PH 112: Introduction to Quantum Physics

Wave Packets

Sunita.srivsatava@phy.iitb.ac.in

Lecture03: 08-05-2023

Sunita Srivastava
Ext. : 7572
Email : Sunita.srivastava@iitb.ac.in

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Recapsulate
YDSE with electron : Interference pattern observed
Wave-Particle Duality established !!
Everything (matter and radiation ) has both wave and
particle property

For Photon (radiation)

𝒉υ 𝒉
𝒑= =
𝒄 λ

For Particle of momentum p,

𝒉 𝒉
λ𝒅𝑩 = =
𝒑 𝒎𝒗
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Recapsulate : Wave-Particle Duality

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What happens with molecules ??
Neutrons: Halban, H. v. Jr & Preiswerk, P. Preuve experimentale de la diffraction des
neutrons.C.R. Acad. Sci.203,73– 75 (1936)

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 PH 107 (D2) LA002 3rd 2019 2:30 PM to 3:25 PM
Question 1
An electron has de Broglie wavelength of 2 X 10-12 m. Find its
kinetic energy.
and E = E0 + KE

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Learning Objectives
• How to define wave associated with particle ?
• Mathematical construction of wave packet
• Definition of Phase velocity and Group velocity.

Section 5.3 in page 152.

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Particles
Particles are localized. They occupy a well defined region of space,
whatever their size.

In the idealized picture, we want the particles to have no size at all,

so that their position can be described by a single real number.
Macroscopic object as being made of a large number of
infinitesimal objects, with tiny but non-zero masses.
Such visualization has been an enormous success. A very large
number of phenomena in mechanics and electromagnetism have
been explained by treating matter as being made up a large
number of "point masses".

This makes the mathematical analysis much easier. 7

Waves
Waves, on the other hand, are extended objects. In classical wave
theory, we do not put spatial restrictions on waves.

Again, to keep the mathematics simple, we use an idealised picture,

where a wave extends in space from minus infinite to plus infinite.

The explanation of interference and diffraction relies on the fact

that waves have spatial extent.

We get interference only if the wave goes through (presents itself at)
both slits simultaneously.

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Question ?
If physical objects have both particle and wave like properties,
how do we build a mathematical description, which brings
together these seemingly mutually exclusive properties ?

Ψ 𝑥 = 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥 ) For matter wave

Wave-packet/Wave group

-ꝏ x ꝏ 9
Wave Packet
A realistic wave description of a “localized” particle is provided by a
wave packet, not an ideal sinusoidal wave.

A wave packet has a finite extent and within this there is a wave of few
cycles.

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Wave Packet

The "wave" in the wave packet does not look like the nice and simple
sinusoidal waves we use in doing wave analysis.

The amplitude of the wave is significant only within the extent of the
packet.

The “wavelength” changes as a function of the spatial coordinate within

the packet.
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Beats
Superposition of waves of different wavelengths and phases
If several waves of different wavelengths and phases are
superimposed together, what we get is a localized wave
packet.

Beat Formation in superposition of two sinusoidal waves 12

Mathematical construct
𝚿𝟏 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒙 − 𝝎𝒕
𝚿𝟐 = 𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒌 + 𝜹𝒌 𝒙 − (𝝎 + 𝜹𝝎)𝒕

Ψ = 𝜓1 + 𝜓2
= 𝐴 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
+ 𝐴 sin 𝑘 + 𝛿𝑘 𝑥 − (𝜔 + 𝛿𝜔)𝑡
Using
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒂 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒃 = 𝟐[𝒄𝒐𝒔 (𝒂 − 𝒃)Τ𝟐][𝒔𝒊𝒏 (𝒂 + 𝒃)Τ𝟐]

𝛿𝑘 𝛿𝜔 𝛿𝑘 𝛿𝜔
Ψ = 2𝐴 cos 𝑥− 𝑡 sin 𝑘+ 𝑥 − (𝜔 + )𝑡
2 2 2 2 13
Resultant Amplitude
𝛿𝑘 𝛿𝜔 𝛿𝑘 𝛿𝜔
Ψ = 2𝐴 cos 𝑥− 𝑡 sin 𝑘+ 𝑥 − (𝜔 + )𝑡
2 2 2 2

High Frequency Wave Broad Envelope

𝛿𝑘 𝛿𝑘
sin 𝑘 + 𝑥 2𝐴cos 𝑥
2 2
The envelope and the wave within the envelope move at
different speeds 14
Phase Velocity

Take a point at t = 0 for which ψ = 0. Let time increase to Δt. What

would be Δx to maintain ψ = 0.

