ORAL COMMUNICATION

1. What is Communication?
The word communication has its origin in the Latin word 'communis' ,
which means 'to make common'. Communication facilitates sharing of
common experiences with others. It involves sharing of an idea, thought,
feeling or information with others, which includes dreaming, speaking,
arguing and so on. Thus the scope of communication is very wide.
Communication is part skill, part art and part science. It is a skill as it
involves certain fundamental techniques, it is an art as it involves creative
challenges, and it is science because certain verifiable principles are
involved in making communication more effective. All this makes
communication a complex process. Different scholars have defined
communication in various ways. Some of them describe it as “the transfer
of meaning”, “transmission of stimuli”, “one mind affecting other” or
“sharing of experiences on the basis of commonness”. Communication
has also been defined as a scientific study which involves the art of
communication so that skilled communication can be produced.
Levels of communication:
 Intrapersonal communication
 Interpersonal communication
 Interpretive communication
 Presentational communication
 Small group communication
 Intercultural communication
 Organizational communication
 Mass communication communication
 Multimodal communication
Intrapersonal communication is the process by which an
individual communicates within themselves, acting as both
sender and receiver of messages, and encompasses the use
of unspoken words to consciously engage in self-talk and
inner speech.
 Interpersonal communication is an exchange of
information between two or more people. It is also an area
of research that seeks to understand how humans use
verbal and nonverbal cues to accomplish a number of
personal and relational goals.
Interpretive mode of communication means communication that is focused on the
appropriate cultural interpretation of meanings that occur in written and spoken form
where there is no recourse to the active negotiation of meaning with the writer or the
speaker.
 Presentational Communication is another type of one-way communication,
which facilitates interpretation by members of another group where no direct
opportunity for the active negotiation of meaning between members of the two
groups exists.
Small group communication refers to interactions among three or
more people who are connected through a common purpose, mutual
influence, and a shared identity. Different groups have different
characteristics, serve different purposes, and can lead to positive,
neutral, or negative experiences. While our interpersonal
relationships primarily focus on relationship building, small groups
usually focus on some sort of task completion or goal accomplishment.
A college learning community focused on math and science, a
campaign team for a state senator, and a group of local organic
farmers are examples of small groups that would all have a different
size, structure, identity, and interaction pattern.
Intercultural communication refers to the communication between people from two
different cultures. (Chen & Starosta, 1998:28)
Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual
process, in which people from different cultures create shared meanings. (Lustig &
Koester, 2007:46)
Intercultural communication refers to the effects on communication behavior, when
different cultures interact together. Hence, one way of viewing intercultural
communication is as communication that unfolds in symbolic intercultural spaces.
(Arasaratnam, 2013:48)
Examples on Intercultural communication:
 A Muslim converses with a Christian.
 A woman receives an order from a man.
 An American and African share their views.
 A Chinese politician's discussion with an American leader.
Organizational communication is
a broad field that encompasses
all forms of communication that
allow organizations such as
companies, government
agencies, and non-profits to
function, grow, connect with
stakeholders, and contribute to
society.
Mass communication is the process of imparting and exchanging information
through mass media to large segments of the population. It is usually understood for
relating to various forms of media, as its technologies are used for the dissemination
of information, of which journalism and advertising are part.
Multimodal Communication is simply a term for describing all the different ways we employ
in communicating with each other, every day. This may be via spoken language, texting,
tweeting, emailing, handwriting, body language, & gesturing, or by using a communication
device. Multimodality is the application of multiple literacies within one medium. For
example, understanding a televised weather forecast involves understanding spoken
language, written language, weather specific language, geography, and symbols.
The functions of communication

Communication performs many functions, such as informing and

generating awareness, educating, persuading, motivating,
entertaining, etc. Let us examine some of these functions:
The persuasive function of oral communication
Persuasion is defined as an attempt to get a person to behave in a manner, or embrace
a point of view related to values, attitudes, and beliefs, that he or she would not have
done otherwise. Persuasion involves a change in someone’s attitudes, values, and
beliefs.
 An attitude is defined as an individual’s general predisposition toward
something as being good or bad, right or wrong, or negative or positive.
Maybe you believe that local curfew laws for stopping the spread of
COVID19 are a good idea; so, you want to persuade others to adopt a
positive attitude toward such laws. You can also attempt to persuade an
individual to change her or his value toward something.
(Morchid, 2020, pp 66)
A value refers to an individual’s perception of the usefulness,
importance, or worth of something. We can value an educational
technology or carreer path. Values, as a general concept, are fairly
ambiguous and tend to be very lofty ideas. Ultimately, what we value
in life actually motivates us to engage in a range of behaviors. For
example, if you value technology, you are more likely to seek out new
technology or software on your own. On the contrary, if you do not
value technology, you are less likely to seek out new technology or
software unless someone, or some circumstance, requires you to. Lastly,
you can attempt to get people to change their personal beliefs.
Beliefs are propositions or positions that an individual holds as true or false without
positive knowledge or proof. Typically, beliefs are divided into two basic categories:
core and dispositional. Core beliefs are beliefs that people have actively engaged in
and created over the course of their lives (e.g., belief in a higher power, belief in
extraterrestrial life forms). Dispositional beliefs, on the other hand, are beliefs that
people have not actively engaged in but rather judgments that they make, based on
their knowledge of related subjects, when they encounter a proposition. For
example, imagine that you were asked the question, “Can stock cars reach speeds of
one thousand miles per hour on a one-mile oval track?” Even though you may never
have attended a stock car race or even seen one on television, you can make split-
second judgments about your understanding of automobile speeds and say with a
fair degree of certainty that you believe stock cars cannot travel at one thousand
miles per hour on a one-mile track. We sometimes refer to dispositional beliefs as
virtual beliefs. In parallel, the reasons behind persuasion in oral communication fall
into two main categories: “pure persuasion” and “manipulative persuasion”.
Entertaining
In an entertaining act of communication, the speakers attempt to captivate an
audience’s attention and regale or amuse them while delivering a message. Like
more traditional informative or persuasive speeches, entertaining speeches should
communicate a clear message, but the manner of speaking used is typically different
because it lends itself to the provisions of humor. Entertaining acts of oral
communication are often context specific as they have contextual associations.
Sharing of Information:
 Information is key to progress in any society. Communication plays
an important role in information dissemination related to any form of
human activity
Education and Training:
Communication results in sharing of information, which in turn makes
people knowledgeableand thus productive members of the society.
Socialisation:
Communication fosters the feeling of oneness in a society by exposing
the various social groups to different views. It develops the need to
share and understand the feelings, emotions, hopes, aspirations and
expectations of varied groups in a social system.
Preservation of culture:
Communication helps to preserve the culture and heritage of a nation and
society. The transmission of values from one generation to another has been
taking place orally as well as through written texts, over the ages.
2. MODELS OF COMMUNICATION
As noted earlier in this course, communication belongs dependently of a complex exchange of
meaning. Oral communication challenges the logic of a uni-dimensional flow of information, where
information is orally transferred from one person or group to another. It is very important to be clear
about the theoretical basis for communication, as prerequisite for understanding the fundamentals of
oral communication. Eventually, this lesson is committed to expose the theoretical landscape that
addresses the architecture of communication. For the purpose of this course, five models of
communication are critically reviewed and assessed.
Aristotle’s model of communication

