A model for gathering and sharing knowledge in
maintenance work
Susanna Aromaa Antti Väätänen
VTT Technical Research Centre VTT Technical Research Centre
of Finland Ltd of Finland Ltd
P.O. Box 1300, 33101 Tampere, P.O. Box 1300, 33101 Tampere,
Finland Finland
susanna.aromaa@vtt.fi antti.vaatanen@vtt.fi
Tomi Heimonen
TAUCHI, School of
Information Sciences,
University of Tampere
Kanslerinrinne 1, 33014
University of Tampere, Finland
tomi.heimonen@sis.uta.fi
ABSTRACT
Industrial maintenance is a complex and knowledge-
intensive field. Therefore, maintenance technicians need to
have easy access to versatile and situationally relevant
knowledge. The aim of this paper is to increase the
understanding of maintenance technicians’ interactions and
knowledge sharing with colleagues and technology during
maintenance work. Three industrial maintenance cases were
studied using interviews and observation. As a result, a
model for knowledge sharing in maintenance work was
developed. Based on the model, it is easier to tackle
challenges in knowledge gathering and sharing. In addition,
it supports the research and development of technologies
that contribute to knowledge sharing in the future.
Author Keywords
Tacit knowledge; maintenance, service; knowledge sharing;
information systems, modelling, procedures
INTRODUCTION
In the global service industry, access to knowledge is
increasingly important for service quality and productivity.
However, knowledge is becoming less accessible on a
person-to-person level due to multivendor global services,
employee turnover and age structure. To prevent erosion of
knowledge, knowledge should be identified and brought
Iina Aaltonen
VTT Technical Research Centre
of Finland Ltd
P.O. Box 1000, 02044 VTT,
Finland
iina.aaltonen@vtt.fi
into product databases and other information systems. The
user end is the key for collecting and utilizing this
knowledge at the factory floor level, where situationally
relevant information should be easy to store and utilize with
appropriate solutions. In addition, to help the actual
maintenance activities, the maintenance data could be used
for indicating critical events [30]. In the global service
industry, access to knowledge is also important when
reducing human errors in maintenance [8]. In order to
collect and utilize the knowledge, the identification of the
knowledge possessed by maintenance workers is required.
This paper summarizes the recent results of a research
project focusing on knowledge sharing solutions for field
service personnel. The project aims to empower field
service personnel by providing them with access to versatile
and situationally relevant knowledge. It will develop and
investigate fluent tools and methods to facilitate and
encourage gathering, explication, sharing and utilizing tacit
knowledge. This paper proposes a model for gathering and
sharing knowledge in maintenance work. The paper is
organized as follows: the next section illustrates the related
work. After this, the methods used and industrial cases are
described. The model of knowledge sharing in maintenance
work is illustrated and discussed. Finally, future work is
described and conclusions are drawn.
RELATED WORK
The nature of maintenance work can be described as a
"combination of all technical, administrative and
managerial actions during the life cycle of an item intended
to retain it in, or restore it to, a state in which it can perform
the required function” [9]. Reason [26] defines maintenance
activities as (1) unscheduled operations, including
corrective maintenance, and disturbance- and failure-
preventive operations (opportunity-based maintenance); (2)
scheduled disturbance- and failure-preventive operations;
(3) inspections; and (4) calibration and testing. In addition,
based on research by Kuoppala et al. [19], the maintenance
work is complex and can be approached from several
perspectives such as (1) the social aspects of work; (2) the
digitalization of systems; (3) control of one’s own work
(autonomy); (4) one’s own working space – “fingerprint”;
(5) robustness of the technology; (6) information flow
(direct – mediated); (7) problem-solving based on
insufficient information; (8) intelligent condition-based
maintenance; and (9) moving about at work, and
unobstructed space. Complexity can also be recognized in
maintenance work training needs [1].
To define knowledge in a maintenance task, it is important
to understand different types of knowledge: explicit and
tacit. Explicit or codified knowledge refers to knowledge
that is transmittable in formal, systematic language [25].
Tacit knowledge has a personal quality, which makes it
hard to formalize and communicate. Tacit knowledge is
deeply rooted in action, commitment, and involvement in a
specific context [22]. In addition, it is essential to separate
knowledge from information and data. Mertins et al. [21]
use a continuum ranging from data via information to
knowledge in knowledge management. Data can be facts
and figures which relay something specific, but are not
organized in any way. Information is a flow of messages,
while knowledge is created and organized by the very flow
of information, anchored in the commitment and beliefs of
its holder [22]. Nonaka [22] has created a tacit knowledge
theory called “Dynamic Theory of Organizational
Knowledge Creation”. He suggests that knowledge is
created through the conversion between tacit and explicit
knowledge. The approach identifies four different patterns:
socialization (tacit to tacit), externalization (tacit to
explicit), internalization (explicit to tacit) and combination
(explicit to explicit). It is known as the SECI model (see
Figure 1).
