects, using sheet metal are given below:

1. Draw the orthographic views of the object to full size.

2. Draw the development on a sheet of paper.

3. Transfer the development to the sheet metal.

4. Cut the development from the sheet.

5. Form the shape ofthe object by bending.

6. Join the closing edges.

Note: In actual practice, allowances have to be given for extra material required for
joints and bends. These allowances are not considered in the topics presented in this
chapter.
1.4 Methods of Development
The method to be followed for making the development of a solid depends upon the
nature of its lateral surfaces. Based on the classification of solids, the following are the
methods of development.

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1. Parallel-line Development:
It is used for developing prisms and single curved surfaces like cylinders in which
all the edges/generators of lateral surfaces are parallel to each other.

2. Radial-line Development:

It is employed for pyramids and single curved surfaces like cones in which the apex
is taken as centre and the slant edge or generator (which are the true lengths)as
radius for its development.
1.5 Development of Prisms
To draw the development of a square prism of side of base 30 mm and height 50 mm
(see Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2: Development of a Squre Prism

1. Assume the prism is resting on its base on H.P. with an edge of the base parallel
to V.P and draw the orthographic views of the square prism.

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2. Draw the stretch-out line 1-1 (equal in length to the circumference of the square
prism) and mark off the sides of the base along this line in succession,

i.e 1-2, 2-3, 3-4 and 4-1.

3. Erect perpendiculars through 1,2,3 etc., and mark the edges (folding lines) 1-A, 2-
B, etc., equal to the height of the prism (50 mm).

4. Add the bottom and top bases 1234 and ABCD by the side of any of the base edges.
1.6 Development of a Cylinder
A cylinder of 25 mm in diameter, with an axis 40 mm long is resting on its base, with its
axis perpendicular to the HP. Draw the projections of the cylinder and develop the
lateral surfaces of the cylinder.

Figure 1.3: Development of a Cylinder

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Figure 1.3 shows the development of a cylinder. In this the length of the rectangle
representing the development of the lateral surface of the cylinder is equal to the
circumference ( here πd is the diameter of the cylinder) of the circular base.

1.7 Development of a Square Pyramid

The development of a square pyramid with side of base 30 mm and height 60 mm is
shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: Development of a Square Pyramid

1. Draw the views of the pyramid assuming that it is resting on H.P and with an edge
of the base parallel to V.P.

2. Determine the true length o-a of the slant edge.

Note: In the orientation given for the solid, all the slant edges are inclined to both
H.P and V.P. Hence, neither the front view nor the top view provides the true
length of the slant edge. To determine the true length of the slant edge, say OA,
rotate oa till it is parallel to xy to the position oa1. Through a1, draw a projector to
meet the line xy at a01. Then o01 and a01 all represents the true length of the slant

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edge OA. This method of determining the true length is also known as rotation
method.

3. With centre O and radius o1a1 draw an arc.

4. Starting from A along the arc, mark the edges of the base i.e, AB, BC, CD and DA.

5. Join O to A,B,C, etc., representing the lines of folding and thus completing the
development.
1.8 Development of Pentagonal Pyramid
The development of a pentagonal pyramid with side of base 25 mm and height 60 mm
is shown in Figure 1.5

Figure 1.5: Development of Pentagonal Pyramid

1. Draw the orthographic views of the pyramid ABCDE with its base on H.P and axis
parallel to V.P.

2. With centre D of the pyramid and radius equal to the true length of the slant edge
draw an arc.

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3. Mark off the edges starting from A along the arc and join them to D representing
the lines of folding.

4. Add the base at a suitable location.

1.9 Development of a Cone
The development of the lateral surface of a cone is a sector of a circle. The radius and
length of the arc are equal to the slant height and circumference of the base of the cone
respectively. The included angle of the sector is given by (r/s)×360o, where r is the
radius of the base of the cone and s is the true length (see Figure
1.6).

