BCE'CJ'Lfl/EL

Hth Edition

Dr Charles Chew
Chow Siew Foong
Dr Ho Boon Tiong

Marshall Cavendish
FcJ i rr rt t(;t
 Gontents

THEME I GENERAL PHYSICS

Chapter I Measurement T
Cha pler 2 Kinematics 19
Chapter 3 Forces 49
Chapter 4 MaSS, Weight and Density 69
Chapter 5 Turning Effect of Forces 83
Chapter 6 Energy, Work and Power 1_03
Chapter 7 Pressu re !23

THEME II THERMAL PHYSICS

Chapter 8 Tem peratu re r43
Chapter 9 Kinetic Model of Matter 153
Chapter 10 Transfer of Thermal Energy 1,67
Chapter II Thermal Properties of Matter 185

THEME III LIGHT, WAVES AND SOUND

Chapter 12 Light 21,r

Chapter 13 Waves 255
Chapter 1,4 Electromagnetic Waves 273
Chapter 15 Sou nd 285

THEME IV ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

Chapter 1,6 Static Electricity 305
Chapter 17 Current Electricity 32r
Chapter 18 D.C. Circuits 34r
Chapter 19 Practical Electricity 363
Chapte r 20 Magnetism 385
Chapte r 2I Electromagnetism 405
Chapte r 22 Electromagnetic I nduction 425

Data-based Questions 449

Quick Revision Guide 457
I ndex 462
 ln September 1999, after nine months and 650 million kilometres. the Mars Climate
Orbiter suddenly disappeared! The spacecraft was on an important mission to study the
weather and terrain of Mars. What could have happened? Perhaps Maftians hijacked
the spacecraft? lnvestigations into the disappearance led to something surprising.
What could it be?

* ,r:'**o f,'
+l

,T
 7..7. What is Physics?
Physics is the study of our natural world
- from the very large (e.g. the
solar system) to the very small (e.g. the atom).

The study of Physics can be divided into major topics such as General
Physics; Thermal Physics; Light, Waves and Sound; and Electricity and
Magnetism. All these topics are related to two main ideas: matter and
energy. The concept map in Figure 1.1 summarises this.

study of

can be studied can be studied

in terms of its in terms of its

relationship with energy relationship with matter properties

in the fields of

r Figure 1.1 Overview of the study of Physics

The knowledge we have gained in the field of physics is the result of the
work of many scientists. These scientists conducted many experiments to
verify their ideas on matter and energy. When we carry out experiments, we
need to make accurate measurements in order to obtain reliable results.

Chapter 1
L2 Physical Quantities and Sl Units
-rrrg Outcomes fss should be able to:
-- =erstanding
-that all physical quantities consist of a numerical
:- re and a unit;
: se'. en base quantities and their Sl units;
dnd symbols to indicate very large or very small Sl quantities.
=-.'.€S

:- -.-trelling within Singapore, you may have noticed that most

-..: cridges have a sign with '4.5 m' printed on them. ln Physics,
- -n '- , Figure L.2). r, Figlure 7..2 This sign found on
an overhead bridge warns drivers
of vehicles above the height of
4.5 m not to pass underneath it.

'-?.? altogether seven basic physical quantities, or base quantities.

_ shows the seven base quantities and their corresponding
-.1,
.s, Sl units are the units of measurement in the widely used Refining everyday thinking
--.'--'.onal System of Units (abbreviated Sl from French: Systdme
": '.: onal d'Unitls).

-able 1.1 The seven base quantities and their Sl units

Le ngth metre

Mass kg

Trme S r, Albert Einstein

(1,87 9-1_955)

E lectric A
Einstein had a healthy
sense of scepticism. When
his father showed him a
'magical' pocket comPass, he
Lu m inous intensity
-:il"fl' :r '9 be ieved th at th e ' m agic' th at
I

caused the need le to move

Amount of substance mole i mol could be logically exPlained.
Einstein's imagination and
perseverance in building
mechanical models to explain
l'--ne seven base quantities listed the table, you will learn five in this
in observations were keY to his
::'trrse. They are length, mass, time, electric current and temperature. success as a scientist.

J:her common physical quantities such as area, volume and speed To Einstein, "the whole of
science is nothing more
a.e derived from these seven quantities. They are called derived
than a refinement of
quantities. For example, speed is derived from length (i.e. distance
everyday thinking". ManY
:'avelled) and time. of the famous scientists
we know today challenged
everyday 'truths' to defend
science. H ave you ever used
science to explain how some
accepted 'truths' are wro ng?

