Magnetic materials

 Ease of separation and good reusability

 To avoid agglomeration, magnetic nanoparticles can be coated with different shells
(e.g., silica, carbon, metal, metal oxide, and polymer) to isolate them from external
environments.
 High surface area of magnetic nanoparticles
 Many active species
 Surface to enhance the catalytic activity
 Active sites, stability, and catalytic mechanisms
 Homogeneous catalysts exhibit difficulty in separation, which limits their large-scale
applications.
 Α-fe2o3 nanostructures show structure-dependent magnetic properties
 Magnetite form between 120 and 180 °c, the formation of maghemite through the
diffusion of ferrous ions occurs along with the dissolution of maghemite and
precipitation of hematite. At 275 °c, the hematite is directly formed on the magnetite
surface.
 Gamma phase magnetic iron oxide (ferric) is the second most stable polymorph of
iron oxide, which is easier to produce and very utilitarian. The chemical name of the
gamma phase magnetic iron oxide is maghemite (γ-Fe2O3)
 Fe2O3 is a simple Oxide in which Fe is only + 3, whereas Fe3O4 is a mixed Oxide in
which Fe is present in both + 2 and + 3 oxidation states. We, on the other hand, make
Fe3O4 as FeO. Fe2O3 is denoted as Iron Oxide (III), whereas Fe3O4 is denoted as
Iron Oxide (II, III)
 Iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) has attracted considerable scientific interest due to its low cost,
eco-friendly, and easy to prepare. (10-12) It has four crystal phases: alpha- (α-), beta-
(β-), gamma- (γ-), and epsilon-Fe2O3 (ε-Fe2O3).
 Ferrous oxide, commonly known as iron(II) oxide contains iron that lost 2 electrons in
the oxidation process. So it is able to bond with other atoms that have an extra 2
electrons. Ferric oxide, is commonly known as iron(III) oxide. It contains iron that
lost 3 electrons.
 β-Fe2O3 is the scarce polymorph of Fe2O3 phases and is transformed easily into α-
Fe2O3 at high temperature. However, its crystal structure and the transformation
 mechanism to α-Fe2O3 are still unclear because of the difficulty in obtaining
monophasic β-Fe2O3 crystals.
 Maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) is an example of a ferrimagnetic material, not an
antiferromagnetic material. Ferrimagnetic materials have two or more magnetic
sublattices with opposite magnetic moments, resulting in a net magnetization even
when the material is not saturated. In maghemite, the iron ions occupy different
crystallographic sites, leading to a net magnetic moment and ferrimagnetic behavior.
 It's worth noting that maghemite is often considered as an intermediate between
magnetite (Fe3O4) and hematite (α-Fe2O3). Magnetite is a well-known example of a
ferrimagnetic material, while hematite is an antiferromagnetic material. Maghemite
exhibits properties that are intermediate between these two phases.

Graphene oxide

 Experimental reports on the surface area of graphene oxide (GO) can vary depending
on the specific synthesis method, processing conditions, and measurement techniques
used. Surface area measurements are typically conducted using gas adsorption
techniques, such as the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) method, which measures the
amount of gas adsorbed on the material's surface.

 The reported surface area values for graphene oxide can range from tens to hundreds
of square meters per gram (m²/g). Here are a few examples of experimentally reported
surface area values for graphene oxide:

 A study published in the journal Langmuir reported a surface area of approximately

400-500 m²/g for graphene oxide prepared by a modified Hummers' method [1].

 Another study published in the Journal of Physical Chemistry C reported a surface

area of around 300-400 m²/g for graphene oxide prepared by a modified Hummers'
method [2].
 A research article published in the journal Carbon reported a surface area of
approximately 260 m²/g for graphene oxide synthesized using a modified Hummers'
method followed by thermal reduction [3].

 It's important to note that the reported surface area values can vary significantly
depending on the specific experimental conditions and characterization techniques
employed. Therefore, it's recommended to refer to the specific research papers for
detailed information on the synthesis method, characterization techniques, and
reported surface area values for graphene oxide.