Figure 1.6: Development of a Cone

1.10 Development of a Truncated Pentagonal Prism
A Pentagonal prism of side of base 20 mm and height 50 mm stands vertically on its base
with a rectangular face perpendicular to V.P. A cutting plane perpendicular to V.P and
inclined at 60o to the axis passes through the edges of the top base of the prism. Develop
the lower portion of the lateral surface of the prism. See Figure 1.7 for solution.

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Figure 1.7: Development of a Truncated Pentagonal Prism

1. Draw the projections of the prism.

2. Draw the trace (VT) of the cutting plane intersecting the edges at points 1,2,3, etc.

3. Draw the stretch-out AA and mark-off the sides of the base along this in succession
i.e., AB, BC, CD, DE and EA.

4. Erect perpendiculars through A,B,C etc., and mark the edges AA 1, BB1 etc., equal
to the height of the prism.

5. Project the points 11,21,31 etc., and obtain 1,2,3 etc., respectively on the
corresponding edges in the development.

6. Join the points 1,2,3 etc., by straight lines and darken the sides corresponding to
the truncated portion of the solid.
1.11 Development of a Truncated Hexagonal Prism
A hexagonal prism of side of base 30 mm and axis 75 mm long is resting on its base on
HP. such that a rectangular face is parallel to VP. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular
to VP and inclined at 30o to HP. The section plane is passing through the top end of an

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extreme lateral edge of the prism. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the
cut prism. See Figure 1.8 for solution.

Figure 1.8: Development of a Truncated Hexagonal Prism

1. Draw the projections of the prism.

2. Draw the section plane VT.

3. Draw the development AA1-A1A of the complete prism following the stretch out
line principle.

4. Locate the point of intersection etc., between VT and the edges of the prism.

5. Draw horizontal lines through 11,21 etc., and obtain 1,2, etc., on the corresponding
edges in the development.

6. Join the points 1,2, etc., by straight lines and darken the sides corresponding to
the retained portion of the solid.

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1.12 Development of Frustum of Square Pyramid

Draw the development of the lateral surface of the frustum of the square pyramid of
side of base 30 mm and axis 40 mm, resting on HP with one of the base edges parallel
to VP. It is cut by a horizontal cutting plane at a height of 20 mm.

Figure 1.9: Development of Frustum of Square Pyramid

1. Draw the projections of the square pyramid.

2. Determine the true length of the slant edge.

3. Draw the trace of the cutting plane.

4. Locate the points of intersection of the cutting plane on the slant edges a1b1c1d1
of the pyramid.

5. With any point O as centre and radius equal to the true length of the slant edge
draw an arc of the circle.

6. With radius equal to the side of the base 30 mm, step-off divisions on the above
arc.

7. Join the above division points 1,2,3 etc., in the order with the centre of the arc o.
The full development of the pyramid is given by 012341.

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8. With centre O and radius equal to o-a mark-off these projections at A, B, C, D, A.

Join A-B, B-C etc. ABCDA-12341 is the development of the frustum of the square
pyramid.
1.13 Truncated Hexagonal Pyramid
A hexagonal pyramid with side of base 30 mm and height 75 mm stands with its base on
HP and an edge of the base parallel to V.P. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to VP,
inclined at 45o to H.P and passing through the mid-point of the axis. Draw the (sectioned)
top view and develop the lateral surface of the truncated pyramid.

Figure 1.10: Development of Frustum of Hexagonal Pyramid

1.14 ASSIGNMENT 1
Question 1: A Pentagonal prism of base 45 mm and height of 80 mm lies with its base
on the HP such that one of its base edges is perpendicular to the vertical plane. The
pentagonal pyramid is truncated by a vertical projecting plane which makes an angle of
45° with the horizontal plane at a point 50 mm from the base through the axis. Construct
the three (3) projections, the true shape of the section and develop the surface of the
truncated hexagonal pyramid completely.