Measurement
 Table !.2 gives examples of how some common physical quantities are
derived from the base quantities.

v Table 7..2 Some common derived quantities and their Sl units

Area Lenel.!
L "yigll
From what you have Volume Lengthxwidthxheight
learnt so far, have you
Length
fou nd the an swe rs to Speed m s-1
Let's Explore (a)? Time

Why do we need Sl units?

ln the past, people used parts of their bodies and things around them as
units of measurement. That was how measuring terms such as the foot, yard
and horsepower came about. Unfortunately, such methods of measurement
created much confusion because the measurement varied from individual
to individual. lt was not until 1968 that scientists agreed to adopt one
universal set of units the Sl units.
-
Prefixes for Sl units
Using decimal notation, the distance between air molecules can be
expressed as 0.000 000 01 m. lf we need to mention this quantity a number
of times, it would be cumbersome to use this type of notation.

lnstead of using decimal notation, it is more convenient to use prefixes to

represent the quantity. For example, when measuring short distances such
! of a metre, we simply express it as one micrometre. Thus,
"s 1 OOO OOO
0.000 000 01 m can be expressed as O.O1 pm (micrometre), where p
represents the submultiple 10-6. The prefixes listed in Table 1.3 are useful
for expressing physical quantities that are either very big or very small.

y Table 1.3 Some common prefixes and their symbols

00oo
ovy2&nlit?tr'zo

r Prefixes are a
more effective way of
representing very small I nano- I

or very large quantities.

Ghapter 1
3'-:':ard form
. ..:- ert and acceptable way of expressing physical quantities is to
:' . "-..'. form. Standard form is a way of writing numbers, in which one
- -, . s rultiplied by an appropriate power of 10. For example, 0.00567
: . ,:"essed in standard form will be 5.67 x 10-3 and 1.68 x 104. ln the
=

- : : , :':ssed in standard form:

-::'s ,km) is 1x 103 m . One milliampere (mA) is 1x 10 3 A
::.-: r,Jles (MJ) is 3 x 106 J e Six microcoulombs (pC) is 6 x 10-6 C
.- : -::onds (ns) is 8 x 10-e s

- €C €xarnpl€ ll
-' -anraica broke the 100 m sprint world record at the 2009 World
- : -cionships, with a time of 9.58 s. With this record, he became
: 'astest man. ln contrast, a dog runs at a speed of 30 km h-1. lf a
::: - sain Bolt, will it be able to catch up with him?
o-
: . e calculate the average speed of Usain Bolt.
,',

distance100 m
IO.4 m
=:=eCj =-= S-1
time 9.58 s
speed of Usain Bolt is 1,O.4 m s-1

ter to make a meaningful comparison, the units of the values

-- Llst be the same. r Usain Bolt leading in
a 100 m race
-
Usain Bolt's speed to km h-1
=
100
1oo m looo
kt
= 37.6 kffi - 37.6 km h-1
9.58 s 9.58 h
N
3600
-.6 km From what you have
=: h-1 > 30 km h 1, Usain Bolt will outrun the dog over a distance learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
Let's Explore (b)?

l.e
1
4, t physical quantity consists of a numerical The world's smallest playable guitar is 13 prm
^ragnitude and a unit. long. Express the guitar's length in standard form.
2 -f ere are seven base quantities: length, mass,
:rme, electric current, temperature, luminous
ntensity, and amount of substance.
3 The respective Sl units of these seven base
quantities are the metre, kilogroffi, second,
ampere, kelvin, candela, and mole.
4 Units derived from the Sl base units are called
Sl derived units.
,
5 Prefixes such as giga (G), mega (M), kilo (k), r A photo of the mrcroscopic nanoguitar made by
deci (d), centi (c), milli (m), micro (p) and Cornell University researchers. lt was built using
nano (n) can be used to represent quantities nanotechnology. (Refer lo Physics Today al the end
that are very large or very small. of the chapter for more on nanotechnology.)

Measurement

a Figu re 1.3 ^ lr ei re
rule ancl a retractabte
steel tape ileasure
v Figure 7,.4 We need
to measu re a wrde range
of lenSths. as the oblects
around r-rs range frorrr the
very big to the very snrall.
0.000 000 001
radius of a nucleus
0.000 000 300 1
size of a typrcal atont
1O-tu
Chapter 1
1.3 Measurement of Length
ln Physics, length is an important quantitythat is often used. Forexample, we
rreasure length to find out how far an object has moved, how much space an
object occupies (i.e. the object's volume) and how far apart two objects are.
Tre Sl unit for length is the metre (m).There is a wide range of lengths in
tiris world (Figure 1-.4). lt is necessary to use the appropriate instruments
and methods to measure different types of length.
The metre rule and tape measure
The metre rule and tape measure (Figure 1-.3) are instruments that are
commonly used to measure length.
A'"netre rule can nleasure lengths of up to one metre. A steel tape measure
is suitable for measuring straight distances longer than a metre, while a
ctoth tape measure is suitable for nreasuring the length along a curved
silrface, such as a 0erson's waist.
nr
r'r-r 0 0001 n'r
a ve rage width l-tr-rntan hair
0.002 m
d ia mete r of a wire
LO-o
1OO nr
length of a football field
 llhat is the precision of an instrument?
= sntallest unit an instrument can measure is known as its precision.
': s the smallest unit on a metre rule? lt is 0.1 cm or 1 mm. Therefore,
- :lrecision of a metre rule is 1_ mm.
: :h ickness of a piece of paper is less than the precision of a metre rule
. L nrm). Therefore, you cannot directly measure the paper's thickness
' g a metre rule. You will have to estimate its thickness.
r To estirnate the
th ickness of a sheet of
H ow do we avoid errors of measurement? paper, we could measure
tn you use a metre rule, your eyes should be positioned such that your the thickness of a stack of
paper and then divide the
= of sight is perpendicular to the rule (Figure 1.5(a)). Measurement errors
.