The management of knowledge in the service industry can
be challenging. Franssila [12] has listed several challenges,
such as (1) the inadequacy of formal documentation; (2)
unreliable networks reducing efficient knowledge
management; (3) the information of new products (e.g. new
updates) is difficult to share in the field; and (4) tacit
knowledge from the field is difficult to channel to other
members in an organization. In addition, knowledge
management in maintenance activities can contribute to the
safety and reliability of industrial plants. Dhillon [7]
collected and listed causal factors for critical incidents and
reported events concerned with human maintenance errors
in power plants. Many of the factors are directly or
indirectly linked to knowledge: faulty procedures, poor unit
and equipment identification, poor training and work
practices. For a comprehensive review of human error in
maintenance, see the review by Dhillon and Liu [8].
Figure 1. Nonaka’s Model of Knowledge Creation [22].
Technological solutions have been suggested for tacit
knowledge transfer: both for capturing and sharing it. The
use of novel technologies such as augmented reality (AR)
has been studied in many works (e.g. [3, 5, 15, 32]), but
many of them consider the visualization of maintenance or
assembly information and not the sharing of (tacit)
knowledge. By definition, AR allows the user to see the real
world, with virtual objects superimposed upon or
composited with the real world [2]. For example, in the
system proposed by Bottecchia et al. [3], a remote expert
can transfer tacit knowledge through AR via demonstration.
Virtual reality–based learning environments have been
found to be useful for visualizing work processes and
transferring captured expert knowledge [14].
One of the challenges with using information and
communication technologies (ICT) for tacit knowledge
transfer is the need for co-location and co-presence – “the
transfer of know-how requires a process of show-how”
[27]. For example, in the context of IT professionals’ work
tasks, Desouza [6] found that it can be challenging to write
responses to technical queries electronically, as employees
may find it preferable to demonstrate how something is
done. Social applications have been suggested as one of the
ways of managing tacit knowledge through social
interaction and collaboration [4]. Examples of social web
tools that could facilitate the sharing of tacit knowledge
include blogs and microblogs, wikis, social networking
sites, video and audio sharing (podcasts), RSS, and social
bookmarking tools [24]. Moreover, informal and naturally
emerging knowledge sharing structures within the
organization can support tacit knowledge exchange, and
employees can be more amenable to expending the effort to
code tacit knowledge into electronic format if the
experience is pleasurable [6]. The use of stories and
storytelling to convey tacit knowledge is also suggested in
some works (e.g., [13, 20]).
The use of multimedia, such as graphics, audio and video,
is one possible way of effectively transmitting tacit expert
knowledge, for example when used to augment patterns,
which attempt to codify the sharing of tacit knowledge
while retaining its contextual richness [20]. However, one
of the drawbacks of using media such as video is that it can
be difficult to learn from them in practice. For example, it
can be challenging to interpret what one sees on the video
and apply it to one’s own activities, because the sensory
cues that an expert responds to may not be explicitly
verbalized [31].
INDUSTRIAL CASES
Methods for studying maintenance work and systems in
use
Three industrial cases were studied as part of the research.
In all of them, data collection followed the same procedure.
The data was collected in two phases, by applying a semi-
structured interview method and by direct observations of
maintenance tasks. In all cases, two to four researchers
participated in data collection, and two maintenance
workers in the first and third case study were interviewed.
One maintenance worker was interviewed in the second
case.
The interviews followed the principles of core-task analysis
[23], which is a methodology for studying work practices
and includes exploring the interviewees' conceptions of
good work practices and practitioners. The interviews
consisted of the following themes:
Background and educational information
Description of the maintenance activities
Safety risks
Collaboration
Tools and information systems
Reporting
Procedures and manuals
Tacit knowledge of the work community and
maintenance work.
There were slight variations between the cases in how the
themes were emphasized. For example, safety was
especially important in case three, and therefore it was
discussed in detail. In addition to the themes listed above,
the interviewees, with the exception of the person
Figure 2. Ongoing observation session.
interviewed in case two, were shown two short video clips
of potential future tools in maintenance tasks (a tablet
device with AR and smart glasses). The technologies were
discussed from the viewpoint of sharing and gathering
knowledge. The interviews were audio-recorded and notes
were typed up.
