Lecture 1 QM Intro

Quantum Mechanics
Introduction:
The Birth of Quantum Mechanics
Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur
JURUSAN FISIKA UNIVERSITAS ANDALAS

Classical Mechanics
Newton, Sir Isaac,

PRS, (1643 – 1727),
English physicist and
mathematician
Euler, Leonhard Lagrange, Joseph Louis (1736 - Hamilton, William Rowan (1805
(1707 - 1783), Swiss 1813), Italian-French mathema- - 1865), Irish mathematician
mathematician. tician, astronomer and physicist. and astronomer.
Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 2
Classical Electrodynamics
Coulomb, Biot, Jean Baptiste Ampere, Andre Faraday, Lorentz, Hendrik

Charles Augustin (1774 -1862), Marie (1775 - Michael (1791 Antoon (1853 -
(1736 – 1806), French Physicist; 1836), French - 1867), English 1928), Dutch
French physicist Savart, Félix (1791 - Physicist Physicist Physicist
1841), French Physicist
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1875-

Maxwell, James Clerk (1831 – 1879), Scottish physicist 1894) German Physicist
Classical Thermodynamics
Dalton, John (1766 Carnot, Nicolas Joule, James Helmholtz, Hermann Clausius, Rudolf
-- 1844), British Léonard Sadi (1796 Prescott (1818 -- Ludwig Ferdinand von Julius Emanuel (1822
chemist and -- 1832), French 1889), British (1821 -- 1894), German -- 1888) , German
physicist. physicist. physicist. physicist and physician. mathematical
physicist.
Boltzmann, Ludwig, (1844 –

1906), Austrian physicist.
Thomson, William Maxwell, James

(Baron Kelvin) (1824 - Clerk (1831 –  m   −m(vx2 + v y2 + vz2 ) 
f v (v x , v y , v z ) =   exp  
1907), British physicist 1879), Scottish  2 kT   2kT 
and mathematician. physicist
Classical Statistical Mechanics
Equal a priori probability postulate (Boltzmann)
Given an isolated system in equilibrium, it is found with

equal probability in each of its accessible microstates.
Canonical ensemble (isolated system)
Grandcanonical ensemble (opened system)

Boltzmann, Ludwig,
(1844 – 1906),
Austrian physicist.
Microcanonical ensemble
(independent system)

Physics is Complete?
Lord and Lady Kelvin at the Sir William Thomson working William Thomson produced 70
coronation of King Edward VII on a problem of science in patents in the U.K. from 1854 to
in 1902. 1890. 1907.
“There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All that

remains is more and more precise measurement.”
Assumptions of Classical Physics
The universe was like a giant machine set in a
framework of absolute time and space. Complicated
Mechanism
movement could be understood as a simple
movement of the machine’s inner parts.
The Newtonian synthesis implied that all motion had a
cause. If a body exhibited motion, one could always be
Causality
figure out what was producing the motion. This is
simply cause and effect.
If the state of the universe was completely given at
one moment in time (e.g. the present), together with
Determinism all the dynamic laws, it could be determined at any
other moment in the future or the past. This is
(Laplacian) determinism.

Assumptions of Classical Physics
The properties of light are completely described by
Maxwell’s electromagnetic wave theory and confirmed
Light
by the interference patterns observed in a simple
double-slit experiment by Thomas Young in 1802.
There are two physical models to represent energy in
motion: one a particle, represented by an
Energy in impenetrable sphere (like a billiard ball), and the other
motion a wave, like that which rides towards the shore. They
are mutually exclusive, i.e. energy must be either one
or the other.
It was possible to measure to any degree of accuracy
Arbitrary
the properties of a system, like its temperature or
accuracy of
speed. Atomic systems were thought to be no
measurement
exception.
Dark Clouds
"Beauty and clearness of classical physics theory are Overshadowed
by two clouds..."
1. Michelson-Morley Experiment (1887)
2. Ultraviolet catastrophe in blackbody radiation (before October,
1900)
Michelson, Albert Morley, Edward Einstein, Albert Planck, Max