th ickness by the number of

:':duced when this is not done are called parallax errors (Figure 1.5(b)). sheets in that stack.

::urate length of object = 2.9 - 1.0 = 1.9 cm lnaccurate length of object = 3.0 - 0.9 = 2.! cm
-44
It
ll
at r object r

(a) Accurate measurement (b) lnaccurate measurement

Figure 1.5 How to take accurate readings by avoiding parallax errors
^

\ote that some metre rules have their zero marks at the very end of the
'ule. wear and tear of the metre rule may make this mark unsuitable for
'rreasuring purposes. Thrs worn end may introduce errors into the readings. Search the lnternet to find
ience, it is better to measure from another point and subtract it from the out more about the relative
'inal reading (Figure 1.5(a)). Taking several readings and catculating the s izes of th rngs in the

average also minimises errors. universe Use keywords

such as " powers of ten ".
I
t of Mount Eve rest

9 500 000 000 000 000 m

distance travelled by light in
I
one year
!o"
I

LO'o
I

lOtt
lOtu
LOto

lOto
10-

20 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 m

distance from the Earth to the
And romed a galaxy
6378OO0nr
rad iu s of the Ea rth
The vernier calipers
A pair of vernier callpers (Figure 1.6) has a main scale and a
sliding vernier scale. lt is a useful tool for measuring both the
internal and external diameters of objects. Vernier calipers
are able to measure to a precision of 0.01 cm.

tail
inside jaws
- used to - used to
measure the depth
measure the internal
diameter of an object of an object

t L
a
r\N\
1s cs
\\\\
/
NNN\\\\\\'\tt
10
\
\r
,E l fl aF
eJ -.J

[\\\\$
\\
a
G

main scale
3:
s
sliding vernier scale
a small sliding
-scale alongside the
main scale that allows
us to read a fraction of
the smallest interval

I J outside jaws
- used to measure the
external diameter or width of an object

e Figure 1.6 Parts of a pair of vernier calipers and their uses

I
Galipers
Vernier calipers are a type of calipers. Calipers are instruments that are used for measuring the diameters of
cylinders and circular objects, as shown below.

r Calipers used to measure outer diameters r, Calipers inverted to measure inner diameters

Chapter 1
How do we use the vernier calipers? Step 2
3 i-'e L.7 shows how pair Read the main scale to the
a of vernier calipers is used.
immediate left of the zero mark
on the vernier scale. ln this
^ side jaws main scale
case, the reading on the main
scale is 31 mm or 3.1 cm.

Step 3
The 4th vernier mark coincides
with a marking on the main scale.
bal I
This gives a reading of O.4 mm or
bea ring 0.04 cm on the vernier scale.

: Jtside jaws
-
Step 4
Step 1 The diameter is found by adding
3r'rp the ball bearing gently using the vernier scale reading to the
:^e outside jaws of the calipers. main scale readtng:
31 mm + O.4 mm - 31-.4 mm or
A Ftgute 7..7 Step-by-step instructions on how to use a pair of vernier calipers
3.1 cm + 0.04 cfft = 3.14 cm

How do we avoid errors when using the verniet calipers?

i=':,re using the vernier calipers, we need to examine the instrument for
zero erlor. That is, we check if the zero mark on the main scale coincides
r. :^ the zero mark on the sliding vernier scale when the jaws touch each
::'er. Table 1.4 shows how to correct for zero errors on the vernier calipers.

