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Social work research

(2019 Board exam Review Course Material

PART I OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH: ITS DEFINITION, TYPES, PURPOSES AND GOALS

DEFINITION OF RESEARCH

There are various definitions of research, as there are different points of view about it
(Cristobal & Cristobal, 2013). Generally however, it is agreed that research:
 Is a” systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions or solve problems.
The ultimate goals of research are to develop, refine, and expand a body of
knowledge”( Polit & Beck, 2004, p.4)
 Plays a very significant role in higher education. Despite being confronted with various
problems, higher education has achieved a number of developments. Research efforts
account for these developments.
 Research is carried out for a specific purpose-to answer a specific question, to solve a
particular problem or issue. It primarily seeks new knowledge and provides useful
information in the form of verifiable data.
 Ultimately, it contributes to the attainment of development goals of the nation. Thus,
research must not only be conducted because it is a prerequisite to obtaining a degree, but
more so because it can potentially mobilize society (Palispis, 2004).

Characteristics of research

1. Empirical- is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher. The

collection of data relies on practical experience without giving consideration to
scientific knowledge of theory.
2. Logical- is based on valid procedure and principles. Scientific study is done in an
orderly manner so that the investigator has confidence on the result. Systematic
examination of the procedure used in the research enables the investigator to draw
valid conclusions. Thus, the logic of valid research makes it important for decision
making.
Example: If the study is “Academic Achievement of Fourth Year Social work students in
Public and Private HEIs in Region 9.” If the results showed no significant difference on the
academic achievement of Fourth Year Social Work students in public and private HEIs, thus,
the researcher can draw valid conclusion that academic achievement of Fourth Year students
in public and private HEIs are almost the same.

3. Cyclical-is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with a
problem. For instance, an investigator who completes his study states his findings
and draws up his conclusions and recommendations. In his recommendations,
several studies maybe conducted, hence, research is cyclical.

Example: His study is “Luncheon Meat from Bone Meal of Milkfish and Goatfish Tapa.” His
recommendations are as follows:

1) Another study on utilization of bone meal from Siganid and sardines as offal of
boneless Siganid and Sardines should be conducted.
2) Nutritive values of luncheon meat from bone meal of milkfish and goatfish should
be conducted.
3.) Another study should be conducted on commercial and fish bone meal
Luncheon meat;
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4) Utilization and commercialization of fish bone meal luncheon meat and its shelf-life
should be conducted and many others. From these recommendations, there are four
possible researches to be conducted, hence, research is cyclical.

4. Analytical- Utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether

historical, descriptive, experimental, and case study. In Historical research, the data
gathered focus in the past. In descriptive research, the study focuses on the present
situation; experimental, future and case study, past, present and future.
Descriptive research is most common among four designs conducted by
graduate students. Experimental research is seldom applied by graduate students due
to time consuming. But this design is encouraged to be conducted by experts in
research. Due to the expected return of investment (ROI), the research budget must
not be exhausted. In other words, INVEST-HARVEST principle is applied. If a
researcher invest or spends money in research, he has to harvest or gain money to
have return of investment. Commercialization of research output must be done by
the researcher. However, historical research is least conducted by researchers, but
Case study is commonly conducted by guidance counselors and social workers.
5. Critical-exhibits careful and precise judgment. A higher level of confidence must be
established. For instance, 1.0 percent or 5.0 percent level of confidence may be
scientifically utilized to test research hypothesis. Based on these levels of confidence,
the investigator is confidently precise in his interpretations on whether the results
are significant or insignificant, or whether to reject or accept the null hypothesis.
6. Methodical-is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using systematic
method and procedures. For instance, , if the researcher’s study is experimental
research with two variables, control and experimental research with two variables,
control and experimental groups or two experimental groups, hence, he uses two-
group design; if three or more variables, parallel- group design.

Example: If the study is – “ The effectiveness of Teaching English to Grade

Three Pupils using Rhetoric approach and Content-Based Approaches, “ two-group design is
appropriate because there are two variables, namely, rhetoric approach and content-based
approach. And the most appropriate statistical tool to be used is t-test because t-test is
applicable to vivariate experimental design.

If the study has three or more variables, for instance, “Acceptability, Salability,
Profitability and Nutritive Values of Luncheon Meat from Bone Meal of Milkfish, Goatfish,
Siganid and sardines. F-test or analysis of variance is the appropriate statistical tool used
because this is applicable to multivariate experimental design. Hence, research is
methodical.

7. Replicability-The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to

enable the researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results. Similarities and
differences of replicated researches can be compared. The more replications of
researches, the more valid and conclusive the results would be. Replicability of the
study means using the same instrument, method, and procedure but to different
subjects and venue. For instance, if the subjects of the previous study were grade
three pupils in public schools in Metro Manila, but the subjects of the present study
is different; it can be Grade Three Pupils from public schools I Iloilo City.

Qualities of a Good Researcher

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1. Research-oriented
2. Efficient
3. Scientific
4. Effective
5. Active
6. Resourceful
7. Creative
8. Honest
9. Economical
10. Religious

The ten qualities of a good researcher have the acronym RESEARCHER. According to
Calmorin & Calmorin 2014, a researcher who possesses these qualities is the kind of
investigator the government needs because he can respond to the socio-economic
development of the country and can compete globally.

Characteristics of the Researcher

1. Intellectual curiosity. A researcher undertakes deep thinking and inquiry of the

things, problems, and situation around him. He is keen to get information on
these problems and situation often due to unusualness and the newness. He
raises questions to answer, continues to read the related literature and studies,
makes use of his experiences, and exercises his creativeness and inventiveness.
When the problem he confronts become clear, he formulates and test
hypotheses on them, the hypotheses may be rejected or accepted, depending on
his analysis of the data and information he gathers.
a. For instance, the hypothesis is – “There is no significant difference on the
effectiveness of teaching English to Grade Three pupils using Rhetoric and
Content-based approaches.” Using T-test, if the results show significant
difference on the effectiveness of teaching English to Grade Three pupils
using rhetoric and content-based approaches, the hypothesis is rejected. If
no significant difference exists, the hypothesis is accepted.
2. Prudence. The researcher is careful to conduct his research study at the right time
and the right place wisely, efficiently, and economically.
3. Healthy criticism. The researcher is always doubtful as to the truthfulness of the
results.
4. Intellectual honesty. An intelligent researcher is honest to collect or gather data
or facts in order to arrive at honest results.
5. Intellectual creativity. A productive and resourceful investigator always creates
new researches.

Values of Research to Man

1. Research improves quality of life

2. Research improves instruction
3. Research improves student’s achievement
4. Research improves teacher’s competence
5. Research satisfies man’s needs
6. Research reduces the burden of work
7. Research has deep-seated psychological aspects
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8. Research improves the exportation of food products

9. Research responds to the economic recovery and austerity
10. Research trains graduates to become responsive to the economic development of the
country and compete globally

Roles of the researcher (Nieswiadomy, 2004)

1. Principal investigator
2. Member of a research team
3. Identifier of the research problems
4. Evaluator of research findings
5. User of research findings
6. Client advocate during study
7. Subject/respondent/participant

Purposes of research (Cristobal, 2013)

1. Research provides a scientific basis for any practice or methodology in any field of discipline. This
is important since the interest of entire system or operation and all the concerned members of the
institution or organization is at stake.
2. Research is undertaken for continuous development of any further productivity in any field like
social work, education, management, business, engineering, and other areas of endeavour.
3. Research develops tools for assessing the effectiveness of any practice and operation.
4. Research provides solutions to problems concerning almost all issues encountered in the different
areas of work.
5. Research develops and evaluates alternative approaches to the educational aspects of any
discipline that enable the students gain broad knowledge and specialized skills for safe practice.
6. Research advances the personal and professional qualifications of a practitioner.

Goals in conducting research

1. To produce evidence-based practice

2. To establish credibility in the profession
3. To observe accountability for the profession
4. To promote cost-effectiveness through documentation

Types of Research

1. Basic research. This is also called the “fundamental research” or “pure research”.
It seeks to discover basic truths and principles. This type of research is primarily
concerned with generating new knowledge (Kerlinger, 1986 as cited in Wilson,
1990). It is synonymous to the creation of a theory which is the result of basic
research. Any new found knowledge reflected in the conclusions can be
considered a theory, which is one of the major contributions of this type of
research. Examples of basic researches are: Boyle’s law, Charles law, Archimedes
Law, Hooke’s Law and Newton’s Law.
2. Applied research. This type of research involves seeking new applications of
scientific knowledge to the solution of a problem, such as the development of a
new system or procedure, new device, or new method in order to solve the
problem.
3. Developmental research. This is a decision-oriented research involving the
application of the steps of the scientific method in response to an immediate
need to improve existing practices.

Classification of Research
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1. Library research. This is done in the library where answers to specific questions or
problems of the study are available.
2. Field research. Research is conducted in natural setting. No changes in the
environment are made. Field research is both applicable to descriptive survey and
experimental methods.
3. Laboratory research. The research is conducted in artificial or controlled conditions
by isolating the study in a thoroughly specified and equipped area. The purposes are:
(1) to test hypotheses derived from theory, (2) to control variance under research
conditions, and (3) to discover the relations between the dependent and
independent variables.

THE VARIABLES (Calmorin, 2014)

Meaning of Variable

A variable is defined as a quantity susceptible of fluctuation or change in value or

magnitude under different conditions. Numerical values or categories represent these
quantities.