The Failures of classical physics
Due to certain limitations and wrong assumptions of of classical
physics, it fails to explain:
❖ Blackbody Radiation
❖ Photoelectric Effect
❖ Electron Diffraction
❖ Specific Heat of Gasses
❖ Atomic Spectra
❖ Stability of Atoms
❖ Pair Production
❖ Compton Scattering
❖ Superconductivity
❖ Phenomena associated with spinning motion of electron
❖ Zeeman Effect, Stark Effect, Raman Effect
❖ Radioactivity like alpha and beta decay
Thermal Radiation
❑ Thermal radiation
✓ An object at any temperature emits electromagnetic radiation called
thermal radiation.
✓ The spectrum of the radiation depends on the temperature and
properties of the object.
✓ From a classical point of view, thermal radiation originates from
accelerated charged particles near the surface of an object.
❑ Blackbody
✓ Is an ideal system that absorbs all radiation
incident on it.
✓ An opening in the cavity of a body is a good
approximation of a blackbody.

Thermal Radiation
Blackbodies are interesting because their

optical properties are independent of the
material and only depend on the temperature
Wien’s Displacement Law
The spectral intensity I(l,T) is the total power
radiated per unit area per unit wavelength at a
given temperature.
Wilhelm Wien,
German Physicist
lmaxT = 2.89810−3 m  K
Wien’s displacement law: The maximum of the spectrum shifts to

smaller wavelengths as the temperature is increased.
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
❑ The total power radiated increases with
the temperature:
Jozef Stefan Ludwig Boltzman
P(T ) =  I (l , T ) d l = e T 4
0
❑ This is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law, with the constant σ

experimentally measured to be 5.6705 × 10−8 W / (m2 · K4).
❑ The emissivity e (e = 1 for an idealized blackbody) is simply the ratio
of the emissive power of an object to that of an ideal blackbody
and is always less than 1.
Rayleigh-Jeans Formula
❑ Lord Rayleigh used the classical theories of
electromagnetism and thermodynamics to
show that the blackbody spectral
distribution should be:
2 ckT
I (l , T ) = Lord Rayleigh James Jeans
l4
❑ It approaches the data at longer

wavelengths, but it deviates badly at short
wavelengths.
❑ This problem for small wavelengths became known as the ultraviolet

catastrophe and was one of the outstanding exceptions that classical
physics could not explain.
Planck’s Radiation Law
❑ Planck assumed that the radiation in the cavity was
emitted (and absorbed) by some sort of “oscillators.” He
used Boltzman’s statistical methods to arrive at the
following formula that fit the blackbody radiation data.
2 c 2 h 1 Max Planck
I (l , T ) =
l5 e hc / l kT − 1
❑Planck made two modifications to the classical theory:
✓ The oscillators (of electromagnetic origin) can only have certain
discrete energies, En = nhn , where n is an integer, n is the frequency,
and h is called Planck’s constant:
h = 6.6261 × 10−34 J·s.
✓ The oscillators can absorb or emit energy in discrete multiples of the
fundamental quantum of energy given by
E = hn
Planck’s Black-body Radiation Law
2 c 2 h 1
I (l , T ) =
l5 e hc / l kT − 1
❑ Planck’s assumption (1900): radiation of a given frequency ν could

only be emitted and absorbed in “quanta” of energy E=hν.
❑ Planck neither envisaged a quantization of the radiation field, nor
did he quantize the energy of an individual material oscillator.
❑ What Planck assumed is that the total energy of a large number
oscillators is made up of finite energy elements hν.

