REED’S PRACTICAL MATHEMATICS SERIES 01421-0692 VOLUME 2 APPLIED MECHANICS for ENGINEERSSUIINISNA 19} SOINVHIAIN GallddV THOMAS REEOAPPLIED MECHANICS for ENGINEERS by W. EMBLETON, 0.B.E., C.Eng., F.1.Mar.E., M.t.Mech.E. Extra First Class Engineers’ Certificate The syllabuses of Applied Mechanics for the Ordinary National Certificate, Ordinary National Diploma, and the Marine Engineers’ Certificates of Competency, are all fairly closeiy related and, although this volume is principally based on the Department of Trade’s syllabuses for Second and First Class Engineers, it should prove of undoubted value to all engineers studying Applied Mechanics. Each section commences at an elementary stage to provide ample and valuable revision, and progresses care- fully to the standards required for the O.N.C., O.N.D., 2nd Class, and 1st Class examinations. The numerous worked examples and diagrammatic illustrations in the text shouid greatly assist in the under- standing of the all-important first principles and funda- mental units involved. Test questions are set at the end of each chapter with fuilly worked solutions later in the book. These and the final set of miscellaneous problems with full solutions are included to enable the keen engineer to do that little extra self-study im his spare time so necessary to ensure the success he deserves.REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS By WILLIAM EMBLETON oBe. EXTRA FIRST CLASS ENGINEERS CERTIFICATE C.Eng., M.I.Mech.E., F.1.Mar.E, PUBLISHED BY THOMAS REED PUBLICATIONS LIMITED SUNDERLAND AND LONDONFirst Edition - 1962 Reprint - 1966 Second Edition - 1970 (in Siunits) Reprint - 1972 Third Edition - 1975 Reprint - 1979 ISBN O 900335 54 8 © Thomas Reed Publications Limited PRINTED BY THOMAS REED AND COMPANY LIMITED. SUNDERLAND, GLASGOW AND LONDON PREFACE The purpose of this book is to cover the Syllabuses on Applied Mechanics in the Examinations for Second and First Class Marine Engineers. In each Section the work progresses from an elementary stage to the standard required by the First Class Examination, Parts of the subject matter and the attendant Test Examples, are marked with the prefix “f” to indicate that they are normally considered to be beyond the syllabus for the Second Class Examination and so can be temporarily disregarded by candidates for it. Throughout the book, emphasis is placed on basic principles, and the profusely illustrated text assists the student to assimilate these principles more easily. From their study of Volume I of this series, Mathematics for Engineers, most students will have acquired a sufficient know- ledge of the pure mathematics needed for the solution of the problems in this volume. However as constant revision is essential, fully worked solutions are given to all the problems and in cases where the author has found that students experience particular difficulty, various mathematical steps are given detailed explanation. The engineer who is prepared to spend some of his spare time studying this book and working systematically through it, will be amply repaid when he finds that his final preparation time at a college will be very much reduced and that his chance of success in his Examination very much increased. W. Embleton South ShieldsCHAPTER CHAPTER CHAPTER, CHAPTER CHAPTER, CONTENTS 1—vVECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS. Resultant and equilibrant. Triangle and polygon of forces. Concurrent and parallel forces. Bow’s notation. Com- ponents of a force, Slings, jib cranes, re- ciprocating engine mechanism. Framed structures. Non-coplanar forces. wee 2—VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION. Speed. Linear velocity and acceleration. Velocity-time graphs. Angular velocity and acceleration. Projectiles. Relative velocity. Instantaneous centre. 3—MASS, ACCELERATING. FORCE, TORQUE, MOMENTUM Mass, force of gravity, weight, inertia. Accelerating force. Atwoods machine. Fletcher’s trolley. Momentum. Turning moment. a oe - 4—workK, POWER AND ENERGY. Work, graphical representation. Power. Transmission of power by belt and gears. Energy, potential and kinetic. .... S—CENTRIPETAL ACCELERATION. Centripetal and centrifugal force. Side- skidding and overturning .of vehicles. Balancing. Conical pendulum, gover- nors. Stress in flywheel rims. Simple harmonic motion. Simple pendulum. Vibrations of a spring. .... woe “ 6—SLIDING FRICTION. Coefficient of friction. Inclined planes. Parallel forces to pull up and down. Horizontal and least forces. Efficiency of square thread. . PAGE 31—61 62—16 71—100 101—133 134—153CHAPTER ‘CHAPTER: ‘CHAPTER CHAPTER (CHAPTER ‘7—MOMENTS. First moments and applications. Couple. Centre of gravity. Second moments. Theorem of parallel axis. .... 8—LIFTING MACHINES. Velocity ratio, mechanical advantage, efficiency. Rope pulley blocks, wheel and axle, differential pulley blocks, worm and worm wheel, screw jack, warwick screw, crab winches, hydraulic jack, Experimental results, linear law. 9—STRESS AND STRAIN. Ultimate tensile strength, working stress, factor of safety. Strain. Modulus of elasticity. Tensile test. Compound bars. Restricted expansion. Resilience. Suddenly applied and shock loads. Stresses on oblique planes, 10—PRESSURE VESSELS AND RIVETED JOINTS. Circumferential and longitudinal stres- ses in thin cylinders. Working pressure. Various types of riveted j ints, ni rivet and plate strengths. .... os - 11—BENDING OF BEAMS, Conditions of equilibrium. Simply sup- ported beams and cantilevers. Concen- trated and distributed loading. Shearing force and bending moment diagrams..... 12--STRESSES IN BEAMS. Neutral axis. Fundamental bending equation. Modulus of section. Deflec- tion. Combined bending and direct stress. sees PAGE 154—180 181—208 209—241 242—258 259—279 280—298 CHAPTER 13-—TORSION. Fundamental torsion equation. Rela- tionships between torque, stress and power. Torsional resilience. Maximum and mean torque. Coupling bolts. Reciprocating engine mechanism. De- flection of closely coiled helical spring. Hydraulic steering gear. CHAPTER 14—HYDRAULICS. Density, specific gravity. Volumetric expansion. Apparent loss of weight, floating bodies. Pressure head, pres- sures on immersed surfaces, centre of pressure. Flow through pipes and ori- fices. Bernouilli’s equation, venturi meter. Friction in pipes. Impact of water jet. Centrifugal pump. SOLUTIONS TO TEST EXAMPLES .... SECOND CLASS MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS TO SECOND CLASS PROBLEMS FIRST CLASS MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS... SOLUTIONS TO FIRST CLASS PROBLEMS .... ‘PAGE 299—322 323—356 357—500 501—SI5 516—5S74 575—590 591—660INTRODUCTION TO SI UNITS SI is the abbreviation for Systéme International d’Unités, the metric system of measurement now in international use and adopted by British industry. itis a system in which the product or quotient of any two unit quantities produces the unit of the resultant quantity, that is, it isa coherent system and built upon the six basic units, the metre (length), kilogramme (mass), second (time), kelvin (temperature), ampere (electrical current), and the candela (luminous intensity). Thus, to give a few examples, unit length (1 metre) multiplied by unit length (1 metre) gives unit area (1 square metre). Unit length or distance (1 metre) divided by unit time (1 second) produces unit velocity (1 metre per second). When unit mass (1 kilogramme) is multiplied by unit acceleration.