' Table 7..4 Checking and correcting zero errors when using the vernier calipers

llo zero etror

scale main scale
^e zero marks of the 3.14 cm
:,', O scales coincide. vernier scale vernier scale
(No correction
10
req u ired )
Reading = 3.14 cm
Positiv e zeto etror main scale main scale
-ne zero mark of
:^ e vernier scale is vernier scale vernier scale 3.I7 - (+0.03)
s ghtly to the right of 0 10 - 3.L4 cm
:^e main scale.
.e
3 divisions
Zero effof = +0.03 cm Reading = 3.17 cm
tegative zeto eror 1,
main scale 4
atn scat€
-he zero mark of
:he vern ier scale is vernier scale ier scale 3.L1, - (-0.03)
slightly to the left of .e 10
- 3.1-4 cm
'-he main scale.
3 divisions
Zero error - -0.03 cm Reading = 3.11 cm
 The miclometer screw gauge
The micrometer screw gauge (Figure 1.8) has a main scale and a thimble
scale. lt is usually used
r to measure objects that are too small to be measured with vernier calipers;
. when measurements to a precision of 0.01 mm (i.e. 10 pm) are required. Figure 1.8 A micrometer
^
screw gauge

How do we use the micrometet scrcw gauge?

Figure 1.9 shows how a micrometer screw gauge is used. Step 2
Read the main scale reading to the
immediate left of the edge of the
Step 1
thimble. ln this case, it is 8.5 mm.
Turn the thimble until the anvil and the spindle are almost
touching the object. Then, turn the ratchet until it clicks. The
click indicates that the grip of the micrometer screw gauge
Step 3
on the object is just right for the reading to be taken.
o Take the thimble reading
that is in line with the datum
cross section of wire thimble scale
line of the main scale.
anvi I
o Each division on the thimble
s pind le
45 scale is 0.01 mm.
o Therefore, in this case, the
40+ reading is
35
40 x 0.01 mm - 0.4O mm

main scale Step 4

datum line
The diameter of the wire
r Figure 1.9 Step-by-step instructions on how to use a micrometer screw gauge is found by adding the
thimble reading to the
main scale reading. ln
How do we avoid eftors when usingthe micrometer screw gauge?
this case,
As with vernier calipers, we need to examine the micrometer screw gauge
8.5 mm + 0.4O mm
for zero error before using it. That is, we check if the smallest reading is
0.00 mm when the spindle touches the anvil. Table 1.5 shows how zero - 8.90 mm
errors on a micrometer screw gauge can be corrected.

v Table 1.5 Checki ng and correcting zero errors when using a micrometer screw gauge

No zero error
8.90 mm
The smallest reading
is 0.00 mm. (No correction
da um ne
req u ired)
Zero error - 0.00 mm Reading = 8.90 mm
Positive zero errol

The zero marking on

8.e3 - (+0.03)
the thimble scale is
below the datum line.
- 8.90 mm
Zero error = *0.03 mm Reading

Negative zero etrol

The zero marking on

-__ the thimble scale is
8.87 - (-0.03)
= $.90 mm
datum line above the datum line.
Zero error = -0.03 mm Reading

Chapter 1
 a
I Sommonly used measuring instruments with their range What happened to the Mars
and precision: Climate Orbiter?
The Mars Climate Orbiter
was lost due to human error.
The space engineers made
measurements in imperial
-ape measure Up to several I 0.1 cm i n person's units (e.9. yards, inches) but
metres :Of 1mm i waist entered thern as Sl units into
:* J-- the com puter system. Th is
\1etre ru le Several ; 0.1 cm HeiSht of a confusion resu lted in the loss of
centimetres to iorlmm table a US$tZ5 million spacecraft
one metre -
_ -+--
;l +- - a very expensive mistake! This
mishap shows how a universal
Vernier From one to 1_5 i O.O1 cm I Diameter of
and standardised measurement
calipers centimetres or 0.1 mmi a test tube system is important.
M icrometer
screw gauge
Less than 2.5
centimetres
i 0.001 cm j Diameter of
: or 0.01 mm i a wire
I
t- "r
2 Errors to note when using measuring instruments:

Metre ru le Parallax error

Vernier calipers Zero error and parallax error ;.:.- ;-.-,

Micrometer screw gauge Zero error and parallax error e kin gon
ser

1.3
1 The diarneter of a wire is measured using a 3. Figure 1,.I2 shows a voltmeter scale with a
micrometer screw gauge. The student takes an strip of mirror mounted under the needle.
initi al zero reading (Figure 1.10(a)) and then a Suggest how this may help reduce errors
reading of the diameter (Figure 1.10(b)). What when readings are taken.
is the diameter of the wire?
Z3
\\\lll

(a) Zero reading (b) Diameter reading mtrror

r Figure 1.10
r Figure 7,.L2
2. A pair of vernier calipers is used to measure the
diameter of a ball bearing. what is the reading
of the vernier calipers shown in Figu re !.Ln

Experiment 1
How do we use measuring
instruments to measure
lengths accurately?
 7..4 Measurement of Time
Learning outcome you should be able to:
- -
' describe how to measure a short period of time with appropriate accuracy,
using
appropriate instruments.

How do we measure time?

lmagine that you are stranded on an island. You do not have a watch
or a mobile
phone. How would you be able to tell the time?

We can tell time by observing events that repeat at regular intervals

or periods.

Spring, summer, autumn and winter come once a year.