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Figure 1.11: Truncated Pentagonal Prism

Question 2: A hexagonal pyramid of base 35 mm and height of 80 mm lies with its base
on the HP such that two of its base edges are parallel to the vertical plane. The hexagonal
pyramid is truncated by a vertical projecting plane which makes an angle of 45° with the
horizontal plane at a point 40 mm from the base through the axis. Construct the three
(3) projections, the true shape of the section and develop the surface of the truncated
hexagonal pyramid completely.

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Figure 1.12: Truncated Hexagonal Pyramid

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CHAPTER TWO
SECTIONAL VIEWS

2.1 Introduction
Sectional views, commonly called sections, are used to show interior detail that is too
complicated to be shown clearly and dimensioned by the traditional orthographic views
and hidden lines. A sectional view is obtained by making an imaginary cut through the
part, and by drawing the features on the cut surface, as shown in Figure 2.1. In a
drawing, the exposed or cut surfaces are identified by section lining, or crosshatching.
Section views show internal part detail as solid lines instead of hidden lines, which
improve communication. Hidden lines and details behind the cuttingplane line are
usually omitted unless they are required for clarity. A sectional view can sometimes
replace one of the regular views, for example, a regular front view as shown in Figure
2.2.

Figure 2.1: Cutting a part and showing a section view

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Figure 2.2: A section drawing

2.1.1 Cutting-Plane Line
Section views show how an object would look if a cutting plane (or saw) cut through the
object and the material in front of the cutting plane was discarded (see 2.3). A cutting-
plane line indicates where the imaginary cutting takes place. The position of the cutting
plane is indicated, when necessary, on a view of the object or assembly by a cutting-
plane line, as shown in Figure 2.4. The ends of the cutting-plane line are bent at 90
degrees and terminated by arrowheads to indicate the direction of sight for viewing the
section. Cutting planes are not shown on sectional views. The cutting-plane line may be
omitted when it corresponds to the centreline of the part or when only one sectional
view appears on a drawing.

Figure 2.3: Cutting Plane and Sectional View

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Figure 2.4: Standard Representation of a Cutting Plane A-A

If two or more sections appear on the same drawing, the cutting-plane lines are
identified by two identical large, single-stroke, Gothic letters. One letter is placed at each
end of the line. Sectional view subtitles are given when identification letters are used
and appear directly below the view, incorporating the letters at each end of the cutting-
plane line, thus: SECTION A-A or, abbreviated, SECT A-A.
2.2 Section Lining
Section lining indicates the surface that has been cut and makes it stand out clearly.
Section lines usually consist of thin parallel lines, drawn at an angle of approximately 45
degrees to the principal edges or axis of the part, as in Figure 2.5.

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Figure 2.5: Section lining

Because the exact material specifications for a part are usually given elsewhere, the
general use section lining (i.e., the 45 degree solid parallel lines) is recommended for
general use. When it is desirable to indicate differences in materials, other symbolic
section lines are used, such as those shown in Figure 2.6. If the part shape would cause
section lines to be parallel or nearly parallel to one of the sides or features of the part,
an angle other than 45 degrees can be chosen.

Figure 2.6: Symbolic Section Lining

The spacing of the hatching lines is uniform to give a good appearance to the drawing.
The pitch, or distance, between lines varies from .06 to .18 inch, depending on the size
of the area to be sectioned. Section lining is similar in direction and spacing in all sections
of a single component. Wood and concrete are the only two materials usually shown
symbolically. When wood symbols are used, the direction of the grain is shown.
2.3 Types of Section Views
The following forms of sectioning are available in engineering practices.

1. Full sections

2. Half sections

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3. Offset sections
4. Revolved sections

5. Removed sections

6. Broken-out sections
2.3.1 Full Sections
When the cutting plane extends entirely through the object in a straight line and the
front half of the object is theoretically removed, a full section is obtained, Figure 2.7 (B).
This type of section is used for both detail and assembly drawings. When the cutting
plane divides the object into two identical parts, it is not necessary to indicate its
location. However, the cutting plane may be identified and indicated in the usual
manner to increase clarity.