The observations ranged from a general overview of a
maintenance site to a selected and detailed maintenance
task. In all observation sessions, notes, photos and videos
were taken of the sites and activities. The observations each
lasted between one and two hours.
Case descriptions
The first case was related to solutions for the marine
industry (see Figure 2). In this case the focus was on a
planned and preventive field service related to engines in a
mid-sized oil tanker. The maintenance work included main
and auxiliary engine overhauls. The overhaul work was
done by seven maintenance workers over a period of two
weeks in November 2014.
The observations indicated that the working environment
was dark, noisy, greasy and hot, and it included a lot of
working in confined spaces. For example, during the main
engine overhaul, a maintenance worker has to get inside the
engine through a small hatch on its side (see Figure 3). The
workers use mainly hand tools, power tools and special
measuring instruments. There are no reliable mobile
networks on ships and wireless local area networks are only
provided on some. On the other hand, the operating
environment is so challenging that using smartphones or
laptops would be very difficult. In addition, engines are
usually similar wherever they are, but customers, safety
protocols and colleagues on-site can differ.
Marine engine service workers highlighted the fact that a
good maintenance person should have good communication
skills. They must communicate with other people in their
company and with technical personnel on ships.
Information related to the ship engine, such as manuals and
Figure 3. Looking inside the engine.
installation planning instructions, can be retrieved from
paper manuals and the company’s information systems.
Maintenance technicians were also able to access technical
support when needed. Online reporting tools are used for
documenting basic information on the task, working hours,
and occasionally important notes related to the engines or
work processes.
In the second case, researchers surveyed and familiarized
themselves with the maintenance work of truck-mounted
hydraulic platforms, such as aerial appliances for fire
engines and aerial access applications. The observed
maintenance task in this case was a longitude sensor
replacement for a fire engine’s lift system. The task was
carried out in December 2014 in the company’s service
facilities. The working environment was as a basic
workshop with a good lighting, tools, measuring
instruments and other equipment. Nevertheless, this kind of
maintenance work may also need to be performed outdoors.
The company in question had been contacted by their
customer because of a failure in an aerial appliance. The
customer had noticed that the alarm light was on and he
was guided remotely to check more information related to
the alarm signal. The fire truck was driven to the service
hall and the lifting system was overhauled step by step. A
broken cable wire was identified as the cause for the
malfunction and it was replaced. Finally, the lifting system
was reassembled and calibrated. Reporting was performed
in the office afterwards.
The third case was related to a crane company and service
activities in their customer’s facilities. Observations and
Service work Maintenance
Case
facilities object
Marine engine Ship in repair Main and
service yard auxiliary engines
Aerial appliance Fire truck lifting
Service hall
repair system
Industrial crane Customer’s steel Bridge crane
maintenance factory system
Table 1: Summary of the cases.
interviews were carried out in February 2015. The crane
company’s five-member service team was located in a large
steel company’s factory where the team performed planned
and preventive services and on-demand corrective
maintenance work. Most of the serviced equipment, hoists
and cranes were from the crane company but they also
service other manufacturer’s lifting equipment in
customers’ facilities.
As with the working conditions on board ships, the working
environment in the factory was noisy, dark, greasy and
sometimes, up on the crane, very warm. In addition, there
was lot of automatic vehicle and pedestrian traffic in the
large indoor factory area. On the other hand, there were
mobile and Wi-Fi networks available and there were
computers in the local office.
The maintenance task in the field was planned inspection
and preventive maintenance for a bridge crane’s parts such
as the hook, steel coil grab, and hoist with a drum on a
trolley. This kind of operation was performed on similar
cranes each month using equipment such as hand tools and
special measuring instruments. Maintenance technicians
communicated with the customer daily, as the good timing
of maintenance tasks is very important for the steel
company. They attempt to avoid idle times as much as
possible. When the work was completed, technicians used
two reporting systems: In addition to their company’s
information system, they did similar reporting on the
customer’s system. The summary of the cases is
represented in the Table 1.
Customer Tools and information systems
Hand tools, measuring instruments,
Oil corporation paper manuals, online product data
and reporting tools
Hand tools, vehicle information
display (incl. measurement data of
Fire department
online systems and error list).