(1 metre per second?) the result is unit force (1 newton). If unit force (1 newton) acts through unit distance (1 metre), unit work (1 joule) is done. A list applicable to the subject of Mechanics within the scope of this book, consisting of the basic units, and derived units related by definition to the basic, is given on the next page but one. Note that the symbols representing units are in lower case letters except those named after famous persons when capital letters are used. The symbol is always in the singular and no full stops are used as in other abbreviated words. MULTIPLES AND SUB-MULTIPLES. In order to keep the number of names of units to a minimum, multiples and sub- multiples of the fundamental units, in chosen powers of ten, represented in each case by a prefix, is combined with the symbol of the unit. STANDARD MULTIPLICATION FACTOR FORM PREFIX SYMBOL, 1.000 000 000 000 1912 tera T 1.000 000 000 10° giga G 1.000.000 106 mega M 1000 10 kilo k 100 10? hecto h 10 10! deca da oO 10" deci d 0-01 102 centi c 0-001 103 milli m 0-000 001 1oe micro u 0-000 000 001 109 nano n 0-000 000 000 001 107 pico P No more than one prefix is used with each symbol. When a prefix is attached to a unit, it becomes a new unit symbol on its own account and this can be raised to positive or negative powers of ten.Multiples of 103 are recommended but others are recognised because of convenient sizes and established usage and custom. For instance, although the cross-section dimensions of ships’ frames and beams are measured in millimetres, their second moments of areas are more conveniently expressed in centimetre* units. High pressures are commonly expressed in bars, one bar being equal to 105 N/m2, and low pressures in millibars [102 N/m2]. Some industries have already adopted the hectobar [107 N/m2]as the unit of stress in metals. In such cases as these, where the basic unit consists of a numerator and denominator (load area), any modification to the basic unit of N/m? should be made to the numerator. Imetre = 10’ millimetres Im? = (10?mmy = 106mm? For example, In square measure A force of one newton on one square millimetre is the same intensity as 106 N on 10 mm2, which is 10°N/m? or | MN/m?, Hence MN/m? = N/mm?, and GN/m? = kN/mmz2, of these alternatives, the former is usually preferred. COMPARATIVE VALUES. During the period of change-over, and until engineers begin to think in terms of SI, it may sometimes be useful to compare the magnitudes of the units with the corres- ponding imperial units, therefore a selection of imperial units in terms of SI is given below. LENGTH FORCE lin 25-4mm I Ibf 4:448N ft 0-3048 m Itonf 9-964 kN lyd 0-9144 m I mile 1-609 km PRESSURE Inauticalmile — 1-852km Vbf/in? 6895kN/m? (international) (0-06895 bar) latm 1-013 bar VOLUME STRESS fe 3 1 Ibf/in? 6-895 KN/m? teal em tonfjin? 15:44 MN/m? (Ilitre = 1dm3) ENERGY 1 ft Ibf 13563 MASS Btu 1-055 kJ IIb 0-4536kg Iton 1016 tonne POWER (1016 kg) I hp 0-7457 kW BASIC OR AND. | OTHER RECOMMENDED Quanity DERIVED UNIT SYMBOL UNITS Length metre[m] millimetre [mm], kilometre [km] Area square metre[m?] square millimetre [mm?] Volume cubic metre[m>] litre [1] Time second[s} day, hourfh}, minute [min] Linear velocity metre persecond[m/s] _ | kilometre perhour Angular velocity Linear acceleration Angular acceleration Mass Force Moment of force Work, Energy Power Stress Pressure Momentum Angular momentum Second moment of area Moment of inertia Mass flow Volume flow Density radian per second [rad/s] metre per second? [m/s?] radian per second? [rad/s] kilogramme[kg] newton[N} newton-metre[N m] joule[J = Nm] watt [W = J/s=N m/s] newton per metre? [N/m?] newton per metre? [N/m2] kilogramme metre per _second [kg m/s] kilogramme metre? per second [kg m?/s] metre* [m¢] kilogramme metre? kgm?) kilogramime per second Ike/s] cubic metre per second [m?/s] kilogramme per cubic metre [kg/m] [km/h] International knot megagramme [Mg] ortonne[t] kilonewton [kN] kilonewton-metre [kN m] kilojoule[kJ] kilowatt-hour [kW h] kilowatt [kW] hectobar[hbar]= 10MN/m? bar = 105N/m? millibar [mbar] mm of mercury [mm Hg] mm of water [mm water] centimetre [em*] kilogramme per hour kg/h] 8) tonne per hour[t/h] cubic metres per hour m3/h) tre per hour[1/h] gramme per centimetre? [g/om! gramme per millilitre [g/ml gramme per litre [g/l]CHAPTER 1 VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS As stated in the introductory notes, the newton is the unit of force. This is explained in greater detail in Chapter 3 wherein it is stated that the newton is that force which, if applied to a body having unit mass (1 kg), it will give it unit acceleration (1 m/s*), The newton is represented by the symbol N, a prefix against the symbol represents the multiplication factor of the basic unit so that forces of large or small magnitudes can be more conveniently expressed. Thus, one kilonewton, written KN, is 1000 newtons (108 N); one meganewton, written MN, is 10° N, and so on. The weight of a body is the gravitational force on the mass of that body and therefore weight should be expressed in units of force, that is, in newtons or in multiples of the newton. Although the kilogramme is strictly the unit of mass, outside of design work such as in the home, in commerce, and in the loading of ships’ stores and cargo, normal weights may be expressed in kilo- grammes and heavy weights in tonnes (1 tonne = 1000 kilo- grammes). When loads are expressed in kilogrammes it is necessary to convert into newtons (1 kilogramme = 9-81 newtons) when deal- ing with calculations of forces in structures, loading of beams, etc., leading to the design of safe working dimensions. To describe a force completely, its magnitude and also its direction must be known. When two such facts are required to express a quantity it is called a vector quantity because it can be represented by a vector, A vector is a line drawn to scale, in the case of a force the length of the line represents the magnitude of the force and the direction in which the line is drawn with an arrow on it represents the direction of the line of action of the force.2 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Fig. 1 shows some vectors representing forces. 12.5 N FORCE OF 12.5 N ACTING DUE WEST FORCE OF 20 N FORCE OF ISN ACTING NE, ACTING DUE SOUTH Fig. | RESULTANT The resultant of a number of coplanar forces is that one force which would have the same effect if it replaced those forces. Fig, 2 shows three forces of 8, 10 and 5 N respectively alt pulling on a. body in the same direction; it is obvious that the resultant of these is a single force of 23 N in the same direction. This is a simple case of parallel forces involving only the addition of the forces. The “‘space diagram” is an illustration of the system of forces, The “vector diagram” is a diagram drawn to scale with the vectors joined end to end. Ny ION BN ION SN oN RESULTANT = 23N SPACE DIAGRAM VECTOR DIAGRAM Fig. 2 When the forces are not parallel the vector diagram is “bent” at the joints of the vectors so that each vector is drawn in the direction in which its respective force acts. Taking forces of the same magnitude as above but slightly different directions, Fig. 3 illustrates how the vector diagram is constructed. Note how the arrows of the vectors of the given forces form a continuous path in the vector diagram. The vector diagram is drawn to scale, the resultant is the “vector addition” of the given forces, it measures 21-9 N and its direction is 23 degrees to the VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 3 8 N force. This single force can replace the three given forces to have exactly the same effect. BN s ON Qa SPACE DIAGRAM DIAGRAM Fig. 3 EQUILIBRANT The equilibrant is a single force which, if added to a system of forces acting on a body, would place the body in equilibrium. In other words, the equilibrant will neutralise the other forces. Taking the last example again, if a force of the same magnitude but opposite in direction as the resultant of the three given forces was added, it would neutralise the effect of those three forces and the body would be in equilibrium. Fig. 4 shows the equilibrant. Note the vector diagram. The equilibrant “closes the vector dia- gram” and the direction of its arrow forms a continuous path with the others, often referred to as being “nose to tail”. This gives us an introduction to the theorems of the triangle and polygon of forces to follow. SPACE DIAGRAM DIAGRAM Fig. 4 TRIANGLE OF FORCES Jf three forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, the vector diagram drawn to scale representing the forces in magnitude and direction, taken in order, forms a closed triangle,4 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS POLYGON OF FORCES If any number of forces acting at a point are in equilibrium, the vector diagram drawn to scale representing the forces in magnitude and direction, taken in order, forms a closed polygon. The above theorems are therefore the same except that the triangle of forces refers only to three forces and the polygon of forces refers to any number greater than three. It is now obvious that the magnitude and direction of any one of a system of forces in equilibrium could be unknowns to be solved, The given forces are taken in order and their vectors are drawn to scale, the vector required to close the diagram represents the magnitude and direction of the unknown force, Alternatively, instead of the unknown quantities being the magnitude and direc- tion of one force, they could be the magnitudes of two forces if their directions were known, or the directions of two forces if their magnitudes were known. CONCURRENT AND PARALLEL FORCES The lines of action of three coplanar forces in equilibrium, or any number of forces in equilibrium which can be reduced to three, must either pass through a common point or be parallel to each other. Fig. 5 Fig. 5 shows three forces pulling on a plate. If this system of forces is balanced, i.e. the plate is in equilibrium, the lines of action of the three forces must pass through a common point because