Figure 2.7: Full Section

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2.3.2 Half Sections

A symmetrical object or assembly may be drawn as a half section, Figure 2.8 (C), showing
one half up to the centre line in section and the other half in full view. A normal
centreline is listed on the section view. The wording, half section, can be confusing
because one thinks of showing half the part. Remember, a half section shows one-fourth
of the part, not one-half.

Figure 2.8: Half Section

The half section drawing is not normally used where the dimensioning of internal
diameters is required. This is because many hidden lines would have to be added to the
portion showing the external features. This type of section is used mostly for assembly
drawings where internal and external features are clearly shown and only overall and
center-to-center dimensions are required.
2.3.3 Offset Sections
In order to include features that are not in a straight line, the cutting-plane line may be
offset or bent, so as to include several planes or curved surfaces, Figure 2.9. An offset
section is similar to a full section in that the cutting plane extends through the object
from one side to the other. The change in direction of the cutting-plane line is not shown
on the sectional view.

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Figure 2.9: Offset Section

2.3.4 Broken-out Section
When certain internal and external features of an object can be shown without drawing
another view, broken-out and partial sections are used, Figure 2.10. A cutting-plane line
or a break line is used to indicate where the section is taken. The break line is normally
a jagged line, which better indicates the break. Broken-out sections save drawing time
and drawing space. Most CAD systems have a freehand sketching tool to create the
break line.

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Figure 2.10: Broken-out Section

2.3.5 Aligned Section
A aligned section is not a true projection of the cut surface. It is often used when a part
contains webs, ribs, spokes, or similar features. It revolves or aligns special part features
to clarify them or make them easier to represent in section. One can conceptually think
about a aligned section as a specialized offset section, Figure 2.11. The cutting plane can
be bent to pass through all of the nonaligned features in the unsectioned view. Another
example is shown in Figure 2.12.

Figure 2.11: Aligned Section

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Figure 2.12: Aligned Section

2.3.6 Revolved Sections
A revolved section is made by revolving the cross-section view 90 degrees about an axis
of revolution and superimposing the section view on the orthographic view. Visible lines
adjacent to the revolved view can be either drawn or broken out using conventional
breaks, as shown in Figure 2.13. When the revolved view is superimposed on the part,
the original lines of the part behind the section are deleted. The cross section is drawn
true shape and size, not distorted to fit the view. The axis of revolution is shown on the
revolved view as a centerline. Another example is shown in Figure 2.14 (B). Revolved
sections are useful for describing a cross section without having to draw another view.
In addition, these sections are especially helpful when a cross section varies or the shape
of the part is not apparent from the given orthographic views.

Figure 2.13: Revolved Sections

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Figure 2.14: Revolved Sections

2.3.7 Removed Section
A removed section differs from the revolved section in that the section is removed to an
open area on the drawing instead of being drawn directly on the view. Removed sections
are used when there is not enough room on the orthographic view for a revolved
section. Removed sections are used to show the contours of complicated shapes, such
as the wings and fuselage of an airplane, blades for jet engines or power plant turbines,
and other parts that have continuously varying shapes. Frequently, the removed section
is drawn to an enlarged scale for clarification and easier dimensioning, Figure 2.15

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Figure 2.15: Removed Section

Normally, the cross-section view is drawn adjacent to the orthographic view and close
to the position of the cutting plane, which is identified with either a centre line or a
cutting plane line. If a number of removed sections are done on a part, cutting plane
lines may be drawn with labels to clarify the position from which each section is taken.
The removed section view is then labelled, such as SECTION A-A as shown in Figure 2.15,
to correspond to the labelled cutting plane line.
2.4 Parts Not Sectioned
Section lines are not drawn on the following objects when the cutting plane passes
lengthwise through them.