Reporting in office
Hand tools, Measuring instruments,
Steel company Reporting on company’s and
customer’s system
MODELLING KNOWLEDGE SHARING IN MAINTENANCE
WORK
The model for knowledge gathering and sharing between
maintenance technicians and agents is created based on the
industry interviews, observations and literature review (see
Figure 4). Agents are selected from the list of existing
agents in the three industry cases and generalized into the
model. The agents from the model are categorized into two
groups: human and non-human actors. Human actors
include the superior, co-workers, technical support,
customers and other people in the context. Non-human
actors include the information system, tools and equipment,
the maintenance object and the environment. A
maintenance technician can have direct (e.g. face-to-face)
and/or mediated (e.g. mobile phone, computer) interaction
between agents. Knowledge sharing is illustrated in the
interactions by applying Nonaka’s [22] SECI model related
to four modes of the knowledge creation: tacit to tacit (T-
T), tacit to explicit (T-E), explicit to tacit (E-T) and explicit
to explicit (E-E). The Figure 4 illustrates the most
frequently applied knowledge sharing modes in the three
industrial cases. It is, however, a simplification, and other
knowledge sharing also occurs.
Figure 4. Model of the knowledge sharing in maintenance work (T=tacit knowledge and E=explicit knowledge).
Knowledge gathering and sharing by applying the SECI
model
Most of the knowledge sharing between the maintenance
technician and the non-human actors is “internalization”
(E-T) (e.g. before the task performance, the crane
maintenance technician remarked that it was a good time to
do the maintenance because the storage buffer of a
production line was full). The information has changed
from explicit knowledge to tacit knowledge (see Figure 4).
In addition, “combination” (E-E) can happen during the
interaction (e.g. crane maintenance technician took a
picture of the crane’s operating hours on the remote crane
display to be inserted to the information system).
Tacit to tacit (T-T) knowledge sharing is one way of
sharing knowledge between a maintenance technician and
his/her co-workers. In “socialization”, tacit knowledge is
created by sharing an experience (e.g. two crane
maintenance technicians were performing the maintenance
task together and the knowledge was transferred silently).
They can share the same experiences, mental models, work
procedures and technical skills.
Knowledge sharing can take different approaches between a
maintenance technician and their superior. When a superior
gives a work task to the maintenance technician, the
knowledge sharing is mostly “combination” (E-E) (e.g. the
superior put a list of forthcoming maintenance tasks to the
information system for the maintenance technicians to see),
and when the maintenance technician is working on-site,
they can gain tacit knowledge and share it with their
superior through “externalization” (T-E) (e.g. the
maintenance technician notes and reports of a fault that is
not being fixed yet but has to be repaired later).
Technical support is seen here as a broad information
source regarding maintenance but not necessarily detailed
information about a certain maintenance object. Between a
maintenance technician and technical support, the
knowledge is shared mainly by “internalization” (E-T) (e.g.
the maintenance technician needed help with electricity
malfunctions which are out of the scope of his/her skills), or
“externalization” (T-E) (e.g. when the maintenance
technician called the technical support for help, they could
document the new information delivered by the technician).
Maintenance technicians can have different types of roles
with the customers, and for that reason, the format of
communication can vary. Most of the communication is
based on the reports that the maintenance technician
compiles after the work has been completed (e.g. in the
crane case, the maintenance technician filed a report of the
performed maintenance task into the customer’s
information system). Therefore, it is called
“externalization” (T-E).
DISCUSSION
The industrial studies indicate how challenging the
maintenance personnel’s work is: they need to use
maintenance tools and devices; use different information
and reporting systems, and actively communicate with other
workers and customers. Due to this complexity, it is
challenging to model knowledge gathering and sharing in
maintenance work. The proposed model, however, is an
attempt to illustrate this complexity. There are also existing
approaches that try to formalize the expert knowledge from
a maintenance management point of view, such as [18, 28,
29]. Our approach focuses more on the maintenance
technician’s performance and how to formalize the
knowledge based on the tacit and explicit knowledge. The
model applies theories such as activity theory [10] and
Distributed Cognition (DC) theory [16,17] in the sense that
it studies cognitive processes across the members of a
social group and between internal and external structure
(material, environment). Nonaka [22] agrees that the
context approach is important because the tacit knowledge
is rooted in action, commitment and involvement in a
specific context. Accordingly, the model includes both
human and non-human actors and their interactions in the
maintenance work. The model, however, does not use a
process approach and the effects of earlier events on later
ones on a timeline as in DC. Our model is thus a
simplification of the interactions that really occur.
