Introduction to Biostatistics

and Epidemiology
VARIABLES AND LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT

RODERICK D. BALCE
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1.Define terms related to biostatistics and epidemiology;
2.Identify data as qualitative or quantitative;
3.Classify quantitative data as discrete or continuous; and
4.Assign data to a level of measurement (nominal, ordinal,
interval, or ratio).
Definition of Terms
• Statistics deals with the study and use of theory and
methods for the analysis of data arising from random
processes or phenomena.
• It provides some of the most fundamental tools and
techniques of the scientific method:
• forming hypotheses
• designing experiments and observational studies
• gathering data
• organizing, summarizing, and presenting data
• drawing inferences from data
The field of statistics can be divided into:
• Mathematical Statistics – the study and development of
statistical theories and methods

• Applied Statistics – the application of statistical methods to

solve real problems involving randomly generated data and
the development of new statistical methodology motivated
by real problems
Applied Statistics
• Biostatistics is the branch of applied statistics directed toward
applications in the health sciences and biology.

• The methods and tools of biostatistics are used to analyze

epidemiological data to aid decision making.

• Biostatistics and Epidemiology are the basic sciences in public

health.
Epidemiology
• Epidemiology is about the understanding of disease
development and the methods used to uncover the
etiology, progression, and treatment of disease.

• It deals with the study of the distribution and determinants

of health, disease, or injury in human populations and the
application of this study to the control of health problems.
Data
• facts or figures from which information can be drawn

Constant – value which remains the same from

person to person, from time to time or from place
to place.

Variable – can be measured and ordered according

to quantity or amount or value which can be
expressed numerically.
Types of Data
Qualitative (or categorical) data consist of
values that can be placed into non-numerical
categories.

Quantitative (or numerical) data consist of

values representing counts or measurements.

NOTE: Numbers that serve as codes, labels, or

identifiers are considered categorical.
Types of Data

Discrete data can take on only particular,

distinct values and not other values in
between.
Continuous data can take on any value in a
given interval.

NOTE: Discrete values often take integer (whole

numbers) values but some discrete variables can
take non-integer values
Types of Data
Levels of Measurement
Levels of Measurement

Nominal – characterized by data that consist of names,

labels, or categories only. The data are qualitative and
cannot be ranked or ordered.
Gender: Male, female
Hair color: Blonde, black, brown
Blood type: O-, O+, A-, A+, B-, B+, AB-, AB+

Type of area you live in: City, suburban, rural

Levels of Measurement
Ordinal – applies to qualitative data that can be arranged in
some order but no quantifiable difference between them.
Level of Satisfaction: Very unsatisfied, unsatisfied, neutral, satisfied,
very satisfied
Socioeconomic status: Low income, medium income, high income
Workplace status or rank: MLT, MT I, MT II, MT III..

Degree of pain: none, mild, moderate, severe

Levels of Measurement
Interval – applies to quantitative data in which intervals
are meaningful, but ratios are not. Data at this level have
an arbitrary zero point.
Credit Scores: Measured from 300 to 850
SAT Scores: Measured from 400 to 1,600
Temperature: Measured in degrees Fahrenheit or Celsius

Standard U.S. women’s dress sizes

Temperature Scales
Data on the Kelvin
scale are at the ratio
level of measurement,
because the Kelvin
scale has a true zero.
A temperature of 0
Kelvin really is the
coldest possible
temperature called
absolute zero.
Standard U.S. women’s dress sizes
Levels of Measurement
Ratio – applies to quantitative data in which both intervals
and ratios are meaningful. Data at this level have a true
zero point.
Height (ft, in, cm); weight (kg, lb); length (m, ft, cm, mm)
Enzyme activity in IU/L
Drug dose in milligrams

Pulse rate (beats per minute)

Levels of Measurement
Important points to consider:
The way a variable is measured defines the scale of
measurement. It is not a property of the data, but of the
question you ask of the data or the methodology you are
applying to the data.
Examples:
• Color
• Age
• Temperature