Wave-particle Duality
The idea of duality is

rooted in a debate
over the nature of light
and matter dating back
to the 1600s, when
competing theories of
light were proposed by
Huygens and Newton.
Sir Isaac Newton

Christiaan Huygens
1643 1727
Dutch 1629-1695
light consists of particles
light consists of waves

The Nature of Light
Newton thought that light behaved like particles while Christian
Huygens believed it behaved like waves.
Waves Particles
A pattern of matter, energy, or
A particle is a discrete object.
both
Waves, unlike particles can be Occupies a single, localized
spread out over an immense area volume of space
Frequency is the amount of times All energy is concentrated in that
the wavelength occurs space
One can tell where it is and how
it is moving

Photoelectric effect
❑ If two metallic plates were kept in a high vacuum chamber, and one was
illuminated, an electro static potential developed between them.
❑ Light incident on certain metallic surfaces causes the emission of electrons
from the surfaces.
❑ This phenomenon is called photoelectric effect and the emitted electrons
are called photoelectrons.
❑ For a given metal, it was found that there was one frequency below which
no electrons were emitted.

Photoelectric Effect
❑ Hertz showed that when UV light is shone on a
metal plate in a vacuum, it emits charged particles.
Heinrich Rudolf
Hertz (1875-1894)
German Physicist
❑ Classical predictions:
✓ Electric field E of light exerts force F = -eE on electrons. As intensity of light
increases, force increases, so KE of ejected electrons should increase.
✓ Electrons should be emitted whatever the frequency n of the light, as long as
E is sufficiently large
✓ For very low intensities, expect a time lag between light exposure and
emission, while electrons absorb enough energy to escape from material.
Photoelectric Effect Feature 1
Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light intensity
Classical Prediction
✓ Electrons should absorb energy
continuously from the electromagnetic
waves
✓ As the light intensity incident on the metal
is increased, the electrons should be
ejected with more kinetic energy
Experimental Result
✓ The maximum kinetic energy is
independent of light intensity
✓ The current goes to zero at the same EK max = Vs
negative voltage for all intensity curves
Time interval between incidence of light and ejection of
photoelectrons
✓ For very weak light, a measurable time interval should pass between
the instant the light is turned on and the time an electron is ejected
from the metal
✓ This time interval is required for the electron to absorb the incident
radiation before it acquires enough energy to escape from the metal
Experimental Result
✓ Electrons are emitted almost instantaneously, even at very low light
intensities (i.e. less than 10-9 s)

Dependence of ejection of electrons on light frequency
✓ Electrons should be ejected at any frequency as long as the light
intensity is high enough
Experimental Result
✓ No electrons are emitted if the incident light falls below some cutoff
frequency (ƒc)
✓ The cutoff frequency is characteristic of the material being illuminated
✓ No electrons are ejected below the cutoff frequency regardless of
intensity

Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light frequency
✓ There should be no relationship
between the frequency of the light
and the electron maximum kinetic
energy
✓ The kinetic energy should be related
to the intensity of the light
Experimental Result
✓ The maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons increases with
increasing light frequency
Cutoff Frequency
❑ The lines show the linear
relationship between KE and ƒ
❑ The slope of each line is