Phase velocity is the velocity of a point of constant phase on the wave.

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Phase Velocity

𝛿𝑘 𝛿𝜔 𝛿𝑘 𝛿𝜔
Ψ = 2𝐴 cos 𝑥− 𝑡 sin 𝑘+ 𝑥 − (𝜔 + )𝑡
2 2 2 2

High Frequency wave

Velocity of the wave within the envelope (phase velocity)

𝛿𝜔
𝜔+
𝑣𝑝 = 2 ≈ 𝜔Τ𝑘
𝛿𝑘
𝑘+
2

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Group Velocity
𝛿𝑘 𝛿𝜔 𝛿𝑘 𝛿𝜔
Ψ = 2𝐴 cos 𝑥− 𝑡 sin 𝑘+ 𝑥 − (𝜔 + )𝑡
2 2 2 2

𝛿𝑘 and 𝛿𝜔 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒𝑠

𝛿𝑘 𝛿𝜔
Ψ = 2𝐴 cos 𝑥− 𝑡 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
2 2

Broad Envelope

Slowly varying broad envelope of frequency 𝛿𝜔 and

propagation constant 𝛿𝑘.
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Group Velocity
𝛿𝑘 𝛿𝜔
Ψ = 2𝐴 cos 𝑥− 𝑡 sin 𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡
2 2

Broad Envelope

Velocity of the envelope (Group velocity)

𝛿𝜔
𝑣𝑔 =
𝛿𝑘

Velocity at which the wave packet moves

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Summary
Phase velocity : Velocity of the wave within the
envelope.
𝑣𝑝 = 𝜔Τ𝑘

𝛿𝜔
𝑣𝑔 =
𝛿𝑘
Group velocity : Velocity with which the envelope of the
wave packet moves.
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𝐏𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐞 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲, 𝐕𝐩 of a relativistic particle
The phase velocity of the matter waves is
𝜔 𝐸
𝑉𝑝 = =
𝑘 𝑝
Substituting ; 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 2 + 𝑝𝑐 2

The phase velocity can be written in terms of 𝑝 only

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𝑚𝑜 𝑐
𝑽𝒑 = 𝑐 1 + 𝑽𝒑 > c; since v < c
𝑝

This implies the phase velocity of the de Broglie wave is greater than
or at least equal to c. This is against the wave concept of the particle
hence 𝒗 ≠ 𝒗𝒑 20
𝐆𝐫𝐨𝐮𝐩 𝐯𝐞𝐥𝐨𝐜𝐢𝐭𝐲, 𝐕𝐠 of a relativistic particle

Since 𝑬 = 𝑐 𝑝2 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 2

Since the energy (E = ℏω ) and momentum of a particle (p = ℏk) are

connected to its wave characteristics, the group velocity of matter wave
𝒅𝝎 𝒅𝑬(𝒑)
𝑽𝒈 = 𝑽𝒈 =
𝒅𝒌 𝒅𝒑

𝒅(𝑐 𝑝2 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 2 ) 𝑝𝑐
𝑽𝒈 = = =𝒗
𝒅𝒑 𝑝2 + 𝑚𝑜2 𝑐 2

de Broglie wave group associated with a moving body travels

with the same velocity as that of the body ! (𝒗𝒈 = v)
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Wave-packet

De Broglie wave group associated with

a moving body travels with the same
velocity as the body

𝒗𝒈 = v

In general, many wave packet having a continuous distribution of

wavelengths must be added to form a packet that is finite over a limited
range and really zero everywhere else
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝜔
𝑉𝑔 =
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝑘0

Derivative at ko . 22
Wave-packet

So far what we discussed is a simple picture which

did not really produce a “wave packet”, limited to a
small region in space.

This is because we considered superposition of

waves with two discrete wavelengths.

On the other hand, if we add waves with a

continuous distribution of wavelengths, we get a
true wave packet.

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Wave Packet

Superposition of sinusoidal waves of near by wavelength

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C

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Wave-packet

A wave packet is a group of waves with slightly different

wavelengths interfering with one another in a way that the
amplitude of the group (envelope) is non-zero in the
neighbourhood of the particle.