Types of Variable

1. Independent variable. This is the stimulus variable which is chosen by the researcher
to determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon. Example: When a researcher
wishes to determine the effect of academic rank on the research performance of the
professors. He takes a group of high academic rank professors that is, assistant
professors and observes their performance. In this particular example, academic rank is
the independent variable because it is manipulated.

2. Dependent variable. This is the response variable which is observed and measured to
determine the effects of the independent variable. It changes when the independent
variable varies. Example: A researcher wishes to determine the effect of academic rank
on the research performance of professors. He takes a group of high academic rank
professors that is, full professors, and observes their research performance. Likewise, he
takes another group of low academic rank professors that is assistant professors, and
observes their research performance. In this example, the dependent variable is research
performance because it changes as a result of variations in academic rank. If academic
rank is high, what happens to research performance? If academic rank is low, what
happens to research performance?

3. Moderator variable. This is the secondary or special type of independent variable

chosen by the researcher to determine if it changes or modifies the relationships
between the independent and dependent variables. For instance, if an investigator
wishes to determine the effects of the independent variable A on the dependent variable
B, but suspects that a third factor C changes or modifies the relationship between A and
B, the C is considered as the moderator variable.

4. Control variable. This is a variable that is controlled by the investigator in which the
effects can be neutralized by eliminating or removing the variable. For example, the
investigator wishes to determine the effects of independent variable A on dependent
variable B. He may control Z (control variable) because he cannot do many variables
simultaneously. In other words, he may eliminate or remove D to neutralize the effects.
Control variable will guarantee that it will not have a moderating effect on the
relationship between A and B.
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5. Intervening variable. This is a variable which interferes with the independent and
dependent variables, but its effect can either strengthen or weaken the independent and
dependent variables. For instance, an investigator wishes to determine the effect of
academic rank on the research achievement of professors. Academic rank is the
independent variable and research achievement is the dependent variable. But it is
possible that age, gender, civil status, experiences, socio-economic status, values and
attitudes as intervening variables might have an effect on research performance.

Figure 1 (Illustrations of Independent, intervening, and dependent variables)

Descriptive Research

Intervening variable Dependent Variable

Independent variable
Academic Rank
Age, gender, civil status, Research
experiences, socio-
Performance
economic status,
values, attitudes

PART III. The research title, sources and considerations (Cristobal & Cristobal 2013)

The research title

Generally, the title:

1. Should summarize the main idea of the paper.

2. Should be a concise statement of the main topic
3. Must include the major variable/s.
4. Should show the relationship of the main variables under study; and
5. Must be self-explanatory

The researcher must be reminded of the following:

1. In formulating the title, the researcher should avoid using words that serve no useful purposes and
can mislead indexers. Words such as methods, results, and investigations appear redundant when
used in thesis titles.
2. In many cases, the general problem or even the specific question that the researcher intends to
answer, when rewritten in a statement form, can serve as the title.
3. The title must have 10 to 15 words.
Sample thesis title:
1. Problems of State Universities and Colleges Middle Level Managers: A Basis for the Development of
Management Intervention Program (Muello, 2002)
2. Managerial Skills and Difficulties of Elementary School Managers (Lao 2007)
3. Human Relation Practices of Supervisors vis-a-vis Motivational Factors in Subic Bay Volunteer
Workers (Perez, 2008)

PART IV. Component of the Research Process ( Calmorin, 2014)

The basic components of research process are:

1. Problem/ Objective
2. Hypotheses
3. Theoretical/ Conceptual Framework
4. Assumptions
5. Review of Related Literature
6. Research Design
7. Data Collection
8. Data Processing and Statistical Treatment
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9. Analysis and Interpretation

10. Summary, Conclusions and recommendation

Generally speaking, a research process starts with a research problem which the investigator
has identified as researchable and has implications to government thrusts. Based on the major
problem identified, he formulates the specific problems/objectives of the study.

Using these specific problems/objectives as basis, he tests the hypothesis, either null (H0) or
alternative (H1), to have a scientific conclusion of the study either to reject or accept it.
He constructs a theoretical or conceptual framework as basis for describing properly the
relationships of variables to be used in the study.
He then states the assumptions clearly to provide the foundation of the study.
The next step is to review related literature and studies to determine the similarities and
differences of the findings to past studies and to gain insights into the aspects of the problem that are
critical and controversial.
Then he uses the most appropriate research design in his study. From the research design, he
can decide the definite research instrument for collecting data and these data are processed either
manually or by machine, which ever is more convenient, economical and accurate, using the correct
statistical tools in order that a reasonable precise analysis and interpretation of results can be
attained.
After the analysis and interpretation of results, he finally summarizes the whole study, draws
conclusions based on the findings and hypotheses tested, and makes recommendations for further
research. Such recommendation should dovetail with the conclusions.

Figure 2 shows the schematic diagram of the research process

Problem /Objectives

Hypotheses

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

Assumptions

Review of Related Literature

Research Design

Data Collection

Data Processing and Statistical Treatment

Analysis and Interpretation

Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

RESEARCH PROBLEM AND OBJECTIVES

The Research Problem

Five factors to consider to determine whether that a problem is researchable or not.

These factors are as follows:

1. The problem is existing in the locality or country but no known solution to problem.
2. The solution can be answered by using statistical methods and techniques.
3. There are probable solutions but they are not yet tested;
4. The occurrence of phenomena requires scientific investigation to arrive at precise
solution.
5. Serious needs/problems of the people where it demands research.
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Based on the foregoing factors, the investigator can choose a researchable problem.
The research problem must be stated vividly and explicitly expressed in interrogative form
for “questions have the virtue of posing a problem directly.” ( Kerlinger, 1986).
A good research problem should respond to the economic recovery of the country
wherein the research output can be converted into small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs)

Characteristics of a Research Problem

The characteristic of a research problem has the acronym SMART.

1. Specific. The problem should be specifically stated.
2. Measurable. It is easy to measure by using research instruments, apparatus, or
equipment.
3. Achievable. The data is achievable using correct statistical tools to arrive at precise
results.
4. Realistic. Real results are attained because they are gathered scientifically and not
manipulated or maneuvered.
5. Time-bound- Time frame is required in every activity because the shorter completion
of the activity, the better.

Sources of Research Problem

There are several sources of research problem that a researcher can investigate. It is
said that “ Researcher was born out of man’s problem and a man’s major problem demands
research.” ( Good and Scates , 1972)
Sources of research problem are:
1. Specialization. Specialization of the researcher is an impetus towards research.
2. Current and Past Researches. Are rich sources of research problems even for research
application by using the same instruments, apparatus, or equipment.
3. Recommendations from theses, dissertations, and research journals recommend for
future researches to be conducted as sources also of research problems.
4. Original and creative ideas of the researcher based on the problems met in the
locality and country.

Criteria of a Good Research Problem

1. Interesting. An interesting research problem attracts the attention of the researcher

and other people to conduct the research project even without incentive or research
grant at all.
2. Innovative.Though replicability in conducting research is allowed, it is advisable that
research problem is something novel, original and unique to attract the attention of
the people and contribute to the economic development of the country.
3. Cost-effective. A good research problem should be economical and effective in solving
the needs and problems of the society, it should also augment socioeconomic and
health conditions of the people and many others. The “Invest and Harvest” principle
is still expected in a good research problem.
4. Relevant to the needs and problems of the people. Researchers must keep in mind
that they conduct research not for their personal aggrandizement but to solve the
needs of the people.
5. Relevant to government’s thrusts. A research problem must respond to the
government’s thrusts.
6. Measurable and time bound. A good research problem is measurable by using
research instrument, as well as statistical tools to arrive at scientific and meaningful
results.

The Research Objectives

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A research objective is defined as “statement of purpose for which the investigation

is to be conducted” ( Ardales, 1982). The research objective is a statement of purpose
because this is the guide to be accomplished by the researcher in conducting his research
project.

Statement of Research Problem/Objectives

Research problem and research objectives have the same characteristics (SMART) but
they differ in form because the former is stated in interrogative or question form and the
latter, in declarative form.

Example (Experimental Research)

Let us have a study entitled “CULTIVATION OF EUCHEUMA IN MUNICIPAL WATERS OF
ZAMBOANGA CITY, PHILIPPINES USING LANTAY AND HANGING METHODS” Based on major
problem, the specific problems are as follows:

Problem. The main problem of this study is to cultivate Eucheuma in municipal waters
of Zamboanga City, Philippines, using Lantay and hanging methods. Especially, it attempts to
answer the following questions:

 Which of the methods, lantay or hanging, is more effective in cultivating Eucheuma in

municipal waters of Zamboanga City, Philippines?
 Is there a significant mean difference on the weight increment of Eucheuma cultured
in municipal waters of Zamboanga City, Philippines?

Objectives. The main purpose of this study is to cultivate Eucheuma in municipal

waters of Zamboanga City, Philippines, using lantay and hanging methods.
Specifically, if attempts to answer the following research objectives:

 To identify which of the methods, lantay or hanging, is more effective in cultivating

Eucheuma in municipal waters of Zamboanga City, Philippines.
 To determine if there is significant mean in difference on the weight increment of
Eucheuma cultured in municipal waters of Zamboanga city, Philippines.