independent of the metal
h ~ 6.6 10-34 Js
❑ The absolute value of the y-

intercept is the work function
KEmax = hf − 
❑ The x-intercept is the cutoff
frequency --
This is the frequency below
which no photoelectrons are
emitted
Einstein‘s Theory
❑ Einstein take Planck’s theory one step further.
❑ Einstein suggested that the electromagnetic
radiation field is quantized into particles called
photons.
❑ Each photon has the energy quantum: A. Einstein
E = hv or E =  with = h / 2
❑ An electron absorbs a single photon to leave the
material.
❑ Conservation of energy yields:
Energy before(photon) = energyafter (electron)
hv = KE + 
where  is the work function of the metal
(potential energy to be overcome before an
electron could escape).
Einstein‘s Theory
❑ Einstein’s assumption that an electron is ejected when struck by a
single photon implies that it behaves like a particle.
❑ When the photon hits the metal, its energy, hn is taken up by the
electron.
❑ The photon ceases to exist as a particle; it is said to be “absorbed.”
❑ The “wave” and “particle” pictures of light should be regarded as
complementary views of the same physical entity.
❑ This is called the wave-particle duality of light.
❑ The equation E = hn displays this duality; E is the energy of the
“particle” photon, and n is the frequency of the associated “wave.”
❑ For a long, long time, nobody else believed that.
Experimental confirmation
❑ Experimental confirmation came in 1915 by Millikan
❑ Millikan didn’t like Einstein’s light quanta idea, which he
saw as an attack on the wave theory of light.
❑ Tried very hard (for 10 years) to disprove Einstein’s
theoretical prediction. R. Millikan
❑ For all his efforts, he confirmed Einstein’s theory and
provided a very accurate measurement of Planck’s constant.
❑ Millikan got Nobel prize in 1923.
❑ Still didn’t like Einstein’s light quanta idea, in a 1916 paper:
“This hypothesis may well be called reckless …”
“Despite the apparently complete success of the Einstein

equation, the physical theory of which it was designed to
be the symbolic expression is found so untenable …”
Photon Model Explanation
❑ Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light intensity
✓ KEmax is independent of light intensity
✓ KE depends on the light frequency and the work function
✓ The intensity will change the number of photoelectrons being emitted, but not
the energy of an individual electron
❑ Time interval between incidence of light and ejection of the

photoelectron
✓ Each photon can have enough energy to eject an electron immediately
❑ Dependence of ejection of electrons on light frequency

✓ There is a failure to observe photoelectric effect below a certain cutoff
frequency, which indicates the photon must have more energy than the work
function in order to eject an electron
✓ Without enough energy, an electron cannot be ejected, regardless of the light
intensity

Photon Model Explanation
❑ Dependence of photoelectron kinetic energy on light frequency
✓ Since KEmax = hƒ – , as the frequency increases, the maximum
kinetic energy will increase
(Once the energy of the work function is exceeded)
✓ There is a linear relationship between the kinetic energy and the

frequency

Compton Scattering
Compton (1923) measured intensity of scattered X-rays from solid
target, as function of wavelength for different angles. He won the
1927 Nobel prize. Compton
Collimator Crystal
X-ray source
(selects angle) (measure
wavelenght)
θ
Target
Detector
Result: peak in scattered radiation shifts to
longer wavelength than source. Amount
depends on θ (but not on the target material). A.H. Compton, Phys. Rev. 22 409 (1923)
Compton Scattering
❑ Classical picture: oscillating electromagnetic field causes oscillations in
positions of charged particles, which re-radiate in all directions at same
frequency and wavelength as incident radiation.
→ Change in wavelength of scattered light is completely unexpected classically
Incident light wave Oscillating electron Emitted light wave

❑ Compton’s explanation: “billiard ball” collisions between particles of light
(X-ray photons) and electrons in the material
Before After pn 
Incoming photon scattered photon
θ
pn
Electron pe scattered electron
Compton Scattering
Before After pn 
Incoming photon scattered photon
θ
pn
Electron pe scattered electron
Conservation of energy Conservation of momentum

hn + me c = hn  + ( p c + m c )
2 4 1/ 2 hˆ
2 2 2
pn = i = pn  + p e
l
e e
From this Compton derived the change in wavelength

h
l − l = (1 − cos ) lc = Compton wavelength
me c
h
= lc (1 − cos  )  0 = = 2.4  10−12 m
me c
Compton Scattering
Note that, at all angles
there is also an un-shifted peak.
This comes from a collision

between the X-ray photon and
the nucleus of the atom
h
l − l = (1 − cos  )  0
mN c
since mN me

Atomic Spectrum
Spectrum of light emitted from a hot gas when passed through a prism
is very different from the rainbow-like spectrum of a glowing solid (e.g.
the sun):
Different gases have different spectral lines.

Examples of Spectra

Atomic Structure
Nuclear atom model (1911): Ernest Rutherford
Rutherford, Ernest, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, OM, PC,

FRS (1871 - 1937), New Zealand-English nuclear physicist.