they are not parallel, VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 5 4n on ION Fig. 6 Fig. 6 shows parallel forces pulling on a plate, these forces can be in equilibrium without being concurrent because they are parallel, BOW’S NOTATION This is a method of lettering the spaces of the space diagram with capital letters, A, B, C, etc., so that each force can be referred to by the letters of the two spaces the force Separates, such as force AB, force BC, and so on. The vector of each force in the vector diagram is labelled with its Corresponding small letters on the two ends of the vector, ab, be, etc., in the direction of the arrow. Fig. 7 illustrates this method of notation, The spaces between the forces on the space diagram is lettered in a continuous (clock- wise or anticlockwise) direction, preferably commencing with a vertical or horizontal force for convenience of beginning the con- Struction of the vector diagram, The vector diagram is constructed by first drawing vector ab to represent the force AB, then vector be to represent force BC, and so on. Although the lettering of the Space diagram for one system of forces can be clockwise or anti- clockwise so long as it is continuous, it is advisable for the student to adopt one method, say clockwise, and adhere to this for all problems. This is essential when combining vector diagrams of More than one system of forces which we do in framed structures,6 REED'S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS ¢ A by AB VECTOR ¢ DIAGRAM dt D SPACE a DIAGRAM Fig. 7 COMPONENTS OF A FORCE A force can be resolved into two components, these being two forces that could replace the given force on a body and have the same effect. It will be realised that to find the two components of a given force is the reverse process of finding the resultant of two given forces. Although components in any two directions can be found, the most useful are usually the rectangular components, that is, those which are at right angles to each other. 5 8 z Q ° = = 3 zy S 8 x 7 g S z QZ [al 4 J ron HORIZONTAL COMPONENT Fig. 8 Fig. 8 illustrates a force of 100 N inclined at 60 degrees to the horizontal pulling on a body. The rectangular components of this force are the horizontal and vertical pulling effects, for instance, the applied force of 100 N tends to (i) pull the body horizontally to the right, (ii) lift the body upwards. From the vector diagram the horizontal pull is 100 x cos 60° = 50 N, and the vertical lift is 100 x sin 60° = 86-6 N, therefore these horizontal and vertical components can take the place of the single inclined force of 100 N. VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 7 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS With the fundamental knowledge so far given, vector diagrams of forces for the solutions of various practical problems can now be demonstrated. In solving problems, either of two methods can be used: (i) By Graphical Solution, in which the vector diagram is drawn to scale and the unknown quantity measured off the diagram, the magnitude by a scale rule and the direction by a protractor. The accuracy of the drawing and the observation of measurement determines the accuracy of the answer, the drawings should there- fore always be made to the largest scale possible depending upon the size of the paper at hand. Gi) By Calculation, in which the vector diagram may be sketched only and need not be to scale, and the required quantities calculated by trigonometry. Solving by, calculation using four- figure mathematical tables produces more accurate results than by graphical means, and it is usual to solve by calculation unless stated definitely that a graphical solution is required or would be accepted. However, as a sketch is necessary when calculating results, it doesn’t take much longer to make a scale drawing instead of a rough sketch, and the student is advised at this stage to solve every problem by both methods, the graphical solution then serves as a check on his calculations and at the same time acquires skill by practice. Example. Two ropes are slung froma beam and their lower ends are connected by a shackle from which a load of 400 N hangs. If the ropes make angles of 50 and 60 degrees respectively to the vertical, find the pull in each rope. Firstly, the space diagram is drawn (Fig. 9) to illustrate the connections of the ropes and load. The shackle is the “node” where the three forces meet and arrows are inserted to indicate the directions in which the forces pull on this node. Using Bow’s notation the vector diagram is then constructed thus: Draw to scale the vector ab vertically downwards to repre- sent the force AB which is 400 N. From 6 draw a line parallel to BC (at 50° to the vertical), as the magnitude of this force is not yet known we do not know the length of be so it is drawn a little longer than we think it should be. Now ca is the vector represent- ing force CA but as point c has not yet been determined we cannot start here to draw the vector, however we know that ca finishes at point a because it is to form a closed figure, therefore draw back from point a in the direction of 60° to the vertical until it cuts the previous vector. This gives us point c.8 ‘REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS ‘The forces in the ropes may now be found by measuring to scale the lengths of the vectors be and ca, & VECTOR DIAGRAM LOAD 400 N SPACE DIAGRAM Fig.9 To calculate the forces: Angle ach (opposite 400 N vector) = 180 — (60 + 50) = 70° By sine rule, a =—_ sin 50 sin 70 400 x 0-766 a0 = "9.9397 = 326N be 400 sin 60 sin 70 pg = 400 X 0866 ¢ = 99397 = 368-6 N «Force in rope AC = 326N 1 A so» ~~» BC=3686N f AMS , Example. Two rope slings, each 2 m long, are used to lift a small engine bedplate of mass 3-058 Mg. The attachments to the bedplate are 2-5 m apart horizontally and the top ends of the ropes ‘VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 9 are connected to a common ring on the crane hook. Find the tension in each rope sling. CRANE ROPE VECTOR J DIAGRAM — — AE SPACE DIAGRAM FORCE IN CRANE ROPE 3OkN Fig. 10 When the space diagram is sketched (Fig. 10) we see that the ring on the crane hook is a node where three forces meet. The erane rope pulls upwards on this ring, the force being equal to the total weight of the bedplate, and the top ends of each rope sling pull downwards on this ring. Note that the bottom ends of the slings pull upwards on the connections at the bedplate, but we chose to draw the vector diagram of the forces meeting at the crane hook because we know the magnitude and direction of one of these forces (the upward pull of the crane rope) and the directions of the two forces whose magnitudes are required to be found. Mass of bedplate = 3-058 x 10° kg Force applied by crane rope to overcome gravitational force on bedplate, i.e, the weight of the bedplate = 3-058 x 10° x 9-81 newtons = 30 x 10°N = 30kN By dropping a perpendicular from the crane hook to the bed- plate, the isosceles triangle is split into two equal right angled triangles: cos 8 = 135 = 0-625 2 oO = 51° 19°10 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Referring to the vector diagram, Angles bac and abc = 90° — 51° 19’ = 38° 41’ The vector diagram is also an isosceles triangle and can be divided into two (equal) right angled triangles by drawing a horizontal line as shown. The adjacent to the angle of 38° 41’ is half of 30:kN = 15 KN, and the hypotenuse ac (or bc) is the tension in the rope. b = cos 38° 41’ ac _ 15 2° * 07806 = 1922kN .".tension in each rope sling = 19-22kKN Ans. Example. Four forces pull on a point, the magnitudes and directions of three of them are, 12 N due North, 15 N at 30 degrees East of North, 20 N at 40 degrees East of South. Find the magnitude and direction of the fourth force so that the system will be in equilibrium, (@) by graphical means, (6) by calculation. VECTOR DIAGRAM SPACE DIAGRAM Fig. 11 () To construct the vector diagram (Fig. 11) choose a suitable scale and draw vertically upwards vector ab to represent the force 12 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS ‘We now have to find the equilibrant of these two resultants. Fig. 13 Equilibrant = +/9-67? + 20-356? = 22:54N 20-356 tana = “oe = 2105 1a == 64° 36" «Force = 22-54 newtons at S 64° 36’ W. Ans. JIB CRANES A simple jib-crane consists of a post, a jib and a tie. The post is ‘usually vertical, the jib is hinged at its lower end to the bottom of the post, and the tie connects the top of the jib with the top of the post. The junction of the tie and jib is the crane head. In problems on jib cranes it is sometimes taken that the load is suspended directly from a fixture at the crane head and the problem then involves a simple triangle of forces. In