Example (Descriptive Research)

Let us have a descriptive study on the “CORRELATION BETWEEN JOB-RELATED
PROBLEMS AND JOB PERFORMANCE OF STAFF NURSES IN PRIVATE AND GOVERNMENT
HOSPITALS IN THE CITY AND PROVINCE OF ZAMBOANGA, PHILIPPINES.” Based on the major
problem, the specific problems are as follows:

Problem. The main problem of the study is to correlate between job-related problems
and job performance of staff nurses in private and government hospitals in the city and
province of Zamboanga, Philippines. Specifically, it attempts to answer the following
questions:

 What is the correlation between job-related problems and job performance of staff
nurses in private and government hospitals in the city and province of Zamboanga,
Philippines?
 Is there a significant difference on job-related problems as perceived by staff nurses
in private and government hospitals in the city and province of Zamboanga in relation
to: (a) administration of top management, (b) administration of middle management,
(c) administration of lower management (d) communication, (e) financial condition,
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(f) hospital facilities, and (g) job hazard when classified as to civil status, age and
length of nursing practice?

Objectives, the main purpose of this study is to correlate between job-related problems and
job performance of staff nurses in the city and province of Zamboanga, Philippines.
Specifically, it attempts to answer the following objectives:

 To correlate between job-related problems and job performance of staff nurses in the
city and province of Zamboanga, Philippines.
 To test the significant difference on job-related problems as perceived by staff nurses
in the city and province of Zamboanga, Philippines in relation to (a) administration of
top management, (b) administration of middle management, (c) administration of
lower management, (d) communication (e) financial condition, (f) hospital facilities,
and (g) job hazard when classified as a whole, civil status, age and nursing practice.

The Hypothesis

A hypothesis is defined as a wise guess that is formulated and temporarily adopted to explain
the observed facts covered by the study. A hypothesis guides the researcher in that it describes the
procedure to follow in conducting the study.

2 Types of Hypothesis
1. Null hypothesis (H0)
2. Alternative hypothesis (H1)
These hypotheses are stated in declarative sentence form and are always based from
the specific problems or objectives
The null hypothesis (H0) is a denial of an existence of trait, characteristics, quality,
value, correlation or difference of the result.
Null hypothesis (H0) is always stated in a negative form. In contrast, the alternative
hypothesis (H1) is the opposite extreme of the null hypothesis because the former is stated
in positive form.
Alternative hypothesis (H1) is an affirmation of existence of observed phenomena.

Example of H0 (Experimental Research)

Specific problem. Is there a significant difference on the yield of peanuts planted in

pots using night soil and chicken dung as fertilizers?
Null Hypothesis (Ho). There is no significant difference on the yield of peanuts
planted in pots using night soil and chicken dung as fertilizers.

Example H0 (Descriptive Research)

Specific problem. Is there a correlation between job-related problems and job

perform as perceived by staff nurses in the city and province of Zamboanga, Philippines?
Null Hypothesis (Ho). There is no correlation between job-related problems and job
performance of staff nurses in the city and province of Iloilo, Philippines.

Alternative Hypothesis

Alternative hypothesis (H1) is an affirmation of the existence of phenomena. It is

always stated is affirmative form and is the opposite of null hypothesis (H0)

Example H1 (Experimental Research )

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Specific Problem. Is there a significant mean difference on the general acceptability

oh luncheon meat from bone meal of milkfish and goatfish?
Alternative hypothesis (H1). There is a significant mean difference on the general
acceptability of luncheon meat from bone meal of milkfish and goatfish.

Example H1 (Descriptive Research)

Specific Problem. Is there a significant difference on the educational qualification and

socioeconomic status of professors in state universities and colleges (SUCs) in the
Philippines?

Alternative hypothesis (H1). There is significant difference on the educational

qualification and socioeconomic status of professors in the state universities and colleges in
the Philippines.

Theoretical and Conceptual Framework

Some thesis/dissertation writers use both the theoretical and the conceptual
framework. However, it is advisable to use only one, either the theoretical and conceptual
framework.

Theoretical Framework
The Theoretical Framework shapes the justification of the research problem/research
objectives in order to provide the legal basis for defining its parameters. It is desirable for an
investigator to identify key concepts that are used in the study for better understanding of
the role theory in research.
Theoretical Framework is a symbolic construction which uses abstract concepts, facts
or laws, variables and their relations that explain and predict how an observed phenomenon
exists and operates. A researcher is required to formulate existing theories which link the
study because theories are useful devise for interpreting, criticizing, and unifying established
scientific laws or facts that serve as guide in discovering new generalizations.

Conceptual Framework
The Conceptual Framework presents specific and well-defined concepts which are
called constructs. Its function is similar to theoretical framework because the constructs used
are derived from abstract concepts of the theoretical framework.

Assumptions
Assumptions are presumed to be true statement of facts related to the research
problem. They are clearly stated to give readers of research papers, theses, dissertations,
research projects foundation to form conclusions resulting from assumptions.

Significance of the Study

The significance of the study in research projects is a must. For a research project
seeking for financial assistance from other agency, significance of the study is presented
comprehensively to convince the screening committee the importance of the study.
The explanation of the significance of the study is presented either in the inductive or
deductive perspective. In an inductive perspective, the investigator states the importance of
the study from the particular to general. He starts presenting the importance of the study
from the target beneficiaries, to the researcher himself, to the people in the community,
province, region, and nation. Likewise, in deductive perspective, general to particular,
presentation of the importance of the study starts from the national level, regional,
provincial, local to the researcher, and target beneficiaries.
The researcher should prove that the study has important contributions in relation to:
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(a) Solving problems and needs

(b) Bridging knowledge gap
(c) Improving social, economic and health conditions,
(d) Enriching research instrument, methods and strategies,
(e) Supporting government thrust

Scope and limitations of the study

This includes the coverage of the study area, subjects, research apparatus, equipment
or instrument, the research issues and concerns, the duration of the study and constraints
that have direct bearing on the result of the study.

Definition of terms
There are two ways of defining the key terms used in the study

 Conceptual definition. The definition of terms are based on concepts or hypothetic

ones which are usually taken from dictionary, encyclopaedia and published journals.
 Operational definition. The definitions of terms are based on observable
characteristics and how it is used in the study.
It is advisable that the researcher should use two ways in defining the terms to make
the meaning clear. The operational definition is preferable when defining technical terms.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The review of related literature is one of the components of a research process, to

determine the similarities and differences of the findings between the past and present
studies. Likewise it provides the investigator a background regarding the aspects which have
been studied and not yet studied. The word related means the legal bases literature and
studies which have direct bearing or relation to the present study. In a research paper,
thesis, dissertation, and research project, the review of related literature is broken down into
three parts: 1) Related legal bases 2) Related Literature and 3) Related Studies (Calmorin,
2014).

Related Legal bases

Related Legal Basis is important to determine the relevance of the study to the
government’s thrusts. The major sources of related legal bases are laws and department
directives such as circulars, orders, memoranda, and others, which are related to the present
study. These laws and department directives serve as legal basis for the paradigm of the
study. In presenting the related legal basis, the investigator has to arrange them
chronologically from the recent to the past and the relevance of each legal basis is explained.

Related Literature
Any written materials published in books, journals, magazines, novels, poetry and
encyclopedia. The presentation of related literature is in chronological order from recent to
past. The relevance of each literature presented to the present study is also explained. It is
unscientific if related literature are presented and of no explanation at the relevance to the
present study.

Related Studies
Published and unpublished research studies are sources of materials that are
included in this section.
 Local studies
 Foreign studies
The presentation of the local and foreign studies is similar with the related legal basis
and related literature which are arranged in chronological order from recent to past and has
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explanation of its relevance to the present study. It is unscientific if no explanation at all is

given.

PART V. QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

Researcher – made instruments such as questionnaires, test, observation schedule,

checklist, rating skills, interviews and many others should meet the qualities of a good
research instruments before they are used for gathering or collecting data, and are
important devices because the success or failure of a study lies on the data gathered. There
are three qualities of a good research instrument.
1. Validity
2. Reliability
3. Usability

Validity. Means the degree to which the degree to which a test or measuring instruments
measures what it intends to measure. Likewise the validity of measuring instruments has to
do with its soundness, what the test or questionnaire measures its effectives and how well it
could be applied.

Four Types of Validity

1. Content validity. The extent to which the content or topic of the test is truly
representative of the content of the course. It involves, essentially, the systematic
examination of the test content to determine whether it covers a representative
sample of the behavior domain to be measured. Content validity is commonly used in
evaluating achievement test.
2. Concurrent validity. Is the degree to which the test agrees or correlates with a
criterion set up as an acceptable measure. The criterion is always available at the
time of testing. It is applicable to test employed for the diagnosis of existing status
rather than for the prediction of the future outcome.
3. Predictive validity. Is determined by showing how well predictions made from the test
are confirmed by evidence gathered at some subsequent time. The criterion
measured against this type of validity is important because the outcome of the
subject is predicted.
4. Construct validity. The extent to which the test measures a theoretical construct or
trait. This involves such test as understanding, appreciation, and interpretation of
data. Examples are mechanical aptitude and intelligence tests.

Reliability. Reliability means the extent to which a research instrument is dependable,

consistent and stable (Meriam, 1975). In other words, the test agrees with itself. It is
concerned with the consistency of responses from moment to moment. Even if a person
takes the same test twice, the test yields the same result. However, a reliable test may not
always be valid.

Four Methods in testing the reliability of a good research instruments are:

1. Test-retest method
2. Parallel-forms method
3. Split-half method
4. Internal consistency method

1. Test-retest methods. The same instrument is administered twice to the same group of
subjects. And the correlation coefficient is determined. A Spearman rank correlation of
coefficient or Spearman rho is the statistical tool used to measure the relationship between
paired ranks assigned to individual scores on two variables of test-retest method.
2. Parallel Forms method. Parallel or equivalent forms of a test may be administered to the
group of subjects, and the paired observations correlated. “In estimating reliability by the
 14

administration of parallel or equivalent forms of a test, criteria parallelism ir required”.