The shape of the Moon changes from a full moon to a

crescent and back to a full moon again, showing that a
month has passed.

It1.l*h:

'i'!i

The sun sets each day.A day can be divided

inlo 24 hours, an hour can be divided into
60 minutes and a minute can be divided into
60 seconds. How do we measure these shorter
time intervals?

fl;,$

In the old days, o sundrar was used to tell the

time of the day. The position of the shadow
cast by the sun differs according to the time
of the day. At noon, the sun is high in the sky.
ln the evening, rt rs low in the western sky.

a Figure 1.13 Measuring tirre using natural events that occur at regular intervals

The sl unit for time is the second (s). The year, month, day, hour and minute are
other units for measuring time.

For scientific work, the observation of natural events (Figure 1.13) is

not
accurate enough. For example, the time interval between a sunrise and
a sunset
is different in winter and summer. The time intervals for scientific work have
to
be fixed; they cannot change. can you think of recurrent motions that
can be
used to measure time for scientific work?
Chapter 1
 Using a pendulum to measure time
- : --cle pendulum can be used to measure time. lt consists of a heavy
- :::. called a bob (e.g. a metal ball), that is attached to one end of a string.
--: ::1er end of the string is fixed. when a pendulum swings freely, it wrll Other than its length,
: .= rack and forth at regular intervals. the period of a
pendulum also depends
on the gravitational field
strength of its location.
You will learn more
about gravitational field
strength in Chapter 4.

Frgurc 7..L4 When the bob moves from R to S and back to R, the pendulum completes
: : scillation. ln what other ways can the bob swing to produce one complete oscillation?

I
--: period of a pendulum depends on its tength. pendulum clocks can be How long is one second?
The second is the time
- : crated to measure time accurately by adjusting the length of the pendulum. taken for a caesium atom
to oscillate a certain
::'scientific work, time intervals have to be precisely measured. The period number of times. There
:'lhe oscillations must not change. Most modern timepieces are calibrated are exactly
-s ng precise timekeeping devices called atomic clocks (Figure 1.15). 9 r92 631 770
oscillations in one
second. Clocks all round
lnstruments used to measure time the world are adjusted to
match the time interval
Pendulum clock measured by a standard
: timepieces use some kind of periodic motion to measure time. pendulum caesium clock (an atomic
: ocks keep time using a pendulum's periodic swing. clock).

Clocks and stopwatches

-re oscillations of springs and the natural vibrations of crystals are other
ceriodic motions that can be used to keep time. Most clocks and watches
:cday use quartz crystals. Quartz crystals are small, accurate and require very
ttle electrical energy.

)epending on the accuracy and precision needed, the instruments used

'vill vary. For example, we would not use an analogue watch to measure
:he time taken for a runner to run a 100 m race, but we will use a digital
stopwatch instead.

Human reaction time

Most stopwatches can measure time to a precision of 0.01 s. Digital stopwatches
usually show readings up to two decimal places. However, we usually take
readings to the nearest one decimal place. This is because, unlike the electronic a Figure 1.15 An atomic
sensors used in data loggers, stopwatches need to be started and stopped by clock built in !97 5 by
hand. This manual operation introduces a random error called human reaction the National Research
Council Canada
time. Human reaction time is about 0.3-0.5 s for most people.
Measurement
 lnvestigation l"l

Objective
To calibrate a simpre pendulum to measure time in seconds

Apparatus
Pendulum, stopwatch, metre rule, retort stand and clamp

Procedure
1' Tie the pendulum to the clamp, and measure the length 1of the string in metres (Figure 1.16).
2. Measure the time taken for the pendulum to make 20 oscillations.
3. Vary the length / of the string between 50 and 90 cm and repeat step 2.
4. Complete the foilowing table:
retort sta
clamp

0.500
0.600 I

0.700
0.800

pendulum
5. Plot a graph of period T/s against length t/m, and find
the length of the pendulum with a period of one second.
Plot also a graph of T'/s, against length l/m.
a Figure 1.16
Calculation
The period of the pendulum f is found by dividing tuu" by 20.That is, T - t-
20
Note: A common mistake made during practical work is to take the average
time for
( t t2 )
20 oscillations (, .. r,u" =
ry) u, the per od T of the pendulum.
Precaution
Why do we need to take the time for 20 oscillations?
When we divide the measured time by 20, the inaccuracy associated with period
f due to human
reaction will be only lof the human reaction time.
20
Results and Discussion
Period T/s T21sz

Length I /m Length I /m
^r Figure 7,.L7(al Graph of T vs. / r Figure 1.17(b) Graph of f2vs. /
How does this experiment allow us to use a pendulum to measure time
in seconds?
The length of the pendulum with a period of one second can be read off
the graph. By using a
pendulum with this length, we can measure time by counting
the number of olciilations (e.g. if
1 oscillation takes 1 second, then 60 oscillations tat<e 6O seconds or 1 minute).
Chafier 1
fihat can we observe about the graph of T agatnst /?
--: ceriod increases with length, but not linearly.