The formal communication theory, also referred to as the rhetorical theory is traced back to
Ancient Greece where philosophers and sophists were speech teachers. It should be noted that
the Greek society valued communication for the positive influence it exerts on the wellbeing of
society, and oral communication was a basic skill and prerequisite for getting social influence.
Aristotle is credited for a model of communication that applies to the basics of oral
communication.
 Speaker Speech Audience

Aristotle’s model of communication is made of three elements, speaker-speech-audience, where the basic function of
the communication is to persuade people. This was a valid conception of communication at that time. Yet, the
evolution of societies all over the world causes communication to attract new meanings and adapt to new realities.
Aristotle’s model of communication is probably too simplistic and incapable of containing the complex character of
today’s communication.
Lasswell (1948)’s model of communication

Lasswell’ s model is phrased in the form of a series of questions:

Who Says What In Which Channel To Whom With What Effect.

This verbal model focuses on the essential elements of communication and identified many areas of communication
research. 'Who' raises the question of identification of the source of the message. 'Says what ' is the subject of analysis
of the message. ‘Communication channel’ is the medium through which the message is sent 'To whom’ deals with the
characteristics of the receivers and audience and 'what effect' can be seen as evaluation of the effect of the message.
Shannon and Weaver (1949)’s model of communication

This model is also referred to as the transmission model of communication as it involves signal transmission for
communication.
In this model, the information source produces a message to be communicated out of a set of possible messages. The
message may consist of spoken or written word. The transmitter converts the message into a signal suitable for the
channel to be used. The channel is the medium that transmits the signal from the transmitter to the receiver. The
receiver performs the inverse operation of the transmitter by reconstructing the message from the signal. The
destination is the person or thing for whom/which the message is intended. This model introduced the concepts like
'noise' i.e. disturbances or errors in transmission, problems in accepting the signal (message), etc.

This model was criticised for being based on the hardware aspect developed for engineering problems and not for
human communication. Another criticism was that it did not take the element of feedback into account.
Charles Osgood (1954)'s Model

This is an interactive model. It displays communication as a dynamic process in which there is an interactive
relationship between the source and the receiver of the message. An individual engaged in the communication process
sends as well as receives messages and as such encodes, decodes and interprets messages through a number of
feedback mechanisms.

Osgood stressed the social nature of communication. This model was found more applicable in interpersonal
communication in which the source and receiver were physically present. For example when a teacher teaches, the
learners interact by raising queries, answering questions, etc. The role of interpretation of the message has also been
highlighted in this model for decoding a message.
 Schramm (1955)’s model

Unlike in the linear models discussed earlier in which interaction, feedback and sharing of
experiences find no place, Schramm (1955)’s model emphasises the accumulated experience of two
individuals engaged in communication. The source can encode and the destination can decode in
terms of the experience/s each has had. Communication becomes easy as both the participants
have a common field of experience. If the circles do not meet, there is an absence of such common
experience which makes the process of communication difficult.
(Barnlund, 1970)
The Transaction Model of communication differs from the Transmission
and Interaction Models in important ways, including the
conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and receiver,
and the role of context (Barnlund, 1970). The Transaction Model of
communication describes communication as a process in which
communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and
cultural contexts. In this model, nurses don’t just communicate to
exchange messages; they communicate to:
 Create relationships.
 Form intercultural alliances.
 Shape self-concept.
 Engage with others in dialogue to create communities.
The roles of sender and receiver in the Transaction Model of
communication differ significantly from those in the other models.
Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people
in a communication encounter are referred to as communicators.
Unlike the Interaction Model, which suggests that participants
alternate positions as sender and receiver, the Transaction Model
suggests that you are simultaneously a sender and receiver.

In short, you don’t communicate about your realities; communication

helps to construct your realities.
Assessment
I. Fill in the blanks.
A model is ..................................................
The verbal model of Lasswell identified the areas of ..........................
................................................ model introduced the concept of “NOISE”.
Osgoods’ model was found more applicable in .............................