(Ferguson and Takane, 1989). The two forms of the test must be constructed so that the
content, type of item, difficulty, instructions for administration, are similar but not identical.

3. Split-half method. The test in his method may be administered once, but the test items
are divided into two halves. The common procedure is to divide into odd and even items.
The two halves of the test must be similar but not identical in content, number of items,
difficulty, Means, and standard deviations. Each student obtains two scores, one on the odd
and the other on the even items in the same test. The scores obtained in the two halves are
correlated. The result is reliability coefficient for a half test. Since the reliability holds only for
a half-test, the reliability coefficient of the whole test is estimated by using the Spearman-
Brown formula.

4. Internal- consistency method. This method is used with psychological tests which consist
of dichotomously scored items. The examinee either passes or fails in an item. A score of 1 is
assigned for pass and zero (0) for failure. The method of obtaining reliability coefficient in the
method is determined by Kuder-Richardson Formula 20. This formula is a measure of internal
consistency or homogeneity of the research instrument.

Usability.

Usability means the degree to which the research instruments can be satisfactorily
used by the researchers without undue expenditures of time, money and effort. In other
words usability means practicability.

Factors to Determine Usability

1. Ease of administration. To facilitate the administration of a research instruments,

instruction should be complete and precise.
2. Ease of scoring. Research instruments depend upon the following aspects.
2.1. Construction of the test in the objective type
2.2. Answer keys are adequately prepared
2.3. Scoring directions are fully understood
3. Ease of interpretation and application. Results of test are easy to interpret and apply
if tables are provided. All scores must be given meaning from the tables of norms
without the necessity of computation.
4. Low cost. It is more practical if the test is low cost material-wise. It is more
economical also if the research instrument is of low cost and can be reused by future
researchers.
5. Proper mechanical make-up. Instrument should be printed clearly in an appropriate
size for the grade or year level for which the instrument is intended. For instance, if
the research instrument is test, the font size of Grades one to three is biggest, i.e.
font size 18, Grades Four to six, font size 16; secondary students, font size 14; and
college students, font size 12. Moreover careful attention should be given to the
quality of pictures and illustrations on the lower grades as subject of the study.

PART VI. RESEARCH DESIGNS

 15

Nieswiadomy (2004) as cited by Cristobal, 2013, categorized two major research

designs, namely: the quantitative and qualitative
QUANTITATIVE QUALITATIVE
1. Aims to characterize trends and patterns 1. Involves processes, feelings, and motives:
the why’s and the how’s (data are in depth
and holistic)
2. Usually starts with neither a theory nor 2. Usually concerns with generating a
hypothesis about the relationship between hypothesis from data rather than testing a
two or more variables hypothesis
3. Uses structured research instruments like 3. Uses either unstructured or semi-
questionnaires or schedules structured instruments
4. Uses large sample sizes that are 4. Uses sample sizes chosen purposely
representative of the population
5. Research of this kind can be replicated 5. Validity should be high
6. Used for greater understanding of group 6. Used to gain a greater understanding of
similarities individual differences in terms of feelings,
motives, experiences
7. Uses structured processes 7. Uses more flexible processes
8. Methods include census, survey, 8. Methods include field research, case
experiments, and secondary analysis study, secondary analysis.
Source: Handout distributed by the SSREI, UP, Baguio, May 4-8, 2009 as cited by Cristobal &
Cristobal, 2013)
Quantitative Research – is a traditional, positivist, scientific method which refers to a general
set of orderly, disciplined procedures to acquire information. It utilizes deductive reasoning
to generate predictions that are tested in the real world.
- By “ systematic”, it means that the researcher progresses logically through a series of
steps, according to a pre-specified plan of action.
- Quantitative researchers gather empirical evidence – evidence that is rooted in
objective reality and gathered directly or indirectly through the senses.
- The evidence of the study using the positivist paradigm is gathered according to the
established plan through structured instruments. Usually the information gathered in
such a study is quantitative, that is to say, numeric information that results from
some type of formal measurement, and is analyzed with statistical procedures.
- In quantitative research, the researcher is concerned with the use of numbers and
statistical analyses. This is ideal for the traditional research approach which must
contend with the problems of measurement. To study a phenomenon, quantitative
researchers attempt to measure, that is, to attach numeric values that express
quantity.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
Experimental Designs Non-experimental Designs
1. True experimental design 1. Action studies
1.1. Pretest-posttest control design 2. Comparative studies
1.2. Posttest only control group 3. Correlational studies
1.3. Solomon four-group 4. Developmental studies
2. Quasi-experimental designs 5. Evaluation Studies
2.1. Non-equivalent 6. Meta-analysis studies
2.2. Time series 7. Methodological studies
3. Pre-experimental Designs 8. Needs assessment studies
3.1. One-shot case study 9. Secondary analysis studies
3.2. One group pretest 10. Survey studies
3.3. Posttest
Source: Nieswiadomy, Rosemarie (2004). Foundations of Nursing Research, 4th Edition. New
Jersey: Prentice Hall,p. 127.
 16

Types of experimental Research designs

1. True Experimental Designs. A design is considered a true experiment if the following

criteria are present: the researcher manipulates the experimental variables, that is to say,
the researcher has control over the independent variables, as well as the treatment and the
subjects; there must be one experimental and one comparison or control group; and
subjects are randomly assigned either to the control group or experimental group. The
control group is a group that does not receive the treatment.

1.1. Pretest-posttest controlled group design

 Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
 A pretest is given to both groups
 The experimental group receives the treatment while the control group does
not.
 A posttest is given to both groups.
The procedure is summarized as follows:
R 01 X 02 (experimental group)
R 01 02 (control group)

Where : R stands for random selection

O1 stands for pretest
O2 stands for posttest
X stands for intervention
1.2. Posttest only controlled group design
 Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
 The experimental group receives the treatment while the control group does
not receive the treatment
 A posttest is given to both groups
The procedure is summarized as follows:
R X 02 ( experimental group)
R 02 ( controlled group)
Where:
R stands for random selection
02 stands for posttest
X stands for intervention
1.3. Solomon four-group design. It is considered as the most prestigious experimental
design. It minimizes threats to both internal and external validity.
 Subjects are randomly assigned to one or four groups.
 Two of the groups (experimental group1 and control group 1) are pretested.
 The other two groups ( experimental group 2 and control group 2) receive routine or
no treatment.
 A posttest is given to all groups.
The procedure is summarized as follows:
R 01 X 02 (experimental group)
R 01 02 (control group)
R X 02(experimental group)
R 02 (control group)

2. Quasi-experimental design. It is a design in which either there is no control group or the

subjects are not randomly assigned to groups.
2.1. Non-equivalent controlled group design. This design is similar to the pretest-
posttest conrol group design except that there is no random assignment of subjects to the
experimental and control groups. The procedure is summarized as follows:
01 X 02 (experimental group)
 17

01 02 (control group)
2.2. Time-series design. The researcher periodically observes or measures the
subjects.
01 02 03 X 04 05 06

Where:
01, 02, 03 stand for pretest (multiple observations)
04,05, 06 stands for posttest (multiple observations)

3. Pre-experimental Design. This experimental design is considered very weak, as the

researcher has little control over the research.
3.1. One shot case study. A single group is exposed to an experimental treatment and
observed after the treatment.
The procedure is summarized as follows:
X 0
3.2. One-group pretest-posttest design. It provides a comparative description of a
group of subjects before and after the experimental treatment. The procedure is
summarized below:
01 X 02

Types of non-experimental research designs

1. Survey studies. The investigations are conducted through self-report. Surveys generally ask
respondents to report on their attitudes, opinions, perceptions or behaviours. Thus,
attitudes, and behaviours as they currently exist in a population (Wilson, 1990).

Surveys can be categorized according to :

a) From whom the data is collected
1. Sample – a representative of the total population
2. Group – can be smaller than a mass
3. Mass – larger than a group
b) Methods used to collect the data
1. Telephone
2. Text messages
3. snail mail
4. e-mail
5. Face –to- face
c) Time orientation
1. Retrospective. The dependent variable is identified in the present and an attempt
is made to determine the independent variable that has occurred in the past.
2. Cross-sectional. Data are collected at a single point in time. The design requires
subjects who, at different points, phases or stages, are in the process of moving through an
experience. The subjects are assumed to represent data collected from these different points
in time. For example, if the researcher wants to determine the psychological experience of
oncology patients at different stages of cancer, what the researcher will do is to have enough
number of subjects at each stage of cancer, and gather data at the same time.
3. Longitudinal. Unlike in the cross-sectional survey, the researcher collects data from
the same people at different times. In the same study of determining the psychological
experience of oncology patients at different stages of cancer, the researcher must have
enough number of patients in the first or early stage who will observed as they pass through
the different stages. This study is conducted over a longer period of time as compared to the
cross-sectional survey.
d) Purpose or objective
1. Descriptive. This design is utilized for the purpose of accurately portraying a
population that has been chosen because of some specific characteristics. It is also used to
 18

determine the extent or direction of attitudes and behaviours. This design aims to gather
more information about characteristics within a peculiar field of study. The purpose is to
provide a picture of a situation as it naturally happens. It may be used to develop theories,
justify current clinical practices or identify problems with them, aid in making professional
judgments, or determine what other practitioners in similar situations are doing. No
manipulation of variables is involved in a descriptive design.
2. Comparative. This design is used to compare and contrast representative samples
from two or more groups of subjects in relation to certain designated variables that occur in
normal conditions. The results obtained from these analyses are frequently not generalized
in a population.
3. Correlational. The design is used to investigate the direction and magnitude of
relationships among variables in a particular population. Likewise, it is designed to study the
changes in one characteristic or phenomenon which corresponds to the changes in another
or with one another. A wide range of variable scores is necessary to determine the existence
of a relationship. Thus, the sample should reflect the full range of scores, if possible, on the
variables being measured.
4. Evaluative. This design involves making judgment of worth or value. It allows the
researcher to delineate, obtain and provide information that is useful for judging decision
alternatives when, conducting a program or service. The evaluative design form can be
formative (process) or summative (outcome).