'#hat does the plot of T2 agalnst / tell us?

- :: s us that the square
of the period is directly proportional to the length. This gives rise to a
.:': ght-line graph when we plot f2 against /. By extendingthe straight-line graph, we can easily
:'=: ct the period of the pendulum for lengths that are not included in the graph we have plotted.

1. Time intervals can be measured by observing events that repeat Experiment 2

themselves period ical ly. How does a pendulum's
2. To measure time intervals in minutes and hours, we can use analogue length affect its period?
watches and clocks. To measure time intervals to a precision of O.O1 s,
we usually use stopwatches.
3. The period of a pendulum is the time taken for the pendulum bob to
make one complete oscillation.
From what you have
learnt so far, have you
1.4 found the answers to
Let's Explore (c)?
1. Figure 1 18 shows an oscillating pendulum. lf the
time taken for the pendulum to swing from A to C
to B is 3 s, what is the period of the pendulum?
2. How would you measure the average time taken
by a bus to travel from your home to school?
3. How would you determine the period of a swing in B
the playground? r Figure 1.18
State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

inches' is a physical quantity because it has both a numerical magnitude and

,", i '36
and
(a) ;;. j L.2
--r"a:;.,iihes' - -T'* --T
I

ii The
lllE Jl units for
Sl Ulllls len LIl,
mass, lgll
IUI llldss, tllll<:, temperature,
lh, time, current qllu
LElllPErOLU|E, UUll9llL and ollluullL
amount ul of II iI
(b) i substance arethegram, metre, second, degree Celsius, amplre and mole mole ttt I t.2
I respectivety. i
.i----f--t- I

,^, i When there are 60O turns

("1 of a d by the wire is 3.6 cm. The tt
I i
L.2
i uu"ruge diameter of the wire
-- is i
-+- -f--i-
I

,-.i fne radius of an atom is ol the whereas the radius of Earth I 1.3
tct *J"r 106 metres.
I

i"1
'
t- "iin" "r ' .--'-f i
--
less than one centimetre, we should use a micrometer
(") 1.3
i l:rff?""t1r&lengths
I
I
Yv

,.r i When measuring a physical quantity, taking the average value of repeated 1.3
t" measurements gives a more accurate value of the quantity. 1,.4

rcr\ ; The period of a pendulum calculated from the time taken for multiple osc at on
tb' r.4
is less accurate than measuring the time taken for one oscillation.

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Section A: Multiple-Ghoice Questions 2. Two vernier scales are shown below. The vernier
scale at the top shows the reading when the
7.. ln a particular experiment, you are required to vernier calipers are closed and the vernier scale at
measure the distance between two points that the bottom shows the reading when the diameter
are between O.7 m and 0.8 m apart. Which of of a steel ball bearing is being measured.
the following instruments should you use in
order to obtain a reading that has a precision 0102030
of 0.001 m?
mm
A A half-metre rule
B A metre rule 10
C A ten-metre measuring tape
10 20 30
D A metre rule and vernier calipers
mm

10

The diameter of the steel ball bearing is

A 1.49 cm
B 1.50 cm
C 1.59 cm
D 1.61 cm

Ghapter 1
 upper scale
--: .- --cle scale at the top read ing lower scale
: - - ,'. s -.re zero reading of a
: '_ '-- eter screw gauge
: - - -.'. scale at the bottom r Figure 1.19

: - - .,s :he reading when the (a) What is the reading shown?
- .- - =:e ' of a ball bearing (b) Describe briefly the measurements you will
-: '--easured using the make to determine the diameter of a piece
: : ^-= '-t iCrometer SCrew diameter reading of copper wire.
.: -:e, lvhat is the diameter
.
- .-= call bearing? 5. A student measures the width of a glass slide
using a pair of vernier calipers.
A :,42 mm
B :92mm
c i-.98 mm
D 2.04 mm

Src t ion B: Structured Questions

: l=-tify the physical quantity, numerical 10 0.1 mm
--,3ritude and unit in the following statements:
(a) The length of a table is found to be
f ive metres.
(b) The time the pendulum takes to complete
a single oscillation is two seconds. gl ass
(c) A typical car has a mass of one
thousand kilograms. (a) In Figure L.2O, what is the measurement
of the width of the glass slide?
2 = in the blanks with the correct symbols. The (b) List the precision of the following
' -st has been done for you. measuring instruments: vernier calipers,
(a) t k g=103g (c)
metre rule and micrometer screw gauge.
Explain why the method shown in
(b) 1,- s=10-Gs
Figure 1,.20 will not yield an accurate
(c) 1mA=-A measurement. How would you obtain a
(d) 1,- m-10-2m more accurate measurement of the width
(e) 1cm2 = of the glass slide?
(f) 1,_w-106w
-m2 Section C: Free-Response Question
3. Complete Table 1.6.
v Table 1.6 *1. A student conducted an experiment to measure
the acceleratlon due to gravity g of a simple
pendulum. The data obtained were tabulated
in Table I.7 .