other cases they are described as having a pulley at the crane head, the lifting rope passing over this pulley and down to a winch behind the crane. such cases involve more than three forces at the crane head. On board ship a similar structure to a jib crane is formed by a mast or samson post, derrick and topping lift. Example. The angle between the jib and the vertical post of a jib crane is 42 degrees, and between the tie and jib the angle is 36 degrees. Find the forces in the jib and tie when a mass of 3-822 X 10° kg is suspended from the crane head.VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS i of 12 N due North, from 6 draw bc to represent 15 N at 30° to the vertical, from c draw cd representing 20 N at 40° to the vertical, As the system is balanced the vector diagram must.form a closed figure, therefore the fourth force must be represented by the vector from d to a which closes the diagram. da measures 22} N and the angle at a measures 644 degrees. Referring to the compass, the direction of this force can be expressed as 64-5° West of South. ..Equilibrant = 224 newtons S64-S°W. ii) To calculate da from the vector diagram it may be done by dividing the figure into two triangles by drawing a line say from bto d, calculating first bd from the triangle bcd then calculating da from the triangle bda. However, an easier method of calculation is to resolve all forces into their North-South and East-West com- ponents and reducing the problem to a triangle of forces, wherein we find the equilibrant of those two resultants, as follows: OUTH ENT Se 22 a =e RE 2. zy Y LN3NOdHOD HENOS HLYON NOR i) EAST WEST EAST WEST COMPONENT COMPONENT Fig. 12 N.S. component of 15 = 15 cos 30° = 12-99 North E.W. 15 i 7-5 East NS. » 20 5-32 South EW. » 20 = 20 sin 40° = 12-856 East NS. . 12 2 North EW, > 12 =Nil Resultant of North-South components = 12:99 North + 12 North — 15-32 South = 9-67 newtons due North Resultant of East-West components = 1/5 East + 12-856 East = 20.356 newtons due East VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 13 Lite is VECTOR DIAGRAM Post SPACE DIAGRAM Fig. 14 Vertical downward force on crane head == 3-822 x 10° x 9-81N = 37-5 x 10°N = 37-5kN At the crane head (see space diagram of Fig. 14), three forces meet which are in equilibrium. It is obvious that the jib must push upwards on the crane head to support the hanging load and the tie must pull to the left to support the top of the jib. The arrows are inserted accordingly and the vector diagram is then constructed to represent these three forces at the crane head, It will be seen that in this case the vector diagram of the forces is a similar triangle to the framework of the crane. Referring to the vector diagram: Angle bac = 180 — (42 + 36) = 102° By sine rule, Force in jib 37-5 sin 102° ~~ sin 36° wee 37:5 x 09781 Force in jib = — 7588 = 62:38 KN Ans. (i) Force in tie 37:5 sin42° ~~ sin 36°14 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS 37-5 x 0-6691 0-5878 = 42-69 KN Ans. (ii) Example. The lengths of the vertical post and jib of a jib crane are 6-5 and 7 m respectively, and the angle between the post and jib is 40 degrees. A mass of 2:854 Mg is suspended from a wire rope which passes over a pulley at the crane head and then led down at an angle of 50 degrees to the vertical to a winch behind the post. ‘Draw to scale the vector diagram of the forces at the crane head. and measure the forces in the jib and tie. Force in tie = 28kN REARRANGED. SPACE DIAGRAM SPACE, DIAGRAI a 28kN VECTOR DIAGRAM Fig. 15 VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS, 15 Mass = 2:854 Mg = 2-854 x 10° kg Load in newtons = 2:854 x 10° x 984 = 28 x 10°N = 28kN The space diagram can be drawn to scale from the data given on the lengths of the post and jib and angle between them. The vector diagram can then be constructed by drawing the force vectors parallel to the wire ropes, jib and tie. Alternatively, the remaining angles of the space diagram could be measured and the vector diagram drawn by scale rule and protractor. Note that the force in the wire rope must be the same throughout its length, that is, in the hanging part and also in the portion leading down from crane head to winch. The student will find it much easier to construct the vector diagram when the two known forces are next to each other and not separated by an unknown. For instance, if we take the original space diagram as it is, we have the downward pull of 28 kN on the crane head by the hanging part of the wire rope, next to this there is the upward inclined thrust of the jib, the magnitude of which is unknown, next in turn is the pull of 28 KN in the wire which leads down to the winch, then we have the pull in the tie which is unknown. Therefore rearrange the space diagram by extending the line of action of the force of the jib and consider it as a pulling force on the opposite side of the crane head instead ofa pushing force under the head, the effect is the same and now we have the two known forces of the wire ropes together. The rearranged equivalent space diagram is drawn and lettered and the vector diagram constructed from this, as shown in Fig. 15. Measuring the unknown vectors: Force in jib = 55-4kN ‘Ans. Forceintie=146 ,, f° * RECIPROCATING ENGINE MECHANISM The connecting rod and crank ofa reciprocating engine converts the reciprocating motion of the piston to a rotary motion at the crank shaft. Referring to Fig. 16 and considering the forces meeting at the crosshead, the lower end of the piston rod pushes vertically downwards on the crosshead, the thrust in the connecting rod appears as an upward resisting force at its top end inclined to the vertical, and the guide exerts a horizontal force to balance the horizontal component of the thrust in the connecting rod.16 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS, As the piston effort always acts vertically, and the guide force always horizontally, the vector diagram of the forces at the cross- head is always a right-angled triangle. Note that the angle between the centre-line of the engine and the connecting rod indicated by ¢ in the space diagram, is the same as the angle between the piston force and the force in the connecting rod in the vector diagram. PISTON EFFORT GUIDE FORCE b NECTOR DIAGRAM OF FORCES, AT CROSSHEAD Ss__-% SPACE DIAGRAM Fig. 16 Example. The piston of a reciprocating engine exerts a force of 160 KN on the crosshead when the crank is 35 degrees past top dead centre, If the stroke of the piston is 900 mm and the length of the connecting rod is 1-65 m, find the guide force and the force in the connecting rod. VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 17 Referring to the space diagram of Fig. 16, crank length = $ stroke = 045m length of connecting rod = 1-65m crank angle from T.D.C. = 0 = 35° By sine rule, 0-45 1-65 ‘sing sin35° sing = 0-45 x 0-5736 165 = 0:1564 Angle ¢ = 9° Referring now to the vector diagram, Angle $ = 9° Guide force _ Piston force ~ @# Guide force = 160 x tan 9° = 25:34 kN Ans. (i) Piston force Force in con.rod — °° $ 1 Force in con. rod = 160 cos 9 = 162 kN Ans. (ii) EFFECT OF CURRENT ON SHIP’S COURSE When a ship runs from still water into a current, the ship’s speed and course are changed, the resultant speed and direction is the resultant of the propeller and rudder effect“in' still water and the velocity of the current. The term velocity represents both speed and direction. As velocity represents two measurable things it is therefore a vector quantity and can be represented by a vector. The length of the vector is the speed to scale, the direction in which it is drawn and the arrow on it indicates the direction of movement. Vector diagrams of velocities are drawn in the same manner as vector diagrams of forces. Example. A ship travelling due North at 16 knots runs into a 4 knot current moving South East. Find the resultant speed and direction of the ship.18 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS > IGKNOTS. ORIGINAL SPEED OF SHIP. VECTOR DIAGRAM Fig. 17 Referring to the vector diagram (Fig. 17), given two sides ofa triangle and the angle between them, to find the other side we use the cosine rule. This is usually written: @ = b+ ch — 2becosA but we adapt this to suit the lettering of this particular vector diagram, thus: {ac}? = (aby? + (bc)? — 2 x ab x be X cos b 162+ 4 — 2 x 16 x 4 x cos 45° 256 + 16 — 90°51 ac = +/181-49 == 13-47 By sine rule, 4 13-47 sina sin 45° _ 4x 0-7071 sin = W347 = 0-2100 =12°7 «Resultant speed = 13-47 knots v Ans »» direction = 12° 7’ East of North f " VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 19 FRAMED STRUCTURES A framed structure is a framework of straight bars joined at their ends and, although they may be riveted or welded together, it