Classical physics: atoms should collapse!
This means
an electron
should fall
into the
nucleus.
Classical Electrodynamics:
charged particles radiate EM New mechanics is
energy (photons) when their
velocity vector changes (e.g. needed!
they accelerate).

Spectroscopy
Balmer, Johann
Jakob (1825 --
1898), Swiss from n ≥ 3 to n = 2
mathematician and
an honorary
physicist. visible spectrum
Balmer's formula (1885) Balmer series (1885)
Rydberg formula for hydrogen

(1888)
Rydberg formula for all

Rydberg, Johannes hydrogen-like atom (1888)
Robert (1854 --
1919), Swedish
physicist.
Bohr's formula (1913)

Models of Atom
❑ J.J. Thompson: plum-pudding
model.
❑ Rutherford: Atom consists of

mostly empty space (planetary
model).
❑ Bohr: planetary model + energy

quantization.
❑ Schrödinger: Quantum
mechanics model

Bohr Model of Atom
Bohr Postulates:
1. Electron can freely move in a stationer path
orbiting nucleus due to Coulomb force.
2. Electrons in stationary orbits do not radiate

elecromagnetic wave.
3. The stationary orbits are those having

quatized angular momentum.
mvr = n
4. Radiasi terkuantisasi hanya diserap/diemisi
jika elektron berubah orbit.
Bohr Model of Atom
❑ Consider an atom with nucleus (charge +Ze, mass M) dan elektron
(charge –e, mass m). Because M>> m, the nuclei can be assumed
to be stationary.
1 Ze 2 v2
❑ Coulomb force serves as centripetal force =m
4 0 r 2
r
❑ Quantization of Momentum: mvr = n n = 1, 2,3,...
n2 2 n 1 Ze 2
❑ Radius and speed: r = 4 0 v= =
mZe 2 mr 4 0 n
❑ Total mechanical Energy: mZ 2 e 4 1

E = 1/ 2mv 2 + V = −
( 4 0 )
2
2 2
n2
❑ Quantization of orbit leads to total energy quantization.

..
. Atomic Transition
Bohr Atom Model:
E5 ❑ Explain the spectrum of
1
hydrogen atom successfully.
hc 1
E = hn = = 13.6  2 − 2  eV
l  n f ni  ❑ Fail to explain spectrum of
E4 multi-electron atoms.
E3
E2
E1

Bohr Model of Atom
❑ Can explain the spectrum of hydrogen atom very well, but fails to
explain multi-electron atoms.
❑ Cannot explain why the intensity of certain transition lines is

stronger than others.
➔ No mechanism to calculate transition probability
❑ Violates uncertainty principle where momentum and position

cannot be determined simultaneously.
❑ Bohr model only gives conceptual model of orbit and electron

energy. The precise details of spectra and charge distribution must
be left to quantum mechanical calculations, as with the Schrödinger
equation.
Birth of Quantum Mechanics
❑ The necessity for quantum mechanics was thrust upon us by a
series of observations.
❑ The theory of QM developed over a period of 30 years,

culminating in 1925-1927 with a set of postulates.
❑ QM cannot be deduced from pure mathematical or logical

reasoning.
❑ QM is not intuitive, because we don’t live in the world of

electrons and atoms.
❑ QM is based on observation. Like all science, it is subject to

change if inconsistencies with further observation are
revealed.