Qualitative Research

Qualitative Research – or the naturalistic method of inquiry of research, deals with

the issue of human complexity by exploring it directly. This type of research, the emphasis is
on the complexity of humans, their ability to shape and create their own experience, and the
idea that truth is a composite of reality. Naturalistic investigations place heavy emphasis on
understanding the human experience as it is lived, usually through the careful collection and
analysis of data that are narrative and subjective.
- Qualitative research focuses on gaining insights on and an understanding of an
individual’s perception of events. It is concerned with in-depth descriptions of people
or events and their interpretation of circumstances. Data are collected through such
methods as :
a) Unstructured interviews
b) Participant observation
- The task of the researcher is to synthesize the patterns and themes in the data instead of
focusing on the testing of hypotheses.
- The qualitative researcher must not be limited by existing theories but must be open to
new ideas and new theories.
- Lastly, the researcher does not have to be concerned with numbers and complicated
statistical analyses.

Common types of Qualitative Research (Cristobal, 2013)

1. Phenomenological study
2. Ethnographic study
3. Historical study
4. Case study

Phenomenological study – examines human experiences (lived experiences) through

descriptions provided by subjects or respondents. The goal is to describe the meaning that
experiences hold for each subject. Some of the areas of concern for these studies are
humanness, self-determination, uniqueness, wholeness and individualism. Thus, with this
model, the researcher has to empathize with the experience of the subjects as if he/she is
the one experiencing the phenomenon. Example: What are the common experiences
 19

encountered by a wife/husband with a spouse who is undergoing rehabilitation? With this

example, the researcher has to discover the inner feelings, emotional hardships, and mental
disturbances that the respondent is experiencing.

Ethnographic Study – involves the collection and analysis of data about cultural groups or
minorities. In this type of research, the researcher, frequently lives with the people and
becomes a part of their culture. Therein, the researcher personally immerses and gets
involve with the day-to-day activities of the subjects. The rituals, ceremonies, norms and
traditions being undertaken in the setting will actually be experienced by the researcher. The
researcher will more or less, shares the same feelings of the cultural groups. During the
immersion process, the researcher has to talk to the key persons and personalities called
“key informants”, who can provide the important data for the study. The main purpose of
this kind of study is the development of the cultural theories.

Historical study – concerns the identification, location, evaluation and synthesis of data from
the past. This is not limited to locating the facts in the past but also relating them to the
present and to the future. The data for historical research are usually found in documents or
in relics and artifacts. These documents may include a wide range of printed materials.
Historical data can also be obtained through oral reports. These materials can be found in
various sources like libraries, archives, and personal collections. When material provides
first-hand information, then it is considered as primary source. Examples are oral histories,
written records, diaries, eyewitnesses’ accounts, pictures, videos, and other physical
evidence. Secondary sources , are second-hand information like when a person narrates
information heard from the original source, or a material written as an abstract of the diaries
and other original materials. Any source to be used for historical research must pass the
hallmarks of:
a) Internal criticism
b) External criticism
Internal criticism- involves establishing the authenticity or originality of the materials by
looking at the consistency of information. Motives and personal biases of the author must be
considered in trying to determine the accuracy of the materials.
External criticism – is based on the analysis of the printed material; the link and the type of
paper used; the layout and physical appearance as well as its age and texture.

Case study – is an in-depth examination of people or a group of people or an institution.

Some of its purposes are to gain insights into a little-known problem; provide background dat
for broader studies; and explain socio-psychological and socio-cultural processes. A case
study also involves a comprehensive and extensive examination of a particular individual,
group or situation over a period of time. It provides information on where to draw
conclusion, and about the impact of a significant event on a person’s life (Sanchez, 2002).

Phases in a Qualitative study ( Polit, et al., 2006)

1. Orientation and overview - first phase is to determine what is salient about the
phenomenon or culture of interest.
2. Focus exploration – It involves a focused scrutiny and in-depth exploration of the aspects
of the phenomenon judged to be salient. The questions asked and the types of people
invited are shaped based on the outcome of the first phase.
3. Confirmation and closure – The researcher undertakes efforts to prove that his/ her
findings are trustworthy, often going back to the study and discussing hi/her understanding
of it with the participants.

DESCRIPTIVE DESIGN
 20

The study focuses at the present condition. The purpose is to find new truth. The
truth may have the different forms such as increase quantity of knowledge, a new
generalization or a new “law” , an increased insight into factors which are operating, the
discovery of a new causal relationship, a more accurate formulation of the problem to be
solved and many others .(Calmorin, 2014)

 Uses of Descriptive research

 Provide facts on which scientific judgments may be based.
 Provide essential knowledge about the nature of objects and persons.
 For closer observation in the practices, behavior, methods and procedures.
 Playing a large part in the development of instruments for the measurements
of many things such as questionnaires, test, interviews, checklist, scorecards,
rating scales, and observation schedules.
 Formulating of policies in the local, national, or international level.

 Types of Descriptive Research

1. Descriptive Survey. This type is suitable wherever the subjects vary among
themselves and one is interested to know the extent to which different
conditions and situations are obtained among the subjects. A survey is useful
in 1.) providing the value of facts, and 2.) Focusing attention on the most
important things to be reported.
2. Descriptive-normative survey. Good and Scates (1972) Stressed that the term
normative is sometimes used because surveys are frequently made to
ascertain the normal or typical condition for practice or to compare local
results with a state or national norm.
3. Descriptive-status. The approach to problem solving seeks to answer
questions to real facts relating to existing conditions. This is a technique of
quantitative description which determines the prevailing conditions with the
assumption that things will change. They cover many traits or characteristics
of the group.
4. Descriptive –analysis. This method determines or describes the nature of an
object by separating it into its parts. Its purpose is to discover the nature of
things. In Chemistry, descriptive analysis means the determination of the kind,
quantity and proportions of constituents forming a compound or substances.
5. Descriptive-evaluative. This design is to appraise carefully the worthiness of
the current study. e.g, evaluation of an implementation of WOW (war on
waste project) in the Division of Zamboanga Del Norte. He devises a
questionnaire which evaluates the implementation of WOW and requests the
division and district supervisors, principals, head teachers, and teachers as
subjects of the study to respond on it.
6. Descriptive-comparative. This is a design where the researcher considers two
variables (not manipulated ) and establishes a formal procedure to compare
and conclude that one is better than the other. The statistical tool is Z-test, if
significant difference exists it means one approach is better than the other. If
there is no significant difference, the two approaches are almost the same. In
other words, based on the findings, he can compare and conclude that one is
better than the other if significant difference exists.
7. Correlational survey. This is designed to determine the relationship of two
variables ( X and Y ) whether the relationship is perfect, very high, high,
marked or moderate, slight/negligible.
8. Longitudinal survey. This involves much time allotted for investigation of the
same subjects of two or more points and time.
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
 21

Is a problem-solving approach that the study is described in the future on what will
be when variables are carefully controlled or manipulated. Experimental design can be a
BASIC, APPLIED, OR DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH.
This type of research involves the 7Ms, namely: manpower (Competent), money,
methods, materials, machinery, moment of time, and marketing. Experimental research is
given priority by research institutions in giving research grants-in-aid because research
output can be converted into Small and Medium Enterprises (SME’s), thus help income
alleviate poverty, and improve their quality of life. More so, it helps the austerity measures
of the Philippines.
Even if the experiment is conducted in the field or laboratory, it is expected to reveal
cause and effect relationships. The problem is to know the conditions under which an event
occurs and to observe the whole transaction closely so that one can be reasonably sure that
causation is present.

Illustration of independent, intervening and dependent variables on the Effectiveness of

Culturing Grouper in Fish Cages Using Bread Meal as supplemental feed

Independent Variable intervening variable Dependent variable

Supplemental Feed Salinity
( Bread Meal) Temperature Growth Rate
Oxygen
pH

PART VII. SAMPLING DESIGN

Sampling is applicable if population of the study is to large especially the 7Ms-

manpower, money, materials, machinery, methods, moment, and marketing of the
researcher-are limited. It is advantageous for him to use sample survey for it is economical
rather than total population.
However, the use of total population is advisable if the number of subjects is less
than one hundred. If the population is equal to or more than one hundred it is advisable to
get the sample in order to be effective, efficient and economical in gathering data provided,
however, that the sample is a representative cross-section of the population and is
scientifically selected.
Sampling may be defined as the method of getting a representative portion of a
population. The term population is the aggregate or total of objects, persons, families,
species, or orders of plants or animals.

 Advantages of Sampling
 It saves time, money, and effort
 It is more effective.
 It is faster, cheaper, and economical
 It is more accurate.
 It gives more comprehensives information.

 Disadvantages of Sampling
 If sampling design has strength, it also has its weaknesses.
 Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed sub classification due to
small number of subjects.
 If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and followed, the result may be
misleading.
 Sampling requires an expert to conduct the study in an area. If this is lacking
the results can be erroneous.
 22

 The characteristics to be observed may occur rarely in a population eg.