A wave packet is localized; it is a good representation of a particle

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Wave-packet
We can think of adding waves with wavenumbers
Δ𝑘 Δ𝑘
ranging continuously from 𝑘0 − to 𝑘0 + , and
2 2
Δ𝑘 Δ𝑘
frequencies ranging from 𝜔(𝑘0 − ) to 𝜔(𝑘0 + )
2 2
𝑘0 is the central wavenumber and Δ𝑘 the range of
wavenumbers forming the wave packet.

In this case the group velocity will be given by

𝑑(𝜔 = 𝑉𝑝 𝑘) 𝑑𝑉𝑝
𝑉𝑔 = = 𝑉𝑝 𝑘 + 𝑘
𝑑𝑘 𝑘0
0 𝑑𝑘 𝑘0
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General Relationship between 𝑽𝒈 and 𝑽𝒑
𝑑𝑉𝑝
𝑉𝑔 = 𝑉𝑝 𝑘 + 𝑘
0 𝑑𝑘 𝑘0

d𝑉𝑝
Since 𝑘 = 2π/λ 𝑉𝑔 = Vp − λ
dλ λo
d𝑉𝑝
In terms of p 𝑉𝑔 = Vp + p
dp po

We see, the group velocity, 𝑉𝑔 can be larger, smaller or equal to 𝑉𝑝

𝐝𝐞𝐩𝐞𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐨𝐧 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐦.

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Dispersion Relation

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N𝐨𝐧 − 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐦 ∶ 𝑉𝑔 and 𝑉𝑝

𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑑(𝑣𝑝 𝑘) 𝑑𝑣𝑝
𝑑𝑘 𝑣𝑔 = = 𝑣𝑝 + 𝑘
𝜔 𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘 𝑘𝑜
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑘
𝑑𝑣𝑝
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 − λ
𝑑𝑘 λ𝑜

𝒅𝒗𝒑
If
𝒅𝒌
=0 𝑣𝑝 = 𝑣𝑔

All wave component have the same speed !!

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N𝐨𝐧 − 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐦 ∶ 𝑉𝑔 and 𝑉𝑝

Light in a medium with a constant refractive index

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𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐦𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐦 ∶ 𝑉𝑔𝐦𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐮𝐦
𝐕𝐠 and 𝐕𝐩 ∶ 𝐃𝐢𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐢𝐯𝐞 and 𝑉𝑝
d𝑉𝑝 𝑑𝑽𝒑
𝑉𝑔 = Vp − λ If #0
dλ λo 𝑑λ

𝑉𝑔 # 𝑉𝑝
Such medium are known as dispersive medium.
Dispersive occurs when phase velocity depends on k or λ.
For such medium, 𝑉𝑔 can be smaller or larger than 𝑉𝑝 .

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𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆: 𝑽𝒈 and 𝑽𝒑 of a free particle
𝑝 2
General equation for energy of a particle ; 𝐸 =
2𝑚
+ V
𝑝 2 ℏ
For free particle, (V= 0) ; 𝐸 = ω 𝑘 = 𝑘2
2𝑚 2𝑚

𝒅𝑬(𝒑) 𝒑 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒗𝒆

𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐞, 𝐕𝒈 = 𝐕𝒈 =
𝒅𝒑 𝒎
𝑬(𝒑) 𝒑
𝐒𝐢𝐧𝐜𝐞, 𝐕𝒑 = 𝐕𝒑 =
𝒑 𝟐𝒎

𝐕𝒈
=
𝟐

This implies the inner waveforms travels at half the speed of the speed of
the particle. This phase velocity in general has no physical significance.
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Example : Water Surface wave
A wave travelling on water surface has phase velocity
proportional to the square root of wavelength. What is the
group velocity ?

ω 𝟐𝝅
𝑽𝒑 = = A𝝀𝟎.𝟓 =A
𝒌 𝒌

𝒅ω 𝑨 𝟐𝝅 𝑽𝒑
𝑽𝒈 = = =
𝒅𝒌 𝟐 𝒌 𝟐

Unlike previous example what you see here is that the

phase velocity is larger than the group velocity. 34
Recommended Readings
Wave Groups and Dispersion, section 5.3 in page 152.

Next Class : Fourier Series and Fourier Transform

The Exponential Fourier Series

(From Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Kreyszig)

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