Quantum theory (or quantum mechanics) was developed
mostly between 1900 and 1930
by European physicists including:
Max Planck
Albert Einstein
Neils Bohr
Louis de Broglie
Max Born
Paul Dirac
Werner Heisenberg
Wolfgang Pauli
Erwin Schrodinger and his cat
Richard Feynman

Quantum Mechanics

Posisi Fisika Kuantum
Spektroskopi
Atom dan
Elektromagnet Molekul
Fotonik
Mekanika Semikonduktor
Kuantum
Struktur
Fisika Optik Elektronik Zat
Modern Fisika Kuantum Padat
Fisika Ilmu dan
Fisika Zat Padat Teknologi Nano
Gelombang Fisika Statistik
Kristallografi
dan XRD
Superkonduktor
The successes of quantum mechanics
❖ Explains structure of atoms and molecules (and all of
chemistry??)
❖ The operation of a laser
❖ Explains properties of the solid state
❖ Provides the ‘standard model’ of particle physics
❖ Quantum gauge field theory ↔ the forces of nature
❖ Quantum fluctuations in the early universe → density
fluctuations → galaxies
❖ Provides a link between general relativity and thermodynamics
❖ Will play a central role in describing how the universe came into
being.
QM success comes at a ‘cost’:
❖ Quantum mechanics forces on us a new way of looking at the

world.
❖ The world-view implicit in pre-quantum (classical) physics
has to be abandoned. Events appear to occur without a
cause.
❖ Physical systems appear to be able to do a number of mutually
exclusive things at the same time.
❖ We are even forced to ask: Is there a ‘real’ world out there
independent of us as observers

What is the essence of QM?
❑ Quantization (Planck and Einstein)
❑ Correspondence (Bohr)
❑ Duality / Complementarity / Uncertainty (Heisenberg)
❑ Symmetry / Exclusion (Pauli)

Konsultasi? Diskusi?
Dosen : Dr.rer.nat. Muldarisnur
Ruangan : Jurusan Fisika
E-mail : mrisnur@gmail.com
Telpon : 081378971***
The best way to handle exams is to be well-prepared.
Push yourself, because nobody else will do that for you…

Lecture 1 QM Intro

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Quantum Mechanics

Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur

JURUSAN FISIKA UNIVERSITAS ANDALAS

Newton, Sir Isaac,

Coulomb, Biot, Jean Baptiste Ampere, Andre Faraday, Lorentz, Hendrik

Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (1875-

Boltzmann, Ludwig, (1844 –

Thomson, William Maxwell, James

Given an isolated system in equilibrium, it is found with

Canonical ensemble (isolated system)

Grandcanonical ensemble (opened system)

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 5

“There is nothing new to be discovered in physics now. All that

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 7

Michelson, Albert Morley, Edward Einstein, Albert Planck, Max

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 9

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 11

Blackbodies are interesting because their

Wien’s displacement law: The maximum of the spectrum shifts to

Jozef Stefan Ludwig Boltzman

❑ This is known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law, with the constant σ

❑ It approaches the data at longer

❑ This problem for small wavelengths became known as the ultraviolet

❑ Planck’s assumption (1900): radiation of a given frequency ν could

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 17

The idea of duality is

Sir Isaac Newton

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 18

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 19

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 20

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 23

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 24

❑ The slope of each line is

❑ The absolute value of the y-

“Despite the apparently complete success of the Einstein

❑ Time interval between incidence of light and ejection of the

❑ Dependence of ejection of electrons on light frequency

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 30

✓ There is a linear relationship between the kinetic energy and the

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 31

Incident light wave Oscillating electron Emitted light wave

Conservation of energy Conservation of momentum

From this Compton derived the change in wavelength

This comes from a collision

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 35

Different gases have different spectral lines.

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 36

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 37

Nuclear atom model (1911): Ernest Rutherford

Rutherford, Ernest, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson, OM, PC,

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 38

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 39

Rydberg formula for hydrogen

Rydberg formula for all

Bohr's formula (1913)

❑ Rutherford: Atom consists of

❑ Bohr: planetary model + energy

Quantum Mechanics Dr. rer. nat. Muldarisnur 41

2. Electrons in stationary orbits do not radiate

3. The stationary orbits are those having

❑ Quantization of Momentum: mvr = n n = 1, 2,3,...

❑ Total mechanical Energy: mZ 2 e 4 1

❑ Quantization of orbit leads to total energy quantization.