is usually assumed in design that the end connections are pin- jointed or hinged so that the bars will be in either direct tension or direct compression. EXTERNAL. INTERNAL INTERNAL EXTERNAL Fonce GRC FORCE Pe < FORCE STRUT IN COMPRESSION EXTERNAL SERNA LER EXTERNAL FORCE FORCE FORCE FORCE TIE IN TENSION Fig. 18 When the external force applied to the ends of a bar tends to shorten it, the bar is in compression. A bar in compression is referred to as a strut and the internal resisting force set up pushes towards its two ends. When the external force on a bar tends to stretch it, the bar is said to be in tension. A bar in tension is referred to as a tie and the internal resisting force pulls on its two ends. If we refer back to the framework of the jib crane and insert arrows indicating the directions of the forces in the jib and tie, not only at the crane head, but at both ends of these two members, the arrows on the jib will push at its two ends indicating that it is in compression, and the arrows on the tie will pull at its ends indicat- ing that it is in tension. In framed structures we consider not just one particular node where forces meet, as we did in the jib crane (at the crane head) and in the reciprocating engine mechanism (at the crosshead), but at every node where members of the structure meet. Consider the simple common symmetrical roof structure shown in Fig. 19. This consists of a horizontal bar and two sloping bars imagined to be pin-jointed at their ends. A load of W is carried at the apex. The framework rests on the two end supports and the upward reaction of each support will be equal to half the load W.20 RREED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS ing Bow's notation the spaces between the external forces are lettend fist suck as A between the left hand support and the Joad W,, the letter B between W and the right-hand support, and C between the two supports. To enable each member to be repre- sented we insert another letter, D, in the centre. Now the arrows indicating the directions of the forces on each node are inserted. These are reasoned out and ase fairly straight- forward. At the left end node CAD, the support pushes upwards, therefore for equilibrium there must be adownward force, member Th d. Los 2 a | VECTOR DIAGRAM VECTOR DIAGRAM OF NODE 6CD OF NODE CAD Qa VECTOR DIAGRAM OF NODE A8D Fig. 20 VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 21 DC is horizontal and cannot have a vertical component, member AD must therefore push down on this node. By reason of its slope, AD not only pushes down but also to the left, therefore DC must pull to the right to balance this horizontal thrust. Hence the arrows at that node appear as shown. The arrows indicating the directions of the forces at the other nodes are reasoned in a similar manner, also bearing in mind that the two arrows on any one member must be in opposite directions, A vector diagram for each separate node may be drawn as previously explained, these are illustrated in Fig. 20. These separate diagrams could now be combined together as shown in Fig, 21 by superimposing the first two on to the third, but note particularly that the arrows in the combined vector diagram have now to be omitted because any one member of the structure applies forces in opposite directions at its two ends. jg Oe njze >? <_< o <— J] After a little practice the combined vector diagram for the whole structure can be drawn without the aid of first drawing the vector diagram for each node and of course it is much quicker. To do this we could first draw the vector diagram of the external forces thus, beginning with the load AB draw a vertical line downwards to represent W to scale, mark this ab, from b measure 4W to scale vertically upwards to ¢ to represent the right-hand reaction BC, from ¢ vertically up to a we have }W which represents the left- hand reaction CA. This so far is only a straight line (this is a very simple example). Now the vector diagram for each node is quite easily added one at a time, as at least one of the vectors is now already in position from which to make a start.22 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Example. Fig. 22 is a sketch of a roof structure, the lower inclined members are at 15 degrees to the horizontal and the upper inclined members are at 45 degrees. It is simply supported at each end and the structure carries a load of 50 KN on the apex. Con- struct the vector diagram for the whole structure, measure off the force in each member and state whether they are in compression or tension. 5OkN Fig, 22 The structure is symmetrical therefore each reaction carries half the load, that is 25 KN at each end. The space diagram is drawn, external forces inserted, lettered by Bow’s notation, directions of forces at each node réasoned out and arrows inserted, as in Fig. 23, The vector diagram is now contructed to scale, ab representing the 50 KN load, bc and ca respectively 25 kN each for the reactions. The vector diagram of node CAD is added by drawing ad at 45° from point a, and cd at 15° to the horizontal from point c. The vector diagram of node BCE can be added next by drawing be at 45° from point b, and ce at 15° from point c. The vector diagram of node DEC is completed by drawing the vertical vector de, the other vectors ec and cd being already in place. The vector diagram of the remaining node ABED will be found to be already com- plete in position. VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 23 5OkN Cc SPACE DIAGRAM 25kN 2588 . Measuring the forces to scale on the vector diagram, and refer- zing to the arrows on the space diagram to determine whether the members are in compression or tension, the results are tabulated us:24 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS MEMBER FORCE NATURE OF FORCE AD 48-3 kN Compression BE 48:3 ,, Compression DC 35-4 ,, Tension EC 35-4 ,, Tension DE 18:3 ,, Tension NNON-COPLANAR FORCES A system of forces which are not in the same plane can be reduced to a coplanar system by substituting an imaginary mem- ber for each pair of straddled members of the structure. This is demonstrated in the following. Example. A set of sheer legs is illustrated in Fig. 24, the front legs are each 6 m long and they are straddled 5 m apart at their bases; the back stay is 1{ m fong and its base fixture is 7 m horizontally from the centre of the feet of the front legs, Find the force in each member when a mass of 15-29 tonnes hangs from the crane head, (i) by measurement of the vector diagram, (ii) by calculation. Load = 15:29 x 10°kg 5:29 x 108 x 981N = 150kN The two front legs can be replaced temporarily by one imaginary leg in the centre of the two and in the same plane as the back stay and the hanging load, as in Fig. 25. Length of imaginary leg = «/6? — 25° = 5-455 m VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 25 LOAD. ISOKN eo Ye, vector DIAGRAM __ The space diagram is now drawn to scale with the imaginary leg in position. Being now a simple system of coplanar forces the vector diagram of the forces at the crane head can be drawn to scale by constructing the vectors parallel to the forces indicated by the arrows on the space diagram. Measuring the vector diagram, the force in the back stay scales 157 KN, and the force in the imaginary leg scales 258 kN. Now the force in the imaginary leg is really the resultant of the forces in the two actual front legs, drawing this resultant force vector diagram as in Fig. 26, the force in each front leg scales 142 KN. Therefore by measurement, Force in back stay = 157kN \ Force in each front leg = 142kN f A®S @26 ‘REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS IMAGINARY, LEC. FORCE IN IMAGINARY LEG Fig. 26 By calculation. Referring to the space diagram of Fig. 25, and using the cosine rule: cn Ut 5452-7 COSC IRU K SES 101-76 = = 08480 oC = 32? By sine rule, 5455 __1 sin@ sin 32° . 5-455 x 05299 sin @ = — = 0-4130 0 = 24° 24" a = 180° — (32° + 24° 24") = 123° 36" Referring to the vector diagram of Fig. 25, angle c = 32° » @= 123° 36 — 90° = 33° 36’ vy b= 24° 24". 90° = 114°. 24" VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 27 By sine rule, Foree in back stay _ Load sina sine : 150 x sin 33° 36’ Force in back stay = ae = 1566kN Force inimaginaryleg _ Load sin b sine Force in imaginary leg = 150 x sin 114° 24" sin 32° = 257-8 kN Referring to Fig. 26, + 257:8 6 Force in each real front leg = TX Tass = 1418 kN Therefore, by calculation, Force in back stay = 156-6 kN ae Force in each front leg = 141-8 kN f° Ans. (ii)28 ‘REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS TEST EXAMPLES I ‘1. A vertical lifting effort of 90 N is applied to a body and at the same time a force of 120 N pulls on it in a horizontal direction. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of these two forces. 2. Two forces act on a body, one pulls horizontally to the right and jts magnitude is 20 N, the other pulls vertically downwards and its magnitude is 17 N. Find the magnitude and direction of a third force which would neutralise the effect of the other two. 3. Find the magnitude and direction of the equilibrant of two forces, one being a horizontal pull of 10 N and the other a pull of 20 N at 50 degrees to the 10 N force. 4. Three forces pulling on a body are in equilibrium. The direction of one is due South, the direction of another is 75° East of North, and the third force acts in the direction 40° West of North. If the magnitude of the Southerly force is 35 N, find the magnitudes of the other two. 5. A block of wood is pulled along a horizontal table by a force of 25 N inclined at 20° above the horizontal. Find the vertical and horizontal components of the force. 6. Two slings of equal length are slung from a horizontal beam and connected to a ring at their lower ends, the slings and beam forming an equilateral triangle. Find the force in each sling when a load of 30 KN hangs from the ring. 7. Two lifting ropes are connected at their lower ends to'a common shackle from which a load of 25 kN hangs. If the ropes make angles of 32 and 42 degrees respectively to the vertical, find the tension in each rope. 8. A shaft of mass 5-097 Mg is lifted by two chains from a crane hook, The length of each chain is 4 m and their connections to the shaft are 4 m apart, If the centre of gravity of the shaft is 1-25 m from one of the connections, find the tension in each chain, 9. A wire rope 25-5 m long is slung between two vertical bulk- heads which are 21 m apart, the end fixtures being at the same height. A freely running snatch block on the wire carries a hanging load of 30 KN. If the snatch block is pulled by a horizontal force until itis 8 m horizontally from one bulkhead, calculate the tension in the wire rope and the horizontal force applied, VECTORS AND VECTOR DIAGRAMS 29 10, The angie between the jib and vertical post of a jib crane is 40 degrees, and between the jib and tie the angle is 45 degrees. Find the force in the jib and tie when a load of 15 kN hangs from the crane head. 11. The lengths of the vertical post, jib and tie of a jib crane are 8, 13 and 9 m respectively. Find the forces in the jib and tie when a load of 20 kN hangs from the crane head, 12. A jib 6-6 m long is hinged at its foot to the base of a vertical post and connected at its top end by a 3-6 m long tie to a shackle on the post at 4-2 m up from the base. The lifting rope passes over a pulley at the jib head and is led back in the plane of the frame- work, at an angle of 45 degrees, to a winch, Draw to scale the vector diagram of the forces at the crane head when a load of 45 KN is being lifted at a uniform speed, and measure the forces in the jib and tie. 13. When the crank of a reciprocating engine is 60 degrees past top dead centre, the effective piston effort on the crosshead is 180 KN. If the stroke of the piston is 600 mm and the connecting rod length is 1:25 m, find the load on the guide and the thrust in the connecting rod. 14. The length of the stroke of a reciprocating engine is 350 mm. and the length of the connecting rod is 700 mm. Find the thrust in the connecting rod and the load on the guide when the crank is 110 degrees past T.D.C. if the piston effort at this instant is 60 KN. Find also the distance the piston has moved down its stroke when the crank is in this position, 15. A ship sailing due East at 18 knots runs into a 3 knot cur- rent moving 40° East of North. Find the resultant speed and direction of the ship. 16. The roof frame shown in Fig, 27 carries a load of 50 KN at the apex. Draw the vector diagram, calculate the forces in each member and state the nature of these forces, and also the magni- tudes of the two reactions.30 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS SOkN oii Fig. 27 17. In the framework shown in Fig. 28 aff inclined members are at 45 degrees. Draw to scale the vector diagram of the forces in the members of this structure when carrying a load of 100 kN at the centre, measure their magnitudes and tabulate results, stating also the nature of the forces. tOOkN A 8 Cc Fig, 28 f18. Draw the vector diagram for the structure given in Fig. 29 when carrying a load of 30 KN at the end, and calculate the wall reactions at the top and bottom connections. 4m BOkN 2m Fig. 29 CHAPTER 2 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION LINEAR MOTION SPEED is the rate at which a body moves through space and is therefore expressed as the distance travelled in a given time. The units in which speed are usually expressed are: kilometres per hour [km/h], knots (one international knot = 1-852 km/h), metres per second [m/s], and so on, Speed is therefore obtained by dividing distance by time. However, the speed may vary during a journey, for example, if a car travels 180 kilometres in 3 hours it is very improbable that it has been moving at an exact constant speed of 60 km/h during the 3 hours, it is more likely that the speed has been well below and above that figure at times, but the average speed is 60 km/h. VELOCITY indicates speed in a specified direction. Velocity therefore represents two facts about a moving body—its speed and also its direction, consequently it is a vector quantity and hence can be illustrated by drawing a vector to scale the length of which represents the speed of the body, and the direction in which it is drawn with an arrow represents its direction. See Fig. 30. N 2mjs DUE EAST32 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Change of velocity will therefore take place if the speed changes, or if the direction changes, or if both speed and direction change. In the first place, only those cases with no change of direction will be considered wherein velocity and speed can therefore be treated as being the same. Change of velocity due to change of direction will be dealt with later. LINEAR VELOCITY is expressed in the same units as those for speed, it is usually represented by the symbols u for initial velocity and y for final velocity. If a body travels at an average velocity of 40 metres per second for a time of 5 seconds, the total distance travelled will be 200 metres. Hence we have the simple but important rule: Distance travelled = average velocity x time ACCELERATION is rate of change of velocity, that is, change of velocity expressed as having taken place in a given time, If the velocity is increasing we speak of it as accelerating, if the velocity is decreasing we say it is retarding or that it has negative accelera~ tion. If a cyclist increases his speed uniformly from 2 metres per second to 12 metres per second in 5 seconds, his total increase in velocity is 12 —2= 10 metres per second. Having taken 5 seconds to increase his velocity by 10 m/s, then his increase in velocity in each one of these 5 seconds must have been 10 + 5 = 2 m/s, This acceleration is written 2 metres per second per second, the usual abbreviation being 2 m/s*. Hence we have: Increase in velocity Time to change Linear acceleration is usually represented either by a or f As a further example, if a train, starting from rest, increases its speed uniformly for 2 minutes and attains a speed of 108 kilo- metres per hour in that time, its acceleration could be stated as: 108 km/h in 2 minutes or 54 km/h per minute. ‘The conversion of the units of acceleration for this example from. increase of velocity of 108 kilometres per hour in 2 minutes, into metres per second per second, is shown below step by step, but it should be quite a simple matter to set it down in one line after a little practice. Acceleration = 108 km/h in 2 minutes = 108 x 10° m/h in 2 minutes Acceleration = VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 33 108 KIO in 2 ni =——a— M/s in 2 minutes 108 x 1O so 1 minut = 3600 x2 in 1 minute 108 x 10° ~~ 3600 x2 x 60 = 0:25 m/s® In effect, the above is simply: Increase in velocity [m/s] Time [s] At sea, distance is measured in nautical miles, one international nautical mile being 1-852 km, and speed is measured in knots, which are nautical miles per hour, thus one international knot = 1-852 km/h. Example. A ship’s engines are stopped when she is travelling at a speed of 18 knots and the ship comes to rest after 20 minutes, Assuming uniform retardation, find the retardation in metres per second per second and the distance travelled in nautical miles in that time, Retardation = 18 knots in 20 minutes 18 x 1-852 x 10% . . =— 360 in/s in 20 minutes 18 x 1-852 x 10% . = 3600 x 20 x 0 m/s in one second = 0007717 m/s? or 7-717 X 10- m/s? Ans, (i) Note again that the above is Change of velocity in m/s Time in seconds Distance = Average velocity x time 184-0 _ 20 = Xa = 3 nautical miles Ans. (ii) It is important to take particular care with the units. Since the speed is reduced uniformly from 18 knots to nil, the average speed is $ (18 + 0) = 9 knots, this is 9 nautical miles per hour. There- fore the average speed in nautical miles per hour must be multiplied by the time in hours, to obtain distance in nautical miles, m/s in 1 second Acceleration [m/s?] ==34 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Example. A motor car starting from rest attains a speed of 54 km/h over a distance of 90 m. Assuming that the rate of increase in speed is uniform, find the acceleration in metres per second per second. 