Teachers over 30 years of teaching experience or teachers without standing
performance.

 Planning a Sample Survey

 State the objectives of the survey.
 Define the population.
 Select the sampling individual.
 Locate and select the source list of particular individuals to be included in the
sample.
 Decide the sampling design to be used that suits to the study, either scientific
or non-scientific sampling.
 Determine the sample size by using the formula.
 Select the method is estimating the reliability of the sample either test-re test,
split-half or internal consistency.
 Test the reliability of the sample in a pilot institution.
 Interpret the reliability of the sample.
 Choose expert to administer the research instrument.

Ways of determining the statistic of the sample size

An important task of the researcher is to determine the acceptable sample size. The
larger the sample, the more reliable is the result of the study. Hence, it is advisable to have
sample large enough to yield reliable results.

Factors to consider in determining the sample size

1. Homogeneity of the population. The higher the degree of homogeneity of the population,
the smaller is the sample size that can be utilized.
2. Degree of precision desired by the researcher. The larger the sample size, the higher is the
precision or accuracy of results.
3. Types of sampling procedure. Probability sampling utilizes samller sample sizes than non-
probability sampling.

Considerations in determining the sample size

1. Sample sizes as small as 30 are generally adequate to ensure that the sampling distribution
of the mean will approximate the normal curve (Shott, 1990).
2. When the total population is equal to or less than 100, this same number may serve as the
sample size. This is called Universal sampling.
3. The Slovin’s Formula is used to compute for sample size (Sevilla, 2003)

N
n¿
1+ Ne 2
Where:
n = a sample size
N = population size
e = desired margin of error

4. According to Gay (1976), the following are the acceptable sizes for the different types of
research:

Descriptive research – 10% -20% may be required

Correlational research – 30 subjects or respondents
 23

Comparative research – 15 subjects/group

Experimental design – 15-30 subjects per group.

Sample Designs
Generally, there are two kinds of sampling design. These are (1) scientific/probability
sampling, and (2) non scientific/ non probability sampling, each member in the population is
given an equal chance of being included in the sample. In non scientific sampling, not all of
the members in the populations are given an equal chance of being included in the sample.

 Scientific Sampling
 Simple random sampling. This design is applicable only when population being
investigated is homogenous. Random sampling is chosen by using either of the
two techniques, namely; lottery, or table or random numbers. Moreover, table
of random numbers technique is applicable to a large number of population.
 Stratified random sampling. This type of design divides first the population into
two or more strata. For each stratum, the sample items are drawn at random.
 Systematic sampling. In this type of design the individuals in the population are
arranged in a methodical manner, for instance alphabetical or chronological
( age, experience or academic rank ), and the nth name may be selected in the
construction of the sample eg. Every tenth of the set is selected as part of the
sample till the complete number is reach.
 Multistage sampling. This design is done in several stages. It can be two-stage,
three-stage, four-stage, five-stage, and many others depending on the number
of sampling to be used. And this design the population individuals are group into
hierarchy of units, and sampling is done consecutively.
 Cluster sampling. In this type scientific sampling design, the population is
grouped into clusters or small units. e.g., Blocks, municipality or city composed
of population individuals and are selected either by random or systematic
sampling. This design is advantageous when individuals and the block or district
belong to a heterogeneous group.

 Nonscientific sampling
In non scientific sampling, not all of the individuals in population are given equal
chance of being include as sample, hence subjectively occurs.
 Purposive sampling or judgmental sampling This type of nonscientific
sampling is based on selecting the individuals as samples according to the
purposes of the researcher as his controls.
 Incidental sampling or convenience sampling. This type of sampling design “
applied to those sample which are taken because they are the most
available.” (Guilford and Fruchter, 1973).
 Quota sampling. This type of design is popular in the field of opinion research
because it is done by merely looking for individuals with the requisite
characteristics.
 Referral/snowball sampling. It is the process of selecting a sample using
networks. To start with few individuals in a group or organization are selected
and the required information is collected from them. They are then asked to
identify other people in the organization. e.g., Drug users.

MEASUREMENTS OF VARIABLES

Before measurement can take place, it is necessary to select and define variables for
measurements and decide upon the exact methods for measuring them the two processes
are referred to respectively as conceptualization and operationalization.
 24

Conceptualization. Entails selecting and specifying what we believe to be the most

important or relevant variables to measure and stating the values that each variable
can assume. Specifying precisely what we mean when we refer to those variables.
Operationalization. Refers to specifying the actual measuring devices or methods
that will be used to measures the variables that we have conceptualized. It further
clarifies the meaning of variables.

 Levels of Measurements

Level (scales) refer to the degree of precision with which a variable is believed to be
measured. It helps to determine the most appropriate method for statistical analysis of data.

The four measurements of levels are:

 Nominal. The most basic form of measurements it simply sorts cases into different
mutually exclusive categories (Values). Even if a number ( plate number #190 ), has
no quantitative significance.
 Ordinal. Level of measurements implies the capacity to rank order people with
respect to their measurements of some variables. The term ordinal level is
appropriately assigned to variables that have been measured using a range of
categories such as: Always, Sometimes, Never, Greatly improved. Slightly improved,
and not improved.
 Interval. It has all the same characteristics of the ordinal level and additional one
which is the exact distance between categories of the variable are known and are
equal to each other .e.g., the distance between points in the scale is fixed, so that the
interval between 12 degrees and 13 degrees and 35 degrees and 36 degrees are the
same which is 1 degree. Interval measurement may use a zero as one of its values,
but zero represent an arbitrary point on a range of measurement rather than the
absence of a variable.
 Ratio. Is similar to the interval scale, in that categorized can be ranked ordered with
fixed equal distances between categories. However, an additional feature
characterizes the ratio scale-zero has an absolute meaning. It reflects a point where
there is no measurable quantity of the variable. e.g. Income/zero in.

 Data Collection
 Sources of Secondary Data
o Census data
o University libraries
o Labor statistics
o Public health statistics

 Method of Data collection

In-person Interviewing
Advantages:
o High completion rate
o Access to supplemental information
o Individualizes data collection
Disadvantages:
o Influence of the interviewer
o Potential for recording error

Telephone Interview
o Used when the purpose is to solicit small amount of information
o Find timing
 25

Mail- used for self-administered questionnaire. The purpose of the study is to secure data
from a large sample of participants.
 Identity of the participants
 Return rate
 Avoid bad times
 Keep it short
 Provide incentives
 Provide post-paid return enveloped
 Use a good cover letter
 Use return address and letter heads

Forms of Questions

 Open-ended questions. Possible responses are not given.

 Closed-ended questions. Possible answers are set out in the questionnaire.

Indexes and scales

For variables not easily measured, such as attitudes and perceptions generally cannot
be accurately measured by a response to a single question. It requires the use of multiple
items to accurately measure them.

Indexes consist of a number that are to be important indicators of the variables being
measured.
Scale asks for more precise answer, such as linear or summative scale. e.g., indicate
how often you experience each of these symptoms by encircling the appropriate number.

Never Sometimes Often Very Often

1. Anxious 0 1 2 3
2. Sad 0 1 2 3

Likert Scale. It is a specific kind of summative scale. When attitude are measured. A
set of attitude items are supplied. Participants indicate their level of agreement with each
item.e.g.,Likert 5 points scale of strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree.

Bogardos Social distance scale. It is a special form of a Guttman scale. It measures to

what degree an individual would be willing to interact with person different from himself
such people of different ethnic group or people with different sexual orientation.

ADDITIONAL TOOLS FOR DATA COLLECTION RECORDING

 Focused Interview. Allows the respondents say something to a topic, which he is

guided through.
 Life History. Respondent talk about his life history in his own way, at his own pace,
beginning where he chooses and saying what he chooses.
 Projective technique. Respondent is asked to respond verbally to something
presented to him by the researcher
 Association
 Completion
 Construction
 Expansion
 Census. Involves the entire group of individuals of interest in the study.
 26

 Field notes. Contains a day-to-day account of what transpired, that is what is

happening, when it happened to whom it is happening. What is being said, who is
saying it and to whom. What changes are occurring in the physical surroundings?
 Five components of field note:
o Running description (be concrete and behaviouristic)
o Previously forgotten happening that are now recalled
o Analytical ideas and influences (ideas must be recorded as they
occur)
o Personal impression and feelings
o Note for further information
 Observation is one way to collect primary data. Observation is a purposeful
systematic and selective way of switching and listening to an interaction as it takes
place.
 Two types of observation:
o Participant observation. When a researcher participated in the
activities of the group being observed with or without their
knowledge, that they are being observed.
o Non- participant observation. When the researcher does not
get involved in the activities of the group but remain as a
passive observer, watching and listening to the activities and
drawing conclusion from this.

PART VIII. DATA ANALYSIS/PROCESSING AND STATISTICAL TREATMENT

Data Processing involves input, throughput, and output mechanisms.