1. Spokes

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2. Gear teeth

3. Shafts

4. Bolts nuts

5. Pins

6. Rivets

7. Spindles

8. Keys

9. Studs

10. Thin washers

The objects above are more easily recognized by their external features, so they are not
shown in section if cut longitudinally. However, section lines are drawn when the cutting
plane cuts across the axis of the objects.

Figure 2.16: Examples of Features not Sectioned

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Figure 2.17: Examples of Features not Sectioned

Also, when webs or ribs are cut along their length by a cutting plane, they are not
sectioned, in order to avoid a false appearance of solidity. The webs and ribs are usually
thin in comparison to the overall thickness of the main body. If a cutting plane cuts
across the webs or ribs, then they are shown in section in the usual way.
2.5 Sample Questions
1. The components shown in Figure 2.18 are drawn in first-angle or third-angle
projection. Sketch the sectional view of each component.

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Figure 2.18: Sample Questions

Figure 2.19: Bracket

2. With a scale of 1:1, draw in first-angle projection the following views of the bracket
shown in Figure 2.19:

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(a) the front view in the direction of arrow F,

(b) the plan,

(c) a sectional end view along cutting plane X-X.

Figure 2.20: Block

3. With a scale of 1:1, draw in first-angle projection the following views of the bracket
shown in Figure 2.20:

(a) a sectional front view along cutting plane X-X,

(b) the plan,

(c) the end view.

2.6 ASSIGNMENT 2
Produce sample questions 1, 2 and 3.

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CHAPTER THREE
ASSEMBLY DRAWING

3.1 Introduction
A machine is an assembly of various links or parts. It is necessary to understand the
relation between the various parts of the unit for the purpose of design and production.
An assembly drawing is one which represents various parts of a machine in their working
position. These drawings are classified as design assembly drawings, working assembly
drawings, sub-assembly drawings, installation assembly drawings, etc.

An assembly drawing made at the design stage while developing a machine is known as
design assembly drawing. It is made to a larger scale so that the required changes or
modifications may be thought of by the designer, keeping in view both the functional
requirement and aesthetic appearance.

Working assembly drawings are normally made for simple machines, comprising small
number of parts. Each part is completely dimensioned to facilitate easy fabrication.

A sub-assembly drawing is an assembly drawing of a group of related parts which form

a part of a complicated machine. Thus, a number of such sub-assembly drawings are
needed to make a complete unit.

An installation assembly drawing reveals the relation between different units of a

machine, giving location and dimensions of few important parts.

The final assembly drawings are prepared from design assembly drawings or from the
working drawings (component drawings).

The class-room exercises are designed to train the students to master fundamentals of
machine drawing, such as principles of drawing, orthographic projections, etc. In
addition, the student will understand the relation between the different parts of the
components and working principles of the assembled unit. The following steps may be
made use of to make an assembly drawing from component drawings:

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1. Understand the purpose, principle of operation and field of application of the

given machine. This will help in understanding the functional requirements of
individual parts and their location.

2. Examine thoroughly, the external and internal features of the individual parts.

3. Choose a proper scale for the assembly drawing.

4. Estimate the overall dimensions of the views of the assembly drawing and make
the outline blocks for each of the required view, leaving enough space between
them, for indicating dimensions and adding required notes.

5. Draw the axes of symmetry for all the views of the assembly drawing.

6. Begin with the view from the front, by drawing first, the main parts of the
machine and then adding the rest of the parts, in the sequence of assembly.