II. Which of the above models better suits the context of oral communication?
III. What are the drawbacks of Lass well’s model of communication?
IV. How is Osgood’s model of communication different from Shannon and Weaver’s model?
3. Nonverbal communication
You remember from the previous lecture that the exchange of meaning is
a central part of the definition of communication. It should be noted that
the relationship between verbal communication and nonverbal
communication is not always straightforward. Our verbal messages are
communicated via the words we use. The verbal message is of course an
important part of our communication, but the way we communicate
nonverbally is equally, and sometimes more important. In this lecture, you
will get insights into the fundamentals of nonverbal communication. In
addition, you will be able to assess the impact of nonverbal
communication on the outputs of communication.
We communicate with much more than word. When we interact with people, our body
has a language of its own. The way we sit, the gestures we make, the way we talk, how
much eye contact we make – all of these are non-verbal ways of communicating that
impact the messages our words are sending. The fact is that human beings
communicate more through nonverbal means. Some estimates are that so-called body
language accounts for 65, 70, even 90 percent of human communication. Using the
70-percent figure for body language, the voice accounts for another 20 percent or so,
and specific words are credited for only about 10 percent. Research conclusions may
vary a bit, but the consensus is clear: Nonverbal communication is hugely important in
human interaction. Also, nonverbal communication is bound to culture. In particular,
there are differences among cultures and nationalities about the relative value of
speech versus silence, the relative value of talk versus action, the social role of small
talk or gossip, and the role of animation, rhyme and exaggeration in speech. Commonly,
the study of nonverbal communication is divided into several specific categories.
Branches of Nonverbal communication
What is kinesics?
 Kinesics, also referred to as affective displays, deals with physical movement. This study
applies traditional linguistic principles to the body as a whole or to specific parts, particularly
the face, hands and arms. It also deals with posture in standing and sitting, as well as with eye
and facial expressions, such as the arching of eyebrows or rolling of the eyes. Kinesics may
vary culturally. While universally, smiling reveals happiness, in some cultures it also is used to
mask sadness or to hide embarrassment.
What is occulesics ?
Occulesics is closely related to kinesics. Occulesics deals with eye behaviour as an
element of communication. Some aspects of occulesics deal with a static or fixed
gaze versus dynamic eye movement. In Japan, it is more common to look at the throat
of the other person. In China and Indonesia, the practice is to lower the eyes because
direct eye contact is considered bad manners, and in Hispanic culture direct eye
contact is a form of challenge and disrespect. In Arab culture, it is common for both
speakers and listeners to look directly into each others’ eyes for long periods of
time, indicating keen interest in the conversation.
What is proxemics ?
 Proxemics involves the social use of space in a communication situation. One
aspect of this is the closeness between and among people when they speak,
and the significant role that culture plays in this.
What is haptics?
 Haptics focuses on touching as an element of communication,
indicating both the type of touch as well as its frequency and
intensity. Like many other elements of nonverbal communication,
haptics is very much a function of culture. It has been noted, for
example, that Mediterranean, Middle Eastern and Latin American
cultures employ much social touching in conversation, including
embraces and hand-holding; these are called high-contact (or high-
touch) cultures.
What is vocalics?
 Vocalics, also called paralanguage, deals with vocal cues, or the non-phonemic qualities of
language. These include accent, loudness, tempo, pitch, cadence, rate of speech, nasality and
tone, insofar as these convey meaning. Vocalics is sometimes subdivided into several
categories. Vocal characterizers include laughing, crying, yawning, and so on. These can be
associated with culture, such as the different ways various cultures accept the practice of
belching. Vocal qualifiers such as volume, pitch, rhythm and tempo also are associated with
cultural distinctions. In Arab culture, for example, speaking loudly connotes sincerity, whereas
in North America it often is interpreted as aggressive.
What is chronemics?
 Chronemics deals with the use of time as an element of communication. Formal time is
measured in minutes, hours, days, and so on. Informal time is measured relative to seasons,
social customs, lunar cycles, etc. Chronemics involves specifics such as punctuality along with
patterns of dominance or deference. Chronemics also considers the use of monochronemics
(doing one thing at a time, emphasis on schedules and promptness, getting to the point
quickly) versus polychronemics (doing several things at a time, emphasis on people and the
whole of a relationship). Studies show that the monochronemic conversation (talking about
one thing at a time) is common in Northern Europe and North America. Meanwhile, Latin
American, Asian, Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cultures are more likely to use
polychronemic conversation (multiple conversations at the same time, and frequent
interruption by other speaker-listeners).
What is olfactics?
Olfactics is an aspect of nonverbal communication dealing with smells. Though not widely
studied from a communication perspective, olfactics might include the use of perfumes and
spices. It is associated with proxemics in that, the closer people are in communication, the
more likely that the smell will be relevant.
How does appearance impact on oral communication?
Appearance deals with the communication role played by a person’s look or physical appearance
(as compared with physical gestures associated with kinesics). It deals with physical aspects of
body shape, hair colour and skin tone, as well as grooming, dress (both clothing and jewellery) and
use of appearance enhancements such as body piercings, brandings and tattoos.
How does appearance impact on oral communication?
Environment involves the communicative value of the physical space, such as room size, color,
accessibility and location. Business people, for example, assume significant meaning about desk
size, offices with (or without) windows, and so on.
Listen to Al Pacino’s speech in Any Given Sunday, the film and answer the following:

1. Extract from the speech examples that highlight the impact of the affective displays of the speaker on the
audience.
2. The prosodic features of speech convey a diverse range of feelings. Extract from the speech utterances
you think are loaded with emotion. Then, specify the emotion being conveyed.
3. Are there any speech non-fluencies in the speech? If so, do these non-fluencies impact the quality of the
messages expressed?
4. Does the speaker use hedges? If so, in what way do they impact the speaking discourse?
5. Extract from the speech aspects of occulesics that created meaning beyond what is linguistic.
6. How is the pace of the speech at the beginning of the speech and how does it end?
7. Posture is an element of nonverbal communication. How does the posture of the speaker impact on the
oral act of communication in its entirety?
Barriers to oral communication/ Communication apprehension
One of the major impediments to successful oral communication is nervousness. Fear of
confronting an audience ranks among the most common fears for which people seek
counselling. It should not surprise you to know that the fear of speaking ranks right up there
with the fear of flying, death and spiders. Many different social situations, ranging from job
interviews to debating to public speaking, can make us feel uncomfortable as we anticipate
that we will be evaluated and judged by others. How well we communicate is intimately
connected to our self-image, and the process of revealing ourselves to the evaluation of others
can be threatening whether we are meeting new acquaintances, participating in group
discussions, or speaking in front of an audience. Some people are born with risk factors that
may aggravate the apprehension associated with speaking. Still, those of us who are lucky
enough to have predispositions to confront an audience and speak freely need instruction and
experience to take full advantage of any given act of communication. You may still remember
your classmates’ first performances in this course. Four students took the initiative to be the
first to perform in front of a relatively large audience, more than 130 students. The students
did well because of some natural tendencies to think beyond the anxieties associated with
oral communication. Yet, there is always room for improvement. It is important to assess one’s
strengths and weaknesses and seek expertise to progress. This lesson is set to expose the
causes and manifestations of communication apprehension together with strategies which you
may use to cope with the unexpected.
What is communication apprehension ?
Communication apprehension designates the fears associated with any given act of
communication (McCroskey, 2001). Communication apprehension starts as a
psychological response, which quickly transforms into a physical reaction as our
body responds to the threat the mind perceives. Our bodies cannot distinguish
between psychological and physical threats, so we react as though we were facing
an imminent danger. The problem of communication apprehension is that our
physical responses are often not well adapted to the nature of the threat we face. The
excess energy created by our body can make it harder for us to be effective oral
communicators.
Psychological symptoms of communication apprehension
Communication apprehension converts into many physical sensations. Among theses,
we find:

• The pounding heart

• Clammy hands
• Stomach butterflies
• Shaking hands and feet
• Dry mouth sensation
• Difficulty to articulate simple words
• Fast breathing
• Dizziness
• The above symptoms are psychological changes
Myths about psychological apprehension
There are many widespread narratives that seek to explain natural phenomena.
Communication apprehension is no exception. Different myths happen to theorise
the origin of speaking anxiety and offer strategies for overcoming the psychological
unease associated with public speaking. You find below the most widely spread myths
about public speaking:
• People who suffer from speaking anxiety are neurotic.
• Telling a joke or two is always a good way to begin a speech.
• Imagine the audience is naked.
• Any mistake means that you have “blown it.”
• Avoid speaking anxiety by writing the script for your oral performance word
for word and memorizing it.
• Audiences are out to get you.
• You will look to the audience as nervous as you feel.
There are many widespread narratives that seek to explain natural phenomena.
Communication apprehension is no exception. Different myths happen to theorise the
origin of speaking anxiety and offer strategies for overcoming the psychological unease
associated with public speaking. You find below the most widely spread myths about public
speaking:
• People who suffer from speaking anxiety are neurotic.
• Telling a joke or two is always a good way to begin a speech.
• Imagine the audience is naked.
• Any mistake means that you have “blown it.”
• Avoid speaking anxiety by writing the script for your oral performance word for
word and memorizing it.
• Audiences are out to get you.
• You will look to the audience as nervous as you feel.
• Little nervousness helps you give a better speech.
“There is no smoke without fire” is a very common proverb in Morocco. The same
logic applies to myths. A myth could be a complete fallacy. Still, in many cases myths
reveal basic truths that stand the best of history.
Types of communication apprehension

The anxiety associated with public speaking is quite normal as long as it

does not cause a communication breakdown. It should be noted that all
anxiety is not the same. There are many perspectives from where to label
the different types of speaking apprehension. The intrinsic –extrinsic
dichotomy is one way to characterise the different types of speaking
anxiety. The stress associated with public speaking could be traced back
to the personality traits of the speaker as much as it could be the product
of the communication process in the totality of its components. For the
purpose of this course, Mc Croskey (2001)’s categorisation of
communication apprehension is reviewed below.
Trait anxiety
 Trait anxiety designates the innate dispositions that make some people more
susceptible for speech anxiety than others. People diagnosed with trait anxiety
avoid exposure to public speaking situations. Still, instruction and practice can
prepare these people to think beyond their perceptions of public speaking and
give effective speeches.
Context anxiety
Context anxiety designates the apprehension associated with specific
contexts of communication: formality, uncertainty and novelty.
•Formality: As the formality of the communication context increases, the
stakes are raised, sometimes prompting more apprehension. Certain
communication contexts, such as a press conference or a courtroom, can
make even the most confident individuals nervous. One reason is that
these communication contexts presuppose an adversarial relationship
between the speaker and some audience members
•Uncertainty: communication anxiety increases in communication
contexts where the speaker cannot control or predict the flow of
communication
•Novelty: Anxiety becomes more of an issue in communication
environments that are new to us, even for those who are normally
comfortable with speaking in public.
Audience anxiety
Audience anxiety describes communication apprehension prompted by specific
audience characteristics. These characteristics include similarity, subordinate status,
audience size, and familiarity. Students might have no difficulty talking to an
audience of their peers, but an audience made of their teachers might make them
feel more nervous.
Situational anxiety
Situational anxiety is “the unique combination of influences generated by audience,
time and context ” (Mc Croskey, 2001, p. 43).
Barriers to communication
How can differences in perception cause problems for communication?
The way we view the world is largely determined by our past
experiences, so people of different ages, nationalities, cultures,
education, occupation, sex, status, personality and so on will each have
different perceptions and will each perceive situations differently.
Differences in perception are often at the root of many of the other
barriers to communication.
How can jumping to conclusions on the part of the listeners cause
problems for communication?
We often see what we expect to see, and therefore hear what
we expect to hear, rather than what is actually there. This may
lead us, as the saying goes, ‘to put two and two together and
make five’.
How can Stereotyping cause problems for communication?
Because we have to learn from our experiences, we run the
risk of treating different people as if they were the same:
‘You’ve met one copper/student/foreigner/car salesman,
you’ve met them all!’ we often hear, or words to that effect.
How can lack of knowledge on the part of the listner cause
problems for communication?
It is difficult to communicate effectively with someone who has a very
different background from yours, or whose knowledge of the
particular subject of discussion is considerably less than yours. Of
course, it is possible, but it requires skill on the part of the
communicator to be aware of the discrepancy between the levels of
knowledge and communicate accordingly.
How can lack of interest on the part of the listener cause problems
for communication?
One of the greatest barriers to overcome is the receiver’s lack of
interest in your message. You should always be alert to this as a
possibility, since it is so easy to assume that everyone is as concerned
about our interests as we are. Where the lack of interest is obvious and
understandable you must work particularly hard to angle your
message to appeal to the interests and needs of the receiver.
How can difficulties with self-expression cause problems for
communication?
If, as the communicator, you have difficulty finding the words to convey
your ideas this will clearly be a barrier and you must work at
improving your vocabulary. But lack of confidence, which can also
cause difficulties in expression, can be boosted by careful preparation
and planning.
How can emotions cause problems for communication?
The emotions of either receiver or communicator can also prove to
be a barrier – any strongly felt emotion is liable to prevent almost
anything but the emotion being communicated. The moral, of course,
is to try to avoid communicating when a strong emotion is liable to
make you incoherent or when it will totally distort what you mean to
say. However, any audience knows that a speaker with no emotion
and enthusiasm in their voice is likely to be a dull speaker – so
emotion can be a good thing.
How can personality cause problems for communication?
When someone appears to be arrogant and dictatorial, it is not just the
differences in people’s personalities that can cause problems: often
our resulting behaviour can then affect the behaviour of the other
person. This kind of ‘clash of personalities’ is one of the most common
causes of communication failure. We may not be able to change the
personality of others, but at least we should be prepared to consider
our own personality to see if a change in our behaviour may result in
more satisfactory relationships – however unpalatable this sort of self-
analysis may be.
The Importance of Listening
Oral communication has been defined as a complex exchange of
meaning that makes use of spoken words. In oral communication
process, there must be a speaker who sends orally coded messages and
a listener who decodes the oral messages. The fact is that both speaking
and listening skills are fundamental to the development of all kinds of
oral communication. This lecture emphasises the importance of
listening. It exposes the difference between hearing and listening,
listening styles, listening difficulties, listening stages and critical
listening.
Hearing Vs listening
Hearing is an accidental and automatic brain response to sounds that
requires no effort. We are surrounded by sounds most of the time. For
example, we are accustomed to the sounds of airplanes, lawn mowers,
furnace blowers, the rattling of pots and pans, and so on. We hear
those incidental sounds and, unless we have a reason to do otherwise,
we train ourselves to ignore them. We learn to filter out sounds that
mean little to us, just as we choose to hear our ringing cell phones and
other sounds that are more important to us. Listening, on the other
hand, is purposeful and focused rather than accidental. As a result, it
requires motivation and effort. Listening, at its best, is active, focused,
concentrated attention for the purpose of understanding the meanings
expressed by a speaker.
Benefits of listening
Encouragement to others – when others note that you listen to
them in a nonthreatening manner, they in turn lose some or all
of their defensiveness and will usually try to understand you
better by listening more effectively to you; thus your effective
listening often results in making others good listeners.
Possession of all the information – to solve problems and make
decisions more effectively, it is necessary to obtain as much relevant
information as possible. Good listening helps you to get as much
information as the speaker possesses. Your careful listening will
usually motivate them to continue talking and to cite as many facts
as they can. When you have as much information as possible, you
are in a position to make accurate decisions.
Improved relationships – effective listening usually improves
relationships between people. It gives the speaker the opportunity to
get facts, ideas and hostile feelings off their chest. You will understand
them better as you listen; they appreciate your interest in them; and
friendship may therefore deepen.
Resolution of problems – disagreements and problems can best be
solved when individuals listen carefully to each other. This does not
mean that they must each agree with the other’s point of view; they
must merely show that they understand the other person’s point of
view. Everyone wants understanding, and there is no better way of
expressing this quality than through sensitive listening.
Better understanding of people – listening carefully to another
person will give you clues on how they think, what they feel is
important and why they are saying what they are saying. By
understanding them better, you will be able to work better with
them, even if you do not particularly like them. Knowing that Jan is
an extrovert, that John is an introvert, or that Mike needs frequent
praise, leads to better understanding and thus harmony.
Listening styles
Listening is fundamental to oral communication. It is the foundation of
interpersonal communication. The idea is that we do not communicate in the
same way. Also, we are not uniform listeners. Knowledge of listening styles is
important because it increases the odds for convenience when interacting with
others. For the purpose of this course, four listening styles are considered:
People-oriented listener are interested in the speaker. They listen to the
message in order to learn how the speaker thinks and how they feel about their
message. For instance, when people-oriented listeners listen to an interview with
a famous rap artist, they are likely to be more curious about the artist as an
individual than about music.
 Action-oriented listeners are primarily interested in finding out what the
speaker wants. Does the speaker want votes, donations, volunteers, or something
else? It’s sometimes difficult for an action-oriented speaker to listen through the
descriptions, evidence, and explanations with which a speaker builds his or her
case. Action-oriented listening is sometimes called task-oriented listening. In it,
the listener seeks a clear message about what needs to be done, and might have
less patience for listening to the reasons behind the task.
Content-oriented listeners are interested in the message itself, whether it
makes sense, what it means, and whether it’s accurate. For example, when you
give a speech, many members of your classroom audience will be content-
oriented listeners who will be interested in learning from you. You therefore
have an obligation to represent the truth in the fullest way you can.
Time-oriented listeners prefer a message that gets to the point quickly. They
can become impatient with slow delivery or lengthy explanations. This kind of
listener may be receptive for only a brief amount of time and may become rude
or even hostile if the speaker expects a longer focus of attention. Time-oriented
listeners convey their impatience through eye rolling, shifting about in their
seats, checking their cell phones, and other inappropriate behaviours.
 Make a list of benefits and drawbacks to each of the listening styles discussed
in this section.
Constraints in listening
Noise is one of the biggest factors to interfere with listening; it can be
defined as anything that interferes with your ability to attend to and
understand a message. There are many kinds of noise, but we will
focus on only the four you are most likely to encounter in public
speaking situations: physical noise, psychological noise, physiological
noise, and semantic noise.
 Physical noise consists of various sounds in an environment that interfere with a
source’s ability to hear. Construction noises right outside a window, planes flying
directly overhead, or loud music in the next room can make it difficult to hear the
message being presented by a speaker even if a microphone is being used.
 Physical noise consists of various sounds in an environment that
interfere with a source’s ability to hear. Construction noises right
outside a window, planes flying directly overhead, or loud music in
the next room can make it difficult to hear the message being
presented by a speaker even if a microphone is being used.
 Psychological noise consists of distractions to a speaker’s message caused by
a receiver’s internal thoughts. For example, if you are preoccupied with
personal problems, it is difficult to give your full attention to understanding the
meanings of a message. The presence of another person to whom you feel
attracted, or perhaps a person you dislike intensely, can also be psychosocial
noise that draws your attention away from the message.
 Physiological noise consists of distractions to a speaker’s message caused by a
listener’s own body. Maybe you’re listening to a speech in class around noon
and you haven’t eaten anything. Your stomach may be growling and your desk
is starting to look tasty. Maybe the room is cold and you’re thinking more
about how to keep warm than about what the speaker is saying.
 Semantic noise occurs when a receiver experiences confusion over the
meaning of a source’s word choice. While you are attempting to understand a
particular word or phrase, the speaker continues to present the message.
While you are struggling with a word interpretation, you are distracted from
listening to the rest of the message.
Stages of listening
 There are many factors that can interfere with listening, so you need to be able to
manage a number of mental tasks at the same time in order to be a successful
listener. Devito (2000) divides the listening process into five stages: receiving,
understanding, remembering, evaluating, and responding.
1. Receiving is the intentional focus on hearing a speaker’s message, which happens when we filter out other
sources so that we can isolate the message and avoid the confusing mixture of incoming stimuli. At this
stage, we are still only hearing the message.
2. In the understanding stage, we attempt to learn the meaning of the message, which is not always easy. For
one thing, if a speaker does not enunciate clearly, it may be difficult to tell what the message was.
3. Remembering begins with listening; if you can’t remember something that was said, you might not have
been listening effectively. The most common reason for not remembering a message after the fact is because
it wasn’t really learned in the first place.
4. Evaluating or judging the value of the message is the fourth stage in the listening process. We might be
thinking, “This makes sense” or, conversely, “This is very odd.” Because everyone embodies biases and
perspectives learned from widely diverse sets of life experiences, evaluations of the same message can vary
widely from one listener to another.
5. Responding, sometimes referred to as feedback, is the fifth and final stage of the listening process. It’s the
stage at which you indicate your involvement. Almost anything you do at this stage can be interpreted as
feedback. It is worth mentioning that feedback could be formative or summative.
 Formative feedback is a natural part of the ongoing transaction between a
speaker and a listener. As the speaker delivers the message, a listener signals his
or her involvement with focused attention, note-taking, nodding, and other
behaviors that indicate understanding or failure to understand the message.
 Summative feedback is given at the end of the communication. When you
attend a political rally, a presentation given by a speaker you admire, or even a
class, there are verbal and nonverbal ways of indicating your appreciation for or
your disagreement with the messages or the speakers at the end of the message.
AUDIENCE ANALYSIS
Oral communication belongs dependently of a multi-level exchange of ideas and
attitudes. As noted earlier in this course, the complex character of oral communication
challenges the logic of a one-way flow of information between a sender and a
receiver. Many elements combine to determine the fundamentals of any given act of
oral communication. In this lesson, the focus is on audience analysis. Audience
analysis is presented as the process of collecting information about the people who
make the audience for the purpose of understanding their needs, expectations, beliefs,
values, attitudes, and likely opinions. In this lesson, we will corroborate the
legitimacy of audience analysis, describe the types of audience analysis together with
the techniques used in audience analysis.
The rationale for audience analysis
 Audience analysis should be conducted for the speaker to be able to acknowledge the
people who make the audience. One of the best ways to initiate this relationship is to cater
for the beliefs, knowledge, and attitudes of one’s audience. This can be as simple as
establishing eye contact and thanking the people for their time.
Audience analysis should guide the choice of a topic so that a speaker selects a topic that is
relevant and useful to the audience. Controversial topics can be excellent topics, but one must be
sure to consider the audience when selecting a topic and deciding how to approach it. There is no
universal list of good or bad topics, but one has an ethical responsibility to select a topic that will
be worth listening to. As a student, you are probably sensitive to how unpleasant it would be to
listen to a speech on a highly complex or technical topic that you found impossible to
understand. However, have you considered that audiences do not want to waste their time or
attention listening to a speech that is too simple?
Audience analysis requires that you adapt to the needs of your audience; this includes considering
cultural diversity, making your message clear, avoiding offensive remarks, and speaking with
sincerity. Even in an audience that appears to be homogeneous, different listeners will understand
the same ideas in different ways. Every member of every audience has his or her own frame of
reference. In this respect, Audience analysis includes consideration of demographic information6,
such as the gender, age range, marital status, race, and ethnicity of the people in your audience.
Another perhaps less obvious, demographic factor is socioeconomic status, which refers to a
combination of characteristics including income, wealth, level of education, and occupational
prestige. Each of these dimensions gives you some information about which kinds of topics, and
which aspects of various topics, will be well received.
 Audience analysis is needed for the speaker to be able to avoid offending the audience. It is
not only insensitive humour that can offend an audience. Speakers also need to be aware of
language and nonverbal behaviours that state or imply a negative message about people based
on their various membership groups.
 Types of audience analysis

Audience analysis may not be a magical solution for winning one’s audience, but it definitely
empowers the speaker against the uncertainties triggered by the unexpected. There are certainly
limits to what a speaker can learn about his /her audience. Still, different types of audience
analysis suit different contexts and convert into quantifiable gains.
Demographic analysis
Demographic information includes factors such as gender, age range, marital status, race and ethnicity, and
socioeconomic status.

 Age: There are certain things you can learn about an audience based on age. If your audience includes people in
their thirties, they may still remember a time when people had no mobile devices and there were no social media.

 Gender: Gender defines human experience. Most women have had a different cultural experience from that of men
within the same culture. Some women have found themselves excluded from certain careers. Some men have found
themselves blamed for the limitations imposed on women.

 Culture: Cultural membership may not be easily discernible. It is very important for public speakers to determine
the values and practices of the people who make their audience. Cultural differences are what make each group
interesting and are important sources of knowledge, perspectives, and creativity.

 Group membership: Public speaking audiences are very often members of one group or another. These groups
could be voluntary or involuntary. Group membership is an important tool for tailoring one’s speech to the needs,
expectations and interests of the audience.

 Education: Education accounts for a number of facets of one’s personality. A farmer undergoes a different kind of
education from that of a carpenter. This means that not only the attained level of education but also the particular
field is important in understanding of the audience.
Psychographic analysis
In psychographic analysis, values play central role. “A value expresses a judgment of what is
desirable and undesirable, right and wrong, or good and evil. Values are usually stated in the form of
a word or phrase. For example, most of us probably share the values of equality, freedom, honesty,
fairness, justice, good health, and family. These values compose the principles or standards we use to
judge and develop our beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours. (Grice & Skinner, 2009” Unlike
demographic data, psychographic information is not susceptible for quantification. The same
construct might trigger different interpretations among different people. Psychographic analysis can
reveal pre-existing notions that limit the audience’s frame of reference. By knowing about such
notions ahead of time, public speakers can address them in their speech. Audiences are likely to
have two basic kinds of pre-existing notions: those about the topic and those about the speaker.
A) Pre-existing notions about the topic

We are surrounded by an increasing number of stereotypes that help shape our understanding of the world. In
particular, media stereotypes contribute to our oversimplifications It is important to know your audience in order
to make a rational judgment about how their views of your topic might be shaped. In speaking to an audience
that might have differing definitions, you should take care to define your terms in a clear and honest way.
A) Pre-existing notions about the speaker

People form opinions readily. For instance, we know that students form impressions of teachers the moment they
walk into our classrooms on the first day. You get an immediate impression of our age, competence, and attitude
simply from our appearance and nonverbal behaviour. In addition, many have heard other students say what they
think of us.you do know what others think. They might think of you as a jock, a suit-wearing conservative, a
nature lover, and soon. Based on these impressions, your audience might expect a boring speech, a shallow
speech, a sermon, and so on. However, your concern should still be serving your audience’s needs and interests,
not debunking their opinions of you or managing your image. In order to help them be receptive, you address
their interests directly, and make sure
Situational analysis
Situational analysis centres on the elements that relate to the occasion and the
physical situation, Situational analysis basically answers two questions:
 1. How many people came to hear my speech and why are they here? What
events, concerns, and needs motivated them to come? What is their interest
level, and what else might be competing for their attention?
 2. What is the physical environment of the speaking situation? What is the size
of the audience, layout of the room, existence of a podium or a microphone, and
availability of digital media for visual aids? Are there any distractions, such as
traffic noise?
Check your progress.

1. Pretend you have been asked to give a speech about gender inequality in Morocco.
What audience beliefs, attitudes, values, concerns, and other variables should you
consider?

2.Make a list of values or opinions you have that might not conform to popular views.
Why might these be important for a speaker to know before attempting to inform or
persuade you?

3.Identify an instance when you observed a speaker give a poor speech due to failing
to analyze the situation. What steps could the speaker have taken to more effectively
analyze the situation?
Outlining a Speech: The Introduction
 One of the most common complaints novice public speakers have is
that they simply don’t know how to start a speech. Many times
speakers get ideas for how to begin their speeches as they go through
the process of researching and organizing ideas. In this chapter, we will
explore why introductions are important and various ways speakers can
create memorable introductions. There may not be any one “best” way
to start a speech, but we can provide some helpful guidelines that will
make starting a speech much easier.
The first function of an introduction is to
attract the attention of the audience.
The second function of an introduction
is to specify the intent of the speaker.
The third function of an introduction is to
forge the credibility of the speaker.
 McCroskey and Teven (1999) specifies three criteria that load on
credibility: competence, trustworthiness and caring.
 The forth function of an introduction in a public speech is to
synchronise the intent of the speaker with the needs of the audience.
The fifth function of an introduction is to guide the
audience through the rest of the speech.
• Introductions are only 10–15 percent of one’s speech, so speakers need to make sure
they think through the entire introduction to ensure that they will capture an audience.
During an introduction, speakers attempt to impart the general and specific purpose of a
speech while making their audience members interested in the speech topic,
establishing their own credibility, and providing the audience with a preview of the
speech structure.