 Input- involves the responses from the research instrument by the subjects of the
study.
 Throughput – includes statistical procedures and techniques; and
 Output- the results of the study which are presented in data matrix form.
In data processing, both quantitative and qualitative forms are involved to arrive at exact
analysis and interpretation of the results. A Numerical value (quantitative) is useless without
descriptive interpretation (qualitative) of the former. For instance, the research problem is –
“ How effective is the teaching of Mr. X in mathematics to computer Technology Students?
Of the 100 Bachelor in Computer Technology (BCT) students, 20 said very much effective or
4.30 said much effective or 3.40, effective or 2; and 10, ineffective or 1. Weighted arithmetic
mean is the appropriate statistical tool to determine the effectiveness of Mr. X in teaching
Mathematics, thus the formula is as follows:
_ ∑fx
X = ∑f
Where f is the frequency and x stands for the weight. To illustrate this foregoing
formula, consider the computation below:

f x fx
20 x 4 = 80 260
30 x 3= 90 100
40 x 2= 80 _
10 x 1= 10 X = 2.6.or 3 (much effective)
100 260
Based on the foregoing example, the input are the responses of 100 BCT students
such as 20, very much effective or 4.30, much effective or 3.40, effective or 2, and 10,
ineffective or 1. The throughput is the weighted arithmetic mean as a procedure in
computing the input or responses, and the output is the result which is 2.6 or 3. The
quantitative value is 2.6 or 3. The qualitative value is much effective. In other words, the
qualitative interpretation of 2.6 or 3 is much effective.
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Data processing – is a means of converting information either manually or by

machine into quantitative and qualitative forms for use in research analysis. It consist of
three basic steps:
1. Categorization
2. Coding
3. Tabulation of data

1. Categorization of data- refers to the grouping of subjects under study according to the
objectives or purposes of the study. Example:
The main purpose of the study is to determine the job-related problems and job-
performance of staff nurses in the government and private hospitals in Iloilo city in relation
to:
a) Top management
b) Middle management
c) Lower management
d) Communication
e) Financial condition
f) Hospital facilities
g) Job hazards
The subjects may be categorized :
1. as a whole
2. as government and private hospitals
3. according to job performance
4. nursing practice, that is to say 1-5 years, 6-10 years, 11-15 years, 16-20 years21
years and above.
In 1986, Kerlinger stressed five rules in categorizing research information:

1. Categories are set up according to the research problem

2. The categories are exhaustive
3. The categories are mutually exclusive and independent
4. Each category (variable) is derived from one classification principle
5. Any categorization scheme must be one level of discourse.
Of the five foregoing rules, Rule 1 is best because categories are based on the
purposes of the research problem in order to arrive at valid results.

2. Coding of data. After the subjects have been categorized into groups and subgroups, data
are next coded by the investigator. Information from the questionnaires, test, interview
schedules, rating scale, and many others must be transformed into coded items to facilitate
tabulation of data. The codes maybe numerical or alphabetical. The former is commonly
used due to sufficient number coverage and is fit for computer processing.

3. Tabulation of data. Once the raw data have been given the numerical codes, they are
ready for tabulation. This is done by tallying and counting the raw data to arrive at a
frequency distribution and to facilitate in organizing them in a systematic order in a table or
several tables. Tabulation can be done either manually or by machine like electric computer
or a mechanical counter-sorter.

Data matrix

Three types of data matrices:

1. Univariate matrix – involves only one variable.
2. Bivariate matrix – involves two variables
3. Multivariate matrix – has three or more variables in the table
Statistical analysis/treatment
 28

Many researchers find difficulty to use the appropriate statistical tools in processing
the data. It is a must that researchers diagnose the problem by using the appropriate
statistical tool to arrive at accurate and definite interpretation of results.

Univariate Statistical Treatment

The appropriate statistical tool for univariate problem, both experimental and
descriptive designs, is weighed arithmetic means for scaled options (i.e. 9, 8,7,6,5,4,3,2 and
1) and the like.

Bivariate statistical treatment in experimental research.

The statistical tool for bivariate ( two variables ) problem in experimental research
are T-test and linear correlation.

Bivariate statistical treatment in descriptive research the statistical tools used for bivariate
descriptive research problems are Z-test and linear correlation (spearman rho)

Multivariate statistical treatment

Experimental research. The statistical tools used in multivariate experimental
research problems with three or more variables are F-test or ANOVA (analysis of variance),
kruskal –Wallis One way analysis of variance and Friedman’s Two way analysis of variance by
ranks.

PART IX. DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

Analysis and interpretation of results are not easy tasks for the researcher to
undertake especially if he is not an expert to diagnose the appropriate statistical tool to
answer the research problems/objectives.

Analysis should be done first before interpretation. Analysis is useless without

interpretation, and interpretation is impossible without analysis.
Interpretation is important to have a clearer meaning of the research findings.

Data Analysis
Data analysis may be defined as an examination of data or fact in terms of quantity,
quality, attribute, trait, pattern, trend, relationship among others so as to answer research
questions which involves statistical techniques and procedures.
The bases in analyzing research data are specific problems/objectives, hypothesis,
measuring instruments, and statistical tools.

 10 Types of Data Analysis

 Univariate analysis. Test a single variable to determine whether the sample is
similar to the population from which it has been drawn.
 Bivariate analysis. Test two variables on how they differ with each other. The
common statistical tools to use in bivariate analysis are correlation, coefficient
is used in both descriptive and experimental designs; z-test, descriptive
research only; and t-test, experimental design only.
 Multivariate analysis. Test three or more independent variables at a time on
the degree of relationship with the dependent variable. The statistical tool
used in this type are the F-test or analysis of variance (ANOVA), Friedman two
way ANOVA, and Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA for experimental design. Chi
square is used for descriptive research.
 Normative analysis. Is a type of data analysis wherein the result of the study is
compared with the norm or standard. The statistical tools used in this type are
the arithmetic mean and the standard deviation.
 29

 Status analysis. Stresses real facts relating to current conditions in a group of

subjects chosen for study. The common statistical tools used in this type are
the arithmetic mean, standard deviation, z-test, and chi-square.
 Descriptive analysis. Merely describe the characteristics, composition,
structures, and substructures that occur as units within the larger structure.
The statistical tools commonly used in descriptive analysis type are the
arithmetic mean, chi-square, and Friedman two-way ANOVA.
 Classification analysis. Is usually employed in natural science subjects such as
Botany, Zoology, Biology, Mycology, and the like. However, if ecological
parameters such as temperature,pH, salinity, oxygen, turbidity and many
others are taken into consideration in the study area. Statistical tools such as
mean and t-test are used to test the significant difference between means.
 Evaluative analysis. Is a type of data analysis that appraises carefully the
worthiness of the current study. The statistical tools commonly used in this
type are weighted arithmetic mean, percentages, Friedman two-way analysis
of variance, and z-test.
 Comparative analysis. The researcher considers at least two entities (not
manipulated) and establishes a formal procedure for obtaining criterion data
on the basis of which he can compare and conclude one is better than the
other. The common statistical tools used in this type are the mean, variances,
and t-test.
 Cost-Effective analysis. Is applicable in comparing the cost between two or
more variables, and to determine which of the variables is most effective. The
statistical tools commonly used in this type are the arithmetic mean, variance,
t-test, and f-test.

PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH

Is an attribute of action research in which the problem is determined by the people

who believed and feel that the problem is really a problem in the local setting and the
solution to the problem is within the same setting without intention of generalizing its result.

Characteristics of PAR
1) People oriented.
2) Community involvement
3) Group research
4) Big crowd
5) Political involvement
1. People oriented – participatory action research is people-oriented in the sense that it is
the people who believe and feel that there is a problem. Everybody is involved in solving the
problem from the planning stage to the implementation stage. For instance “ akyat bahay
gang” problem. Everyone is involved in this problem and the people in the community join
hands with the research team to remedy this problem.

2. Community involvement. The community is involved in conducting participatory action

research. That is why the head of the research team is the mayor, and the members are
Barangay captains, chief of police, chief of security agency, researcher and many others.

3. Group-research. The group is composed of the research team and the research
participants should cooperate with each other to solve the social problems, from planning
stage to implementation stage.

4. Big crowd. Participatory action research involves big crowd, especially during the general
assembly meeting with research team and research participants. Even if a big crowd is
 30

involved during the general assembly meeting with research team and research participants.
Even if a big crowd is involved during the general assembly, everybody’s idea is entertained
by the research team leader who presides the meeting.

5. Political Involvement. The politicians such as the congressman, governor, mayor, Barangay
captains, and many others should get involved in the research process to make the solving of
the social problems easier and faster.

 Framework of PAR
 Identification of the problem and community.
 Statement of goals and objective.
 Identification of participants.
 Organization of the research theme.
 Establishment of time table.
 Conduct of the research project.
 Evaluation of results.
 Interpretation of findings
 Implications and recommendations.
 Implementation

PART X. CONTENT AND STRUCTURE OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Descriptive design

Chapter 1 ( The Problem: Rationale and background )

1.1 Statement of the Problem/objectives
1.2 Null Hypothesis
1.3 Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
1.4 Significance of the Study
1.5 Scope and Limitations
1.6 Definition of Key Terms

Chapter 2 ( Review of Related Literature )

2.1 Review of related legal bases
2.2 Review of related literature ( Local and Foreign )
2.3 Review of related studies ( Local and Foreign ( if any )
2.4 Justification of the present study
Chapter 3 ( Methodology )
3.1 Research Design
3.2 Determination of Sample Size ( if sample survey )
3.3 Sampling Design and Technique ( if sample survey )
3.4 The Subjects/Respondents
3.5 Research Instrument
3.6 Validation of the Research Instrument
3.7 Data Gathering Procedure
3.8. Ethical consideration
3.9. Data Processing Method
4.0. Statistical Treatment
PART XI. ETHICS IN RESEARCH

Importance of ethics in research (Resnik, 2007)

1. Ethics promotes the pursuit of knowledge and truth and avoidance of error. It also fosters values
that are essential to collaborative work. Research often involves a great deal of cooperation and
 31

coordination among many people in different fields of disciplines. Important values are trust,
accountability, mutual respect and fairness.
2. Many of the ethical norms help ensure that researchers held accountable to the public.
3. Adherence to the ethical principles also helps build public support for research. People are more
likely to fund researches that promote a variety of important moral and social values such as social
responsibility, human rights, animal welfare, health and safety.