7. Project the other required views from the front view and complete the views.

8. Mark the location and overall dimensions and add the part numbers on the
drawing.

9. Prepare the parts list.

10. Add the title block.

NOTE: It is not advisable to complete one view before commencing the other. The better
method is to develop all the required views simultaneously.
3.2 Universal Joint
This is a rigid coupling and is used to connect two shafts, whose axes intersect if
extended. Figure 3.1 shows the details of universal coupling. The forks 2 are mounted
at the ends of two shafts 1, making use of sunk keys 6. The central block 3, having two
arms at right angle to each other, is placed between the forks and connected to both of
them by using pins 4 and collars 5. A taper pin (not shown) is used to keep the pins 4 in
position. During rotation of shafts, the angle between them can be varied.

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Figure 3.1: Universal Joint

3.2.1 Exercise
Assemble the parts of universal coupling and, shown in Figure 3.1 and draw, (i) sectional
view from the front and (ii) view from the right.
3.3 Knuckle Joint
This is a pin joint and is used to connect two circular rods subjected to axial loads.
Compared to a socket and spigot joint, wherein the axes of both the rods should be in
the same plane; in the knuckle joint, one of the rods can be swiveled through some angle
about the connecting pin, i.e., the axes of the two rods could be inclined to each other.
Figure 3.2 shows the details of a knuckle joint. The eye end of the rod 2 is inserted into
the fork end 1 of the other rod. Then, pin 3 is inserted through the holes in the ends of
the rods and held in position by the collar 4 and taper pin 5.

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Figure 3.2: Knuckle Joint

3.3.1 Exercise
Assemble the parts of a knuckle joint, shown in Figure 3.2 and draw, (i) sectional view
form the front and (ii) view from above.
3.4 Screw Down Stop Valve
The screw down stop valve is used in a fluid line to control the fluid flow. In the fully
open position, the valve gets lifted by 5 mm from the seat to allow the fluid flow from
left to right. Figure 3.3 shows the details of the screw down stop valve. The sleeve 5 is
mounted on the stem 8 by means of actuating screw 9. Valve seat 11 is attached to the
collar 6 with the screw 12 and then the collar 6 is screwed onto the sleeve 5, completing
the valve assembly. Screwed sleeve 10 is located in the bonnet 2 and this assembly is
screwed onto the valve body 1 after slipping onto the stem assembly. Gland 4 is located
on the bonnet through the stem and packing 7 (not shown in figure) is used between
the bonnet and gland, to stop any leakage of fluid. Gland is secured by the cap nut 3.

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Hand wheel 13 is mounted on the stem, using the nut 14. During operation of the hand
wheel, the screw 9 either lifts the valve, opening the fluid passage or screws down the
valve, closing the fluid passage. Hence, the name actuating screw.

Figure 3.3: Screw Down Stop Valve

3.4.1 Exercise
Figure 3.3 shows the details of a screw down stop valve. Assemble the parts and draw,
(i) sectional view from the front and (ii) view from above.
3.5 ASSIGNMENT 3
Produce the exercise in section 3.4.1
3.6 Bolts and Nuts
The bolt has an external thread which extends along only part of the shank. Bolts
generally pass completely through the work to be fastened and on the other side are
secured by a nut, which has an internal mating thread. Nuts and bolts are usually
hexagonal-headed and are adjusted with a standard spanner of the open-ended, ring,
or socket type. Nuts and bolts often have to be drawn by draftsmen, so it is very useful
to learn a quick method to obtain an approximate shape.

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3.6.1 Approximate Method of Drawing a Hexagonal Nut (Figure 3.4)

1. Start with the plan view. Draw a circle of diameter 2d, where d is the major
diameter of the thread (nominal size).

2. Using a 60o set square, construct a hexagon inside the circle and then draw a
chamfer circle inside the hexagon.

3. Complete the plan by drawing concentric circles representing the threaded hole.

4. Project the front and end views, making the height of the nut equal to 0.8d.

5. From the points marked A in the front view, draw construction lines at 30 o to the
main centre line to intersect this centre line at point B.

6. With the centre at point B, draw the chamfer curve tangential to the top surface
of the nut.

7. From the points marked C, draw construction lines at 30o to the main centre line,
intersecting the initial construction line at the points E.