v Table 7..7

metre and
seve_111
_T{re:___.+ -'--l- i _---
Betweenlcm i i

and 15 cm
0.01 cm
a;t*"". O-JO1 .r-l--
!
I

i
Given that the relation between the period I, the
and O.O1- cm ' i
I
length / of the pendulum and the acceleration

due to gravity g is T = 2n^[,find the value of g

4. Figure L 19 shows the reading on a micrometer
screw gauge. The upper scale is in mm and the
!e
using the graphical approach.
lower scale shows the intermediate half-mm
divisions. The screw has a pitch of 0.50 mm
(i.e. one turn will move the thimble 0.50 mm
along the main scale).
A nanometre is one-billionth of a metre. lt is about the
length of ten atoms placed side by side. Nanotechnology
is the science of making machines at an atomic scale.
Advances rn nanotechnology have allowed us to build
computer-controlled tools much smaller than a human cell.
The machines that are constructed using nanotechnology
have very useful applications.

Some uses of nanotechnology include:

o Nanomedicine for diagnostic purposes and drug delivery.
Nanomachines have been used to remove obstructions in
the circulatory system and to kill cancer cells.
o Nanosensors for monitoring and conveying information
about nanoparticles. For example, a chemically fixed body
tissue can be analysed at the molecular level to give an
extremely detailed 'snapshot' of the cellular, subcellular
and molecular activities in the body tissue.
o Creation of special materials that are lighter and stronger
for defence, derospace, ord automotive applications.

I. ln nanomedicine, doctors may inject nanorobots

into a patient's bloodstream. These nanorobots are
programmed to travel to the affected area in the body to
administer medication. What risks does this procedure
involve?
2 Suggest why robots used to kill cancer cells need to be
at the nanoscale.
ln 1987, Gregory Robertson, a skydiving instructor, carried out the most daring rescue
in his lifetime. Upon seeing his fellow skydiver, Debbie williams, falling past him
unconscious in midair, Robertson instinctively increased his speed to go after her. He
caught up with her and released both their parachutes barely seconds from crashing
to the ground. How did he manage to alter his speed in midair?
 2.!. Distance and Displacement
Learning Outcome feq should be able to:
o -
understand and distinguish between scalar and vector quantities.

Scalars and vectors

V Table 2.!- Common scalar and vector quantities

Dista nce Displacement

Speed Velocity

Mass Acceleration

Energy Force

Time

Diffetence between distance and displacement

Figure 2.1 shows the motion of an object between two points, A and B'
For any object moving
We will use it to illustrate the meaning of distance and displacement.
in a straight line (i.e.
linear motion), we can
assign its direction
from a reference Point
as positive or negative.
For exam ple, in Figu re
2.I, if we assign the
d i rectio n to th e right
of A as positive, the
displacement of the
moving object is +5 km.

A Figure 2.7- Distance and displacement between A and B

e Displacement
o The distance measured in a straight
o Distance
o The total length covered by a moving object line in a sPecified direction
regardless of the direction of motion
o A vector quantity (i.e. has both
o A scalar quantity (i.e. has magnitude only) magnitude and direction)
. Sl unit: metre (m) o Sl unit: metre (m)
o The distance travelled by the moving object o The displacement of the object from A
from A to B is either 7 km (blue path) or to B is 5 km due east of A, regardless
1-0 km (green Path). of the actual Path it takes.

What if the object moves back to A along the same path (i.e. A -+ B A)? +
.The distance ittravels is either 14km (blue path) or 20 km ($reen path);
. lts displacement is zero, because it is back at A.
 r,-(€d €xample e.l
a car that travels 5 km due east and makes a U-turn
3 km.

I -- ::a'Ce COVefed;
t - :: rcement.

>,:
t c ove red 5km+3km
8km

,-3km
ffiThe magnitude of
a displacement is
measured from the
-=ooint* starting point to the
5km { Figure 2.2 final point.
=' -g the direction due east of point o as positrve,
Its direction is from the
- :: acement = 5 km - 3 km starting point to the
= 2 km final point.

2.2 speed, velocity and Acceleration

-€arning Outcomes You should be able to:
o' : -=-ish between- speed and velocity;
. - r ,, erage speed using distance travelled .

time taken '

r---= ,,,hat uniform acceleration is;
change in velocity
: : - - ate the value of acceleration using
time taken

Speed
- I ,', wou ld you find out who the
'-s:er 100 m sprinter is Usain
: : : (the current fastest man)
-' a cheetah (the fastest land
^- anrmal) (Figure 2.3)?