• A speaker’s perceived credibility is a combination of competence, trustworthiness, and

caring/goodwill. Research has shown that caring/ goodwill is probably the most
important factor of credibility because audiences want to know that a speaker has their
best interests at heart. At the same time, speakers should strive to be both competent
and honest while speaking.
 Why is establishing a relationship with one’s audience important? How do you plan on
establishing a relationship with your audience during your next speech?

 Of the three factors of credibility, which do you think is going to be hardest to

establish with your peers during your next speech? Why? What can you do to
enhance your peers’ perception of your credibility?
You may start your introduction by directly
referring to the topic of your speech.
 It is possible for the speaker to start the speech by
acknowledging one or more features of the audience.
One more way to attract the attention of your
audience is to start your speech with a quote.
 Part of being creative is to take advantage of the current
issues around. If one event makes the news worldwide,
there is no reason why that event cannot be newsworthy for
your audience.
 You can start your speech with referring to a historical
event that has a direct impact on your current speech.
 The paradox with humour is that almost everyone likes it, but it is
not appreciated in the same way. More than that, humour can offend
people and cause them to despise the speaker. Many variables
combine to determine what is acceptable and unacceptable in terms
of humour, and these variables are sensitive to the backgrounds of
the audience.
 You may want your audience to know you and identify
with your own perceptions of your public speaking topic.
By referring to yourself, you may attract more attention on
the part of your audience.
 Another way to attract the attention of your
audience is to surprise them with unexpected facts
about your topic.
 A question is another option for attracting the attention
of your audience. Still, you should be careful to the type
of question you want to use in your speech.
Linking the attention-getter to the speech topic is essential so that you
maintain audience attention and so that the relevance of the
attentiongetter is clear to your audience.
• Establishing how your speech topic is relevant and important shows the
audience why they should listen to your speech.
• To be an effective speaker, you should convey all three components of
credibility, competence, trustworthiness, and caring/goodwill, by the
content and delivery of your introduction.
• A clear thesis statement is essential to provide structure for a speaker
and clarity for an audience.
• An effective preview identifies the specific main points that will be
present in the speech body.
Exercises
 Make a list of the attention-getting devices you might
use to give a speech on drug addiction. Which do you
think would be most effective? Why?
 Create a thesis statement for a speech related to the topic of cyber propaganda. Make
sure that your thesis statement is narrow enough to be adequately covered in a five-
to six-minute speech.
Write a full introduction for a speech you need to give on depression and social
distancing. Make sure your introduction has a thesis statement and a conclusion
 When creating a speech, it’s important to remember that
speeches have three clear parts: an introduction, a body, and
a conclusion. The introduction establishes the
topic and whets your audience’s appetite, and the conclusion
wraps everything up at the end of your speech. The real
“meat” of your speech happens in the body. In this section,
we’re going to discuss how to think strategically about the
body of your speech
The functions of the body part in a speech
 From Specific Purpose to Main Points

Once you’ve written down your specific purpose, you can now
start thinking about the best way to turn that specific purpose
into a series of main points. Main points are the key ideas
you present to enable your speech to accomplish its specific
purpose. In this section, we’re going to discuss how to
determine your main points and how to organize those main
points into a coherent, strategic speech.
 How Many Main Points Do I Need?

While there is no magic number for how many main points a

speech should have, speech experts generally agree that the
fewer the number of main points the better. First and foremost,
experts on the subject of memory have consistently shown
that people don’t tend to remember very much after they listen
to a message or leave a conversation.
ORGANIZING PATTERNS
Categorical/Topical
By far the most common pattern for organizing a speech is by categories or topics. The
categories function as a way to help the speaker organize the message in a consistent
fashion. The goal of a categorical/topical speech pattern3 is to create categories (or
chunks) of information that go together to help support your original specific purpose.
Let’s look at an example.
THE CONCLUSION
 A conclusion marks the end of a process that has gone through different
stages. For what it is worth, the end attaches meanings of its own to all that
has preceded. Every beginning is an indicator of an end that comes along the
way. More than that, the end is the one thing people like to recall. It is a
common thing to hear people in Morocco and elsewhere saying “She died a
good woman”. People believe the final version of who they are and what
they make matters the most. Still, This should not trivialise the good
influence the past has on things to come.
 A challenge
For what it is worth, challenge gives reason for continuity and with continuity,
growth and prosperity follow. Your speech is organised over a definite lapse of
time. There are time constraints for what people can hear from you, but there are
no constraints for what your speech can make people think and do in the long term.
 A quotation
As noted earlier in this section, it is possible to start your introduction with a
quotation; another possibility for you is to conclude with a quotation as well.
Quotations are loads of wisdom. They encapsulate words from the past that have
managed their way to the present and are likely go all the way to the future.
When used properly, a quotation can add to the strength of your arguments and
support all that you have been calling for.
 A Summary
A summary is a conventional way to end a speech. In a certain type of
speeches, the speaker is required to produce what is typical of a
conclusion because an extra dose of motivation may defeat the
purpose of the speech.
A question
 You can raise a question at the end of your speech to emphasise a persisting
need for action or a unique opportunity for betterment. A rhetorical question is
your best option because a true question defeats the purpose of a conclusion in
the first place
Reference to the audience
 A personalised conclusion is one that is tailored to the needs of the audience.
Another way to conclude your speech is to emphasise the singularity of the
relationship connecting you to the needs and aspirations of your audience.