8. With centres at points E, draw two small chamfer curves tangential to the top
surface of the nut.

9. In the end view, bisect the distances between the main centre line and the two
extreme sides. Starting at the top surface of the nut, mark along the bisectors a
distance equal to d, giving the intersection points F.

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Figure 3.4: Method for Drawing Hexagonal Bolt and Nut

CHAPTER FOUR
CURVES OF INTERSECTION

4.1 Introduction
Ducts, pipe joints, smoke stacks, boilers, containers, machine castings etc., involve
intersection of surfaces. Sheet metal work required for the fabrication of the above
objects necessitate the preparation of the development of the joints/objects.
Orthographic drawings of lines and curves of intersection of surfaces must be prepared
first for the accurate development of objects. Methods of obtaining the lines and curves
of intersection of surfaces of cylinder and cylinder, prism and prism are shown to
introduce the subject. Figure 4.1 shows intersection of two cylinders.

Figure 4.1: Three-dimensional View of Intersecting Cylinders

4.2 Intersection of Two Cylinders
Example 1: A horizontal cylinder of diameter 40 mm penetrates into a vertical cylinder
of diameter 60 mm. The axes of the cylinders intersect at right angles. Draw the curves
of intersection when the axis of the horizontal cylinder is parallel to the VP.

Solution 1: Figure 4.2

1. Draw the top and front views of the cylinders.

2. Draw the left side view of the arrangement.

3. Divide the circle in the side view into number of equal parts, say 12 as shown in
Figure 4.2.

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4. The generators of the horizontal cylinder are numbered in both front and top
views as shown.

5. Mark point m1, where the generator through 1 in the top view meets the circle in
the top view of the vertical cylinder. Similarly mark m2,········ m12.

6. Project on the generator 1010 in the front view.

7. Project on 7070, Similarly project all the point.

8. Draw a smooth curve through .

This curve is the intersection curve at the front. The curve at the rear through
coincides with the corresponding visible curve at the front.

Since the horizontal cylinder penetrates and comes out at the other end, similar
curve of intersection will be seen on the right also.

9. Draw the curve through following the same procedure. The two curves
and are the required curves of intersection.

Figure 4.2: Intersection of Two Cylinders: Case 1

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Example 2: A vertical cylinder of diameter 120 mm is fully penetrated by a cylinder of

diameter 90 mm, their axes intersecting each other. The axis of the penetrating cylinder
is inclined at 30o to the HP and is parallel to the VP. Draw the top and front views of the
cylinders and the curves of intersection.

Solution 2: Figure 4.3

1. Draw the top and front views of the cylinders.

2. Following the procedure in example 1 locate points m1 in the top view. Project
them to the corresponding generators in the inclined cylinder in the front view to
obtain points etc. etc.

3. Locate points etc., on the right side using the same construction.

4. Draw smooth curves through them to get the required curve of intersection as
shown in the figure.

Figure 4.3: Intersection of Two Cylinders: Case 2

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4.3 Intersection of a Cylinder and a Square Prism

Example 3: A vertical cylinder of diameter 70 mm and height 80 mm, standing on its base
on H.P., is penetrated by a horizontal square prism of sides 40 mm and height 80 mm in
such a way that their axes bisect each other. If four faces of the square prism are 45o to
the H.P., draw the projection of the solid and show the curves of intersection.

Solution 3: Figure 4.4

Draw the three views of the solid in the required position. Mark points 1, 2, 3 and 4 on
the side view. From these points, locate the corresponding points p1,p2,p3 and p4 on the
top view, and and in the front view and then draw the curve of intersection
as shown in the Figure 4.4. The front and back curves in the front view will coincide.

Figure 4.4: Intersection of a Cylinder and a Square Prism

4.3.1 ASSIGNMENT 4
Produce the drawings in Examples 2 and 3 under Section 4.3

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