54 x 10° 3000 = 15 m/s Average velocity = 4 (0 + 15) = 7-5 m/s Distance [m] = average velocity [m/s] x time [s] 90 = 7-5 X time Max. velocity = . 90 time = 73 = 12s Acceleration = 15 m/sin 12s == ms? =p m/s’ = 1-25 m/s* Ans. GRAVITATIONAL ACCELERATION The earth attracts all bodies towards itself so that if a body is allowed to fall freely, neglecting air resistances it will fall towards the earth with uniform acceleration. This particular acceleration, referred to as gravitational acceleration, varies slightly over different parts of the earth’s surface, in this country it is taken as 9-81 m/s? and this is represented by ‘g’. Thus, if a body falls from test, its velocity increases by 9-81 m/s every second it is falling: At end of Ist second, its velocity will be 9-81 m/s » » 2nd » » 1962, » 9» ards, » oe 29-43, and so on. It also follows that if a projectile is shot vertically upwards it will lose 9-81 m/s of velocity every second it is rising. Example. A body is allowed to fall from rest. Find the velocity after falling for 4 seconds and the distance fallen in that time. Increase in velocity = 9-81 m/s in each second == 9-81 X 4 m/s in 4 seconds = 39-24 m/s Since it had no velocity to start with, Final velocity = 0 + 39-24 = 39-24 m/s Ans, (i) VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 35 Distance = average velocity x time 0 + 39:24 = 2 == 78-48 m Ans. (ii) Example. A projectile is fired vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 300 m/s, Find (i) its velocity after 20 seconds, (ii) the height above the ground after 20 seconds, (iii) the time taken to reach its maximum height, (iv) the maximum height attained, (v) the total time from leaving the ground to returning to ground. Retardation = 9-81 m/s* Loss of velocity in 20 seconds = 9-81 x 20 == 196-2 m/s Velocity after 20 seconds = Initial velocity — loss of velocity = 300 — 196-2 = 103-8 m/s Ans. (i) Distance = average velecity x time x4 103+ .. Height after 20 secs = Soe ss x 20 = 4038 m Ans. (ii) Maximum height is attained when the projectile loses all its upward velocity and ceases to rise. Every second of rising it loses 9-81 m/s of velocity, therefore the time to lose 300 m/s of velocity is the number of times 9-81 goes into 300, 300 9-18 = 30-58 seconds Ans. (iii) At the instant of reaching maximum height the velocity is nil, therefore the average velocity during its upward flight is 3300 ++ 0) = 150 m/s. Maximum height (distance) = average velocity x time 50 x 30-58 = 4587 m Ans. (iv) The time for the projectile to fall to the ground from maximum height is equal to the time it took to rise. ~.Total time up and down = 2 x 30-58 = 61-16 seconds Ans. (v) Time to reach max. height =36 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS CONSTANT VELOCITY OF 20 km/h 20} £ z/° > =DISTANCE TRAVELLED | reaked =20x4 \) 8 Fig. 31 g s sR a 8 VELOCITY IN m/s 6 Fig. 33 SPEED IN KNOTS o. TIME IN HOURS VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 37 VELOCITY-TIME GRAPHS A graph of velocity or speed on a base of time can be a very useful method of solving some problems as well as providing a picture of the facts. The area of a velocity-time graph represents distance travelled and the slope of the curve represents acceleration. Fig. 31 represents a body travelling at a constant velocity of 20 km/h for 4 hours. The area enclosed by the graph is a rectangle of height 20 km/h and length 4 hours, the area of a rectangle is the product of height and length, this is the product of velocity and time which gives distance travelled. Therefore the area of the graph represents distance travelled, Area enclosed by graph = height x length Distance travelled = velocity x time 20 x4 = 80 km Fig. 32 represents a body starting from rest and reaching a velocity of 30 metres per second in 6 seconds, the rate of increase of velocity (i.e. its acceleration) being uniform. Area of graph = area of triangle = $x 30x6 = 90 units of distance also, Distance = average speed x time 40 + 30) x 6 = 90m Again we see that the area of a velocity-time graph represents distance travelled. Further, in each second the increase of velocity is 5 metres per second, this is the acceleration of 5 m/s* and is illustrated by the slope ot gradient of the graph. A greater accelera- tion would be a steeper slope, a retardation would be a slope in the opposite direction. Fig. 33 represents the slowing down of a ship from 16 knots to 10 knots in 12 minutes. Distance travelled during this time W+10 12 =z XO = 2-6 nautical miles38 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS The ship loses 6 knots of speed in 12 minutes, this is equivalent to 30 knots in 60 minutes, so we could express the retardation in the same units in which the graph is plotted, as: Retardation = 30 knots per hour or it could be expressed in units of m/s? thus: Taking 1 knot = 1-852 km/h Change of velocity [m/s] Time [seconds] _ 6 x 1852 x 108 ~~ 3600 x 12 x 60 = 0:004286 m/s* or 4-286 x 1073 m/s? Example. A locomotive starts from rest and reaches a speed of 90 km/h in 25 seconds, it runs at this speed for 1} minutes and then reduces speed to come to rest in 20 seconds. Assume accelera~ tion and retardation to be uniform, draw a speed-time graph, find the total distance travelled and express the acceleration and retardation in m/s?. Retardation {m/s*] CONSTANT SPEED. » & Fool is E10) 85 S25 38 0 a Fig. 34 90 km/h = PIO sas = 25 m/s Area under acceleration line = 4 x 25 x 25= 312:5m » 99, Constant speed ,, = 25 x 90 = 2250 ,, » 9 fetardation ,,=4*25xX20= 250 ,, Total = 28125 m Total distance travelled = 2:8125 km Ans. (i) VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 39 Increase in velocity _ 25 Acceleration = Time = Ems Ans. (ii) . Decrease in velocity 25 see Retardation = “Time 5 = 125 im/s? Ans. (iii) FORMULAE | Although all problems can be worked out from first principles it is sometimes more expedient to solve by formula. There are four common formulae connecting linear velocity, acceleration, time and distance, and the usual symbols used in these are: 4 = initial velocity in m/s v = final velocity in m/s a= acceleration in m/s* t = time in seconds S = space passed through (distance) in metres, From the examples already given, the following should be readily understood. @ = increase in velocity for each second, t= 5 sss ny E SeCOndS, Final velocity = initial velocity +- increase in velocity “=U + at... Distance travelled = average velocity x time — EP) Xt ee @ Substituting value of v from (i) into (ii), s~ (ota s=(u+4at)xt Sut dat? ae saan il) ‘Transposing (ji) to make r the subject, s= fs xt 2s tT40 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS Substituting this value of ¢ into (i), y=u-+at veut uty Multiplying throughout by (4 + ¥) uy + P= w+ uv + 2as Pawt as ee Civ) In any of the above, the acceleration a can be positive or negative; the positive sign is used when the acceleration is positive and the velocity is increasing, the negative sign is used when the acceleration is negative, that is retardation, and the velocity is decreasing. These formulae can therefore be written with the “plus-or- minus” sign when the acceleration is included. v=utat s= }ut+y)t s= ut + fat? v= w+ 2as The units for each symbol were stated above as all in metre- seconds, but any appropriate units can be used provided they are of the same kind throughout the formula. Example. A body is allowed to fall from rest from the top of a precipice and takes 4-5 seconds to hit the ground. Find the height of the precipice. In this problem the initial velocity w is nil, the acceleration a is known (= 9-81 m/s*), the time ¢ is given and the height s is required. Therefore we choose a formula connecting u, a, t and s, insert the values and work it out, thus, s=ut-+ tat? =0+4 x 981 x 45% = 99-33 metres Example. A projectile is fired vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 256 m/s, find the velocity as it passes a point 700 m above the ground. In this case we have a negative acceleration of 9-81 m/s®, there- fore