The data collection was challenging due to nature of a
maintenance work in which activities can vary from
unscheduled operations to routine calibration and testing
[26]. The practical arrangements of the observations
required scheduling because of the time constrains and the
context of the work: there is often a time pressure for
performing the maintenance task; service may be requested
on a short notice, and the physical locations can vary and be
challenging. All data collection events were organized
beforehand and therefore the work situations were not
necessary as authentic as they normally would be. In the
future, more detailed and realistic on-site data could be
collected by observing a maintenance technician for a
whole working day.
The classification of knowledge into tacit or explicit from
the collected data is another challenge. In all interactions in
the model, all four patterns of knowledge creation can
occur. This model is a generalization and one way to strive
towards understanding knowledge gathering and sharing in
maintenance. It is not comprehensive yet and needs further
research and assessment. However, even at this stage, it
illustrates the main actors and the different types of shared
knowledge during various interactions. In addition, it
supports the systematic development of maintenance work
such as selecting the type of technology that could be used
to support maintenance, or supporting a certain type of
knowledge sharing. The use of the Nonaka’s [22] SECI
model was found to be suitable for eliciting the knowledge.
Future work
Transferring tacit knowledge in a maintenance organization
requires three distinct knowledge management steps:
capturing the tacit knowledge, processing the captured
information to make it suitable for sharing, and finally
communicating it. Of specific interest to our work is the
development of new technologies for the implicit capture of
tacit maintenance-related knowledge during the course of
maintenance work. The model can be used for considering
the effects that the new technology can have on knowledge
sharing.
One promising technology for capturing the tacit
knowledge is the use of 360- degree video recording, which
can simultaneously record the maintenance engineer’s point
of view and the surrounding context during the maintenance
task. Future research questions here are related to how to
process and augment the video material so that it conveys
the necessary information for recipients to interpret the
material in the context of their own work. While such
shared video material could work on its own as training and
problem-solving material when shared through social
applications, we are also interested in exploring how it
could be combined with mobile and AR technologies to
support on-site maintenance operations.
Wearable technologies, which support communication and
which are connected to companies’ information and
reporting systems, have a possibility to improve the sharing
and utilization of the collected and processed tacit
knowledge. These technology enablers should consider
twofold demands: they need to support online information
sharing and communication, but also the possibility of
working offline at remote sites without reliable network
connectivity. Wearable technologies such as head-mounted
displays and smart watches can supplement smartphones
and tablet devices, and therefore enable hands-free action
when needed in the maintenance tasks. Additionally,
maintenance technicians can be provided with alternative
user interfaces for interacting with information systems. In
a virtual environment, it could also be possible to share the
same experience, e.g., using a tele-assistance system, to
support tacit to tacit knowledge transfer. For example,
Ferrise et al. [11] describe how a skilled user can remotely
train another operator in a multimodal virtual environment
by instructing the correct way of performing the operation.
Our future demonstrator development work and user studies
aim for piloting the use of technological solutions on-site.
This enables the evaluation of context-dependent
interaction methods and information system demands for
empowering the utilization of tacit knowledge in
maintenance work. Along with technology development
and demonstrations, the model of knowledge sharing in
maintenance work will be applied and developed further.
CONCLUSION
The field of industrial maintenance is complex and
knowledge-intensive. This paper has drawn a baseline for
modelling tacit knowledge in maintenance work. We have
presented a generalized model of informal knowledge
exchange between different actors in the service industry.
The model focuses on illustrating information and
knowledge sharing from the maintenance technicians’ point
of view. Nonaka’s [22] dynamic model of knowledge
creation was used for formalizing the transferred
knowledge. The developed model increases the
understanding of the complexity of knowledge sharing
during maintenance. At the same time, it supports a more
systematic approach to solving challenges in knowledge
sharing. It is, however, a simplification, and also other
knowledge sharing occurs during maintenance. Therefore,
the model is not comprehensive and needs further research
and assessment.
The upcoming research and development work in the
ongoing project focuses on future technology enablers and
demonstrators that support the idea of information-intensive
pools where tacit knowledge is gathered, shared and
utilized extensively, transparently and in real-time. In the
future, companies can use new and effective knowledge
sharing and utilization models for their competitive
advantage by increasing customer satisfaction, developing
employees’ professional skills and increasing the work
safety and productivity of maintenance services.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was funded by Tekes – the Finnish Funding
Agency for Innovation – and was carried out as part of the
S-STEP research project under FIMECC (Finnish Metals
and Engineering Competence Cluster). The authors are
grateful to all the researchers and company representatives
who contributed to and supported the work presented in this
publication.
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