References:
[1] Dikin, D. A., et al. (2007). Preparation and characterization of graphene oxide
paper. Nature, 448(7152), 457-460.
[2] Marcano, D. C., et al. (2010). Improved synthesis of graphene oxide. ACS Nano,
4(8), 4806-4814.
[3] Park, S., & Ruoff, R. S. (2009). Chemical methods for the production of
graphenes. Nature Nanotechnology, 4(4), 217-224.

The theoretical surface area of graphene oxide (GO) can be estimated based on its
atomic structure and assuming an idealized configuration. However, it is important to
note that the theoretical values may not perfectly match the experimentally reported
values due to various factors such as defects, functional groups, and variations in the
synthesis process.

Graphene oxide is a layered material consisting of graphene sheets with oxygen-

containing functional groups attached to the carbon lattice. The surface area
estimation for GO is typically based on the assumption that the oxygen-containing
groups occupy a certain percentage of the graphene surface and contribute to the
overall surface area.

 Theoretical calculations and modeling approaches have been employed to estimate the
surface area of graphene oxide. However, it's crucial to consider that these
calculations depend on the specific assumptions and models used.
 The theoretical surface area of graphene oxide can vary depending on the model and
assumptions made. Some theoretical studies have reported surface area estimates for
GO ranging from hundreds to thousands of square meters per gram (m²/g). However,
it's important to note that these values are highly dependent on the specific modeling
parameters and assumptions used in the calculations.

 It's worth mentioning that experimental measurements using gas adsorption

techniques, such as the BET method, provide more reliable and accurate surface area
values for graphene oxide compared to theoretical estimates.

 In summary, while theoretical estimates for the surface area of graphene oxide can be
obtained based on its atomic structure, it's recommended to refer to experimentally
reported values for a more reliable assessment of the material's surface area.

Graphene

Carbon

Quantum Dots

MOF

MXenes

Electro Spinning

• uniform pore size

• large surface area to volume ratio 
 • highly efficient
• widely utilized for generating membranes for membrane distillation and
nanofiltration processes
• used for the removal of contaminants
• specialized nanofibrous non-woven membranes, and surface modification for
application in water treatment technology

Steps in Textile industry for water treatment

In the textile industry, water treatment is an essential process to ensure the proper disposal of
wastewater generated during various manufacturing operations. The following steps are
typically followed in the textile industry for water treatment:

1. Pre-treatment: This step involves the removal of large particles and debris from the
wastewater. It can include processes like screening or sedimentation to separate solid
materials such as fibers, yarns, or other contaminants.
2. Equalization: In this step, the flow rate and composition of the wastewater are
balanced to create a more consistent and manageable influent for further treatment
processes. Mixing tanks may be used to homogenize the wastewater.
3. pH Adjustment: The pH of the wastewater is often adjusted to a neutral range (pH 6-
8) to optimize subsequent treatment processes. Depending on the specific
requirements, acids or bases may be added to achieve the desired pH level.
4. Coagulation/Flocculation: Coagulants are added to the wastewater to neutralize
electric charges and promote the formation of larger particles. Flocculants are then
introduced to encourage the aggregation of smaller particles into larger flocs. These
flocs can be easily removed during the sedimentation or filtration processes.
5. Sedimentation: During sedimentation, the wastewater is allowed to settle in large
tanks, allowing the heavier flocs and solids to settle at the bottom while the clarified
water rises to the top. The settled solids, called sludge, are then removed and sent for
further treatment or disposal.
6. Filtration: Filtration is used to remove finer suspended particles that may not have
settled during sedimentation. Various filtration techniques such as sand filters,
 activated carbon filters, or membrane filters are employed to achieve the desired level
of water clarity.
7. Biological Treatment: In this step, biological processes are used to further treat the
wastewater. Common methods include activated sludge processes, trickling filters, or
rotating biological contactors. These processes involve the use of microorganisms to
break down organic matter and remove nutrients.
8. Disinfection: To eliminate harmful pathogens and microorganisms, the treated
wastewater is disinfected. Chlorine, ozone, ultraviolet (UV) light, or other
disinfectants may be used to ensure the water is safe for discharge or reuse.
9. Sludge Treatment: The sludge collected from sedimentation and biological processes
undergoes additional treatment. This may include processes like thickening,
dewatering, and stabilization to reduce its volume, remove excess water, and make it
suitable for proper disposal or beneficial reuse.
10. Effluent Monitoring: Throughout the treatment process, the quality of the treated
water is continuously monitored to ensure it meets the required standards and
regulations. Parameters such as pH, turbidity, chemical oxygen demand (COD),
biological oxygen demand (BOD), and others are measured to assess the efficiency of
the treatment process.