Ethical Codes and Policies in Research

Given the importance of ethics in the conduct of research, many professional associations,
government agencies, and universities have come up with the following codes and policies for
research:

1. Honesty. Maintain honesty in all communications, e.g. when reporting data, results, and
procedures, never fabricate, falsify or misrepresent data.
2. Objectivity. Avoid biases in the experimental design, data analysis, interpretation, expert
testimony, and other aspects of research.
3. Integrity. Keep promises and agreements. Act with sincerity and strive for consistency of thoughts
and action.
4. Care. Avoid careless errors and negligence. Critically examine your work and the works of your
peers. Keep records of research activities in good order and condition.
5. Openness. Share data results, ideas, and resources. Be open to criticisms and new ideas.
6. Respect for intellectual property. Honor patents and copyrights. Do not use unpublished data,
methods, or results without permission. Give proper credit and acknowledgement to all authors cited
& sources used in your research.
7. Confidentiality. Protect confidential communications or documents.
8. Responsible publication. Publish in order to advance research and scholarship. Avoid wasteful and
duplicative publication.
9. Responsible mentoring. Help educate, mentor and advice students.
10. Respect for colleagues. Treat peers fairly.
11. Social responsibility. Strive to promote social good and prevent social harm.
12. Non-discrimination. All those eligible to participate in research must be allowed to do so.
13. Competence. Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise.
14. Legality. Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and government policies.
15. Human subjects’ protection. Minimize harms and risks to human lives; instead, maximize benefits,
and respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.

Rights of Research Participants (Trochim 2006; Smith, 2003; and Polit, 2006)

1. Voluntary Participation. Any person need not be coerced to participate in any research
undertaking.
2. Informed consent. Prospective research participants must be fully informed about the procedures
and risks involved in research. Their consent to participate must be secured.
3. Risk of harm. Harm that is physical, financial, or psychological must not be experienced by the
participants. The principle of non-maleficence states that it is the researcher’s duty to avoid, prevent,
or minimize harm to participants.
4. Confidentiality. Participants must be assured that identifying information will not be made
available to anyone who is not directly involved in the study. (Smith, 2003)
5. Anonymity. It means that the participants will remain anonymous throughout the study,
sometimes even to the researchers themselves.

Unethical Activities

The following are the common breaches in ethics:

1. Publishing the same paper in two different journals without informing the editor/s.
2. Failing to inform a collaborator of one’s intent to file a patent in order to become the sole inventor.
 32

3. Including a colleague as an author of a paper in return for a favour even though he/she did not
contribute to it.
4. Discussing with your colleagues data from the paper that you are reviewing for a journal.
5. Trimming outlines from a data set without providing sufficient justification.
6. Using inappropriate statistical techniques in order to obtain favourable results and enhance the
significance of one’s research.
7. Making the results of the study publicly known without first giving peers the opportunity to review
the work.
8. Failing to acknowledge the contributions of other people in the field (This includes relevant prior
work in the review of related literature and studies.)
9. Making derogatory comments and personal attacks in your review of author’s submitted work.
10. Injudicious and inhumane use of animals in research.

Guidelines for Conducting Focus Group Discussions

A Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a qualitative research technique consisting of a

structured discussion and used to obtain in-depth information (qualitative data) from a
group of people about a particular topic. The purpose of the discussion is to use the social
dynamics of the group, with the help of a moderator/facilitator, to stimulate participants to
reveal essential information about people’s opinions, beliefs, perceptions and attitudes.

Focus groups are often conducted among homogenous target populations, who usually share
a common characteristic such as age, sex, or socio-economic status, which encourages a
group to speak more freely about the subject without fear of being judged by others.

Key Steps in Conducting a FGD:

STEP 1: Select field team

Moderator: The moderator/facilitator should have knowledge and experience or skills in

leading FGDs, and at the least, understand the importance of assisting all members to speak
at some point, be able to manage dominant group members, and have an ability to ask open
questions and follow up with relevant additional questions to stimulate conversation and
reflection. It is not desirable to run them as a question / response, question / response
exercise. In that situation, people are more likely to respond what they think the interviewer
wants to hear.

Interpreter: Make sure the FGDs are conducted in the local language or in the language the
participants feel most comfortable in, and if needed, use interpreters that have been
trained/or train them in their role as translators in FGDs. (They need to translate directly
and, as far as possible, not get involved themselves in the discussion, then translate back an
edited version)

Observer/recorder: It can be effective to have two people conducting the focus group -- one
asking the questions (the moderator) and one writing and observing expressions, body
language etc, which can give clues about sensitivities etc. When using an interpreter,
however, the moderator might be able to do both given the lag time for translation.

Other staff: There needs to be a clear motive if any other staff is to be present during a FGD.
Make sure that none of the field staff are biased to the subject at stake (i.e. no personal or
organizational interest) or have a role that might obstruct participants to speak out freely.

STEP 2: Determine what types and number of groups needed

 33

In each location, there should be interviews with elderly women, elderly men, adult women,
adult men. If it does not inhibit conversations, age groups or gender could be mixed when it
would be inconvenient to them to be separated, as long as the topic does not relate to or is
affected by gender or age stereotypes, and as long as there is some possibility of also gaining
disaggregated information.

Interview adolescent girls and boys if the moderator is trained or experienced in

interviewing young people under 18. Be particularly careful in interviewing younger children
and consult with UNICEF or experts in child protection for assistance.  Ensure, wherever
possible, to target specific groups with disabilities and attempt to meet with indigenous or
other minority groups.

Group size: the ideal size is 8-12 persons, however smaller and larger groups can work well
and oftentimes judgment must be made quickly on the spot so as not to offend or
inconvenience people. If the space available is noisy, try to make the groups smaller to
facilitate hearing.

Make every effort to ensure that non-participants are not present or within hearing
distance, particularly as this can give rise to protection risks.

Try to ensure that people such as community leaders or representatives are not mixed in
amongst the groups, as they may well discourage others from speaking freely. If such people
are present, it is best to interview them separately.

The nature of this kind of work is that all the best laid plans are likely to disappear out of the
window when the team arrives at the venue, and quick thinking and flexibility is required to
manage the best outcome in what is likely to be chaotic circumstances.

STEP 3: Prepare for the individual FGD

Location for FGD: Try your best to organize the meeting in a private, safe and comfortable
environment (e.g. not direct under the sun), and that it is accessible (especially to persons
with disabilities, older persons, and women). In the current conditions, be prepared to
compromise and check with the group that the compromise works for them.

Date and time for the FGD: ensure mobilization of participants before the meeting as far as
possible, and inform community leaders in advance of the discussion so they are aware of it.
If a local agency is facilitating your access to communities, ask them to explain the purpose of
your visit and to the extent possible, prepare the groups to reduce time lost in confusion.

Plan with your team beforehand how you will divide groups between you. You want to aim
for as much consistency of approach so that results are comparable.

STEP 4: Conduct the FGD: Introduction

Introduce the focus group by explaining the reason for the visit. It is important to explain the
rationale to avoid raising expectations. Explain what you will do with the information, and be
very clear that when asking about needs, there is no guarantee that things will change,
however to the extent possible, you will pass on their feedback to relevant authorities.

The discussion might touch upon some sensitive issues such as security and violence. Ensure
participants there are no requirement to respond if the question causes discomfort.
 34

Participation is completely voluntary and participants are free to answer or not, or to leave
at any point.

Reassure participants that confidentiality will be kept throughout in that no names or

personal information will be disclosed or used in any publications/reports.

Explain that you will be taking notes during the interview to help you remember what was
said, but that these are for your own personal use and will not be shared with others.

Make sure that your notes reflect as closely as possible what was said. When it comes to
analyzing the outcomes, the more detail captured the better, and the more likely you are to
have quotable passages which can be very powerful. Scant notes can render the exercise
useless.

Ask if there are any questions before starting the interview and make sure to take some
notes about the demographics of the group.

Be mindful that these are people who have suffered great loss and trauma and are also all
individuals who have their own stories. Without spending all the time set aside building
rapport, and without getting too personal, it is advisable to spend some time showing
genuine interest in the people to whom you are speaking, to learn a bit about them and to
put them at ease. You might like to ask people what they did before the typhoon, and in our
experience, people also don’t mind telling a bit of their experience of the typhoon. Use your
judgment and be a bit creative.

Step 5: Tips for the facilitator, observer and interpreter

Notice body language and expressions as relevant.

Make sure to listen to participants, non-judgmentally and intervene if others are judging
them, reminding them of the respect for other opinions.

Encourage that only one person talks at a time, and remind people and the interpreter not to
go too long in between translation, as you will lose a lot of the detail.

It can be helpful sometimes, especially in one on one interviews, to put a question in the
form of a role play. For example, you might say something like, “imagine I’m the head of
(insert local authority or aid agency), what would you say to me?”

Use neutral comments and encourage the quieter people to contribute – “Anything else?”,
“does anyone else have something to add?”, “How about this side of the group?”

Explain to interpreters the importance of translating sentence-by-sentence and not

summarizing what people say. Interviewers should help interpreters by asking only one short
question at a time and by reminding them about confidentiality of the discussions.
35