the minus sign is used. The formula chosen should contain the required final velocity y and the given quantities which are initial velocity u, acceleration a, and distance s, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 4. v= uw ~ 2as v® = 2507 — 2 x 9-81 x 700 = 62500 — 13730 v= /48770 = 220-8 m/s Ans. Example. A bullet is fired vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 70 m/s. Two seconds later another bullet is fired upwards with an initial velocity of 100 m/s. After what time and at what height above the ground will the second bullet overtake the first? Let t= time for first bullet to reach overtaking point, then (¢ — 2) = time for second bullet to get there. For the first bullet: s=ut — far? = 710t-4 x 981 x =~ 49572 | For the second bullet: 5 = 100¢ — 2) — } x 981 (0 — 2)% = 100 — 200 — 4-905 (1? ~ 41 + 4) = 100 t — 200 — 4.905 1? + 19-62 ¢ — 19-62 = 119-62 t — 4-905 #2 — 219-62 ve (ii) Height s of the overtaking point is the same for each bullet, therefore s in (i) is equal to s in (ii), 70 t — 4-905 t? = 119-621 — 4-905 £2 — 219-62 Collecting terms and simplifying, — 4905 t? + 4-905 # + 70 ~ 119-62 t = — 219-62 ~ 49-62 t= — 219-62 t = 4-425 seconds Ans. (i) Substituting value of ¢ into equation (i) above, 5 = 70t — 4-905 1? = 70 x 4-425 ~ 4905 x 4.425% = 309-75 — 96:03 = 213-72 m Ans. (ii) In all cases of gravitational acceleration (or retardation) the symbol g may be used instead of a, and, of course, h for height may be used instead of s. A common case of these symbols being used42 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS is that where the velocity is required of a body falling from rest from a given height, thus, v =u? + 2as u=0,a=g,ands=A, J = Qgh ory =/2gh ANGULAR MOTION ANGULAR VELOCITY is the rate of change of angular displacement and is expressed in radians per second. The abbreviation for radians per second is rad/s and represented by the symbol . One radian is the angle subtended by a circular arc of length equal to the radius therefore, since the circumference of a circle is equal to 2x x radius, there are 27 radians in one circle, . Rotational speeds of engines are commonly expressed in revolutions per minute [rev/min] hence, to express rev/min in terms of rad/s, multiply by 2x to convert it into radians per minute, and divide by 60 to obtain radians per second, thus, _ 2n x revimin rad/s ANGULAR ACCELERATION is the rate of change of angular velocity and is usually expressed in radians per second per second, the abbreviation for these units is rad/s? and is usually represented by the symbol «. Example. A flywheel is increased in speed from 150 to 350 revolutions per minute in half-a-minute. Express the acceleration jn radians per second per second and calculate the number of revolutions turned during that time. Acceleration = 200 rev/min in 30 seconds 200 x 2x © rad/s in 30 seconds 200 x 2x =" X30 = 0-6982 rad/s? Ans. (i) Distance = average velocity x time 150+ 350 1 2 2 = 125 revolutions Ans. (ii) rad/s in 1 second VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 43 Note the units, average velocity in revolutions per minute is multiplied by the time in minutes, to obtain distance in revolutions, RELATION BETWEEN LINEAR AND ANGULAR MOTION Length of arc for one radian = radius of circle » » two radians = 2 x radius ” » three radians = 3 x radius, and so on. Consider a point moved around on a circular path, if 8 repre- sents the angular displacement in radians, r the radius, and s the length of the arc or linear distance moved, then: s=Or i ee Similarly, if a point is travelling in a circular path, the linear distance travelled in one second is the number of radians moved through in one second multiplied by the radius. If v represents the linear velocity, « the angular velocity in radians per second, andr the radius, then: Peoria we ii) Further, if the point is accelerating at the rate of « radians per second per second and the linear acceleration is represented by a, then: GSO eee iii) In words, the above conversion rules are, Linear distance = angular distance x radius Linear velocity = angular velocity x radius Linear acceleration = angular acceleration x radius In all cases, it is a simple matter of multiplying the angular quantity by the radius, to obtain the corresponding linear quantity. Example. A wheel 240 mm diameter is keyed to a shaft 40 mm diameter mounted in bearings which carry the shaft horizontally. A cord is wrapped around the shaft, one end of the cord being fixed to the shaft and the other end carrying a load. When the load. is allowed to fall from rest, it falls a distance of 2 m in 5 seconds. Neglecting the thickness of the cord, find (i) the linear velocity of the load after 5 seconds, (ii) the angular velocity of the wheel and shaft after 5 seconds, (iii) the linear velocity of the rim of the wheel after 5 seconds, (iv) the linear acceleration of the load, (v) the angular acceleration of the wheel and shaft.44 REED’S APPLIED MECHANICS FOR ENGINEERS [= | | Gown) KT Fig. 35 ‘The load moves through 2 metres in 5 seconds, distance time =2=04mi/s average velocity = } (initial vel. -+ final vel.) Initial velocity is nil because it started from rest, .'.Final velocity = 2 x average velocity =2x04 = 0-8 m/s Ans. (i) Linear velocity = angular velocity x radius vy 08 =P 002 = 40 rad/s Ans. (ii) (Note r must be in metres because v is in m/s) Linear velocity of rim of wheel: «average velocity = v=or = 40 x 012 = 4:8 m/s Ans. (iii) Note the radius of the wheel rim is 6 times the radius of the shaft, they both rotate at the same angular velocity, therefore the linear VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 45 velocity of the wheel rim is 6 times that of the surface of the shaft, 6 x 0-8 = 4-8 m/s. Linear acceleration of load = . change of velocity _ 08 time _ = 0-16 m/s? Ans, (iv) Angular acceleration of shaft: a=or a _ 016 r 0-02 = 8 rad/s* Ans. (v) CHANGE OF VELOCITY DUE TO CHANGE OF DIRECTION It was stated at the beginning of this chapter that velocity is a vector quantity representing speed and direction and therefore a change of velocity takes place if the speed changes without any change of direction, or if the direction changes while the speed remains the same, or if there is a change in both speed and direction, y SPACE DIAGRAMS ! VECTOR DIAGRAMS AS... tan/t eS a ed es B opis $F —., 42e—— 9 > ~—— x —— 2 g int 8 = sin’ . 0 2g Total time. above ground = time to go up + time to go down usin ® = 2 x —— seconds & Horizontal component = u cos 6 Horizontal distance = horizontal velocity x time 2u sin & = ucos 6 xX ——— __ 2u* sin 6 cos 6 7 g in 20 Since sin 6 cos 6 = = 3 ? sin 20 se .. Horizontal range = s Zz ww. (ii) For a given value of the initial velocity u, the horizontal range will be greatest when sin 20 is greatest. The maximum value of the sine of an angle is unity and this is for an angle of 90 degrees, therefore if 20 = 90° then 8 = 45°. Therefore maximum horizontal range is when the angle ‘of elevation is 45 degrees, and its value is, 2 Maximum range = : RELATIVE VELOCITY Up to the present only velocities of moving objects as they pass fixed points on the Earth have been considered, these are termed absolute velocities. VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 51 When the velocity of a moving object A is expressed as the rate at which it passes another moving object B, it is termed the relative velocity of A with respect to B. In effect it is the velocity of A as it appears by a person moving with object B and is therefore some- times called the apparent velocity. SQke/h Ac B: SQiemihy Fig. 41 If two objects are moving on parallel courses at the same velocity such as A and B in Fig. 41, the relative velocity of one to the other is nil. A typical example is two persons sitting in the same railway carriage of a moving train, in the eyes of one the other is not moving, the apparent or relative velocity of one to the other is nil. If, however, one object is moving exactly in the opposite direc- tion to the other such as two trains on outward and inward parallel tracks, each travelling at 50 km/h as illustrated in Fig. 42, one appears to pass the other at 100 km/h, therefore the relative velocity of one to the other is 100 km/h. SQ km/h A 50 km/h B Fig. 42 The relative velocities of objects moving on parallel courses are obvious and simple to understand, but when the courses are not parallel it is necessary to draw vector diagrams. Consider a body A moving at 30 m/s due East and another body B moving at 35 m/s 20 degrees North of East. A space diagram can be first sketched to show the absolute velocity of each, as these velocities are “relative to earth” they are marked A or B at the end behind the arrow, and E (for earth) at the point end, See Fig. 43.