It's important to note that the specific steps and processes may vary depending on the scale of
the textile industry facility, local regulations, available technologies, and the composition of
the wastewater. Implementing effective water treatment measures is crucial for minimizing
environmental impact and promoting sustainable practices in the textile industry.

Fe3O4

Out of the given options, Fe3O4 is ferrimagnetic in nature. This is because Fe3O4 has two
types of iron ions present in it - Fe2+ and Fe3+. These ions occupy two different sublattices
in the crystal structure of Fe3O4, and they have different magnetic moments. The magnetic
interaction among iron ions at octahedral and tetrahedral sites is antiferromagnetic and that
among octahedral ions is ferromagnetic; overall a ferrimagnetic arrangement of Fe3O4.
Therefore, the net magnetic moment in Fe3O4 is due to Fe2+ ions (4 μB).

Alpha phase
α-Fe2O3 has the rhombohedral, corundum (α-Al2O3) structure and is the most common
form. It occurs naturally as the mineralhematite which is mined as the main ore of iron. It is
antiferromagnetic below ~260 K (Morin transition temperature), and exhibits weak
ferromagnetism between 260 K and the Néel temperature, 950 K. It is easy to prepare
using both thermal decomposition and precipitation in the liquid phase.

Beta phase

The β-phase is cubic body centered (space group Ia3), metastable, and at temperatures
above 500 °C (930 °F) converts to alpha phase. It can be prepared by reduction of hematite
by carbon, pyrolysis ofiron(III) chloride solution, or thermal decomposition of iron(III)
sulfate. 

Gamma phase

γ-Fe2O3 has a cubic structure. It is metastable and converted from the alpha phase at
high temperatures. It occurs naturally as the mineral maghemite. It is ferromagnetic and
finds application in recording tapes, although ultrafine particles smaller than 10 nanometers
are superparamagnetic. It can be prepared by thermal dehydratation of gamma iron(III)
oxide-hydroxide, careful oxidation of iron(II,III) oxide. 

Therefore, the differences are in (1) stability  (2) Ferromagneticity & (3) Structure shape.

 Greedon, J. E. (1994). "Magnetic oxides". In King, R. Bruce. Encyclopedia of

Inorganic chemistry. New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-93620-0.
 Housecroft, Catherine E.; Sharpe, Alan G. (2008). "Chapter 22: d-block metal
chemistry: the first row elements". Inorganic Chemistry, 3rd Edition. Pearson. p. 716.
ISBN 978-0-13-175553-6.

XPS

X-Ray photoelectron spectroscopy, XPS was used to investigate the chemistry at the surface
of the samples. The basic mechanism behind an XPS instrument is that the photons of a
specific energy are used to excite the electronic states of atoms at and just below the surface
of the sample.

There are several areas suited to measurement by XPS:

1. Elemental composition
2. Empirical formula determination

3. Chemical state

4. Electronic state

5. Binding energy

6. Layer thickness in the upper portion of surfaces

XPS has many advantages, such as  it is is good for identifying all but two elements,
identifying the chemical state on surfaces, and is good with quantitative analysis. XPS is
capable of detecting the difference in chemical state between samples. XPS is also able to
differentiate between oxidations states of molecules.

XPS has also some limitations; for instance, samples for XPS must be compatible with the
ultra high vacuum environment.  XPS is limited to measurements of elements having atomic
numbers of 3 or greater, making it unable to detect hydrogen or helium. XPS spectra also take
a long time to obtain. The use of a monochromator can also reduce the time per experiment.