-l rnake a f air comparison, we

^eed to find the speed of Usain
3olt and a cheetah over 1_00 m. Figure 2.3 How do we use kinematics to identify the faster 1OO m sprinter?

distance travelled
effi
A unlt time can be a
Speed = second, o ffiinute or
time taken
an hou r.

Speed is a scalar quantity. lts Sl unit is the metre per second (m s-t).
 Based on Usain Bolt's 100 m world record time of 9.58 s set in 2009,
distance travelled
S peed
time taken
100 m
9.58 s
= 10.4 m s-1

The average speed of a cheetah is between 20 m s-1 and 30 m s 1. So, a

cheetah has the edge over Bolt, unless Bolt can finish the 100 m sprint below
" lronically, being the 5 s in the future.
fastest can be a cLrrse
for cheetahs Average speed
fable 2.2 shows the results for men's running events at the 2008 BeUing
Using the lnternet.
o verify the above Olympics.
statement with
v Table 2.2 Results for men's running events at the 2008 Beijing Olympics
supporting reasons;
. find out if there ts a
correlation between
animals'speeds and
Usain Bolt J amaica 1-00 9.69 10.3
their nrasses
U sain Bolt J ama ica 200 19.30 ro.4

LaShawn Merritt USA 400 43.7 5 9.r4

Wilfred Bungei Kenya 800 1,O4.65 7 .64

The speed of each athlete in Table 2.2 is actually his average speed. Average
speed assumes that each athlete travels at the same speed throughout the
entire distance.

Average speed _ !@avelled

tota I time ta ke n

ln reality, the athletes did not run at the same speed throughout their
races. The speed at one instant is different from the speed at another
instant. The speed of an object at a particular instant is known as its
instantaneous speed.

v Average speeds of different objects or animals

?
{J bu llet from
L500 m
Airbus A38O
28O m s-1

;rru;':'l
chapter2
A
Velocity
, - : - r, e are asked for the velocity of an
object, we have to state the speed
-' :-: object and the direction in which it is travelling. This is because
: - - ir is a vector quantity. lt is speed in a specified direction. lf the athlete in the
diagram takes 25 s
to complete a 200 m
sprint event, find her
speed and velocity.
d istance
d isplacement trave I led
,€ CCity = 200 m
time taken

-rnit is the metre per second (m s-t).

d isplacement

--
50 m -..
-:
:01ect moves at a constant velocity when it moves at a con speed in
: Jrrection. The object is no longer at a constant velocity when it changes
- -::tion without changing its speed, or when it changes its speed without
-
-:-ging its direction.

: arly, as in the case of average speed,

I .:-age velocity =
total displacement
total time taken

Worked €xample ?,?

The 'triangle' method
= 3-'e 2.4 shows a car that travels 5 km due east and can help you to recall the
-'3les a U-turn to travel another 7 km. lf the time taken relationship between velocity
-: - '.he v, displacement d and time t.
whole journey is O.2 h, calculate the
I a ) ave rage s peed ; ( b) ave rage ve loc ity of the car.

Solution
7km
ending point E

To find tlme t, rt
cover tto obtain t- "
starting point (as shown above). v
To find velocity v,
total distance covered cover y to obtain v -
d
(a ) Ave rage speed - total time taken t
o To find displacement d,
(5+7)km cover d to obtain d - vt.
o.2 h
This method can also be
60 km h-1
applied to other similar
formulae, in which variable
(b) Taking the direction due east of point O as positive, x is directly proportional
to variable y but Inversely
total displacement
Average velocity = proportional to vari able z,
total time taken
(5-7) v
km \o<
z
o.2 h r.e.
-10 km h-1 v-_
ky
Z
where k = constant
 Acceleration
An object is accelerating when its velocity changes. ln other words,
the object undergoes acceleration when its speed and/or direction
change(s) (Figu re 2.5).

20 m s-1 30 m s-1 20ms1

-----e- o
\
(a) Change in speed (b) Change in direction (c) Change in both speed and direction

A Figure 2.5 Three scenarios in which acc.ffibn occurs

change in velocity
Acceleration =
time taken

Acceleration is a vector quantity. lts Sl unit is the metre per second per
second (m s-').

Quick Check There is acceleration when velocity increases or decreases over time.
A string is tied to a stone. For an object whose velocity decreases over time, we can say that it is
Does the stone undergo undergoing deceleration or retardation.
acceleration when it is
whirled in circles?
Uniform acceleration
s An object undergoes uniform acceleration when the change (increase
or decrease) in its velocity for every unit of time is the same
(Table 2.3).

v Table 2.3 object moving with uniform acceleratron

r' Whirling a stone

2. ldentify the event(s) that

involves deceleration :

(a) A space shuttle

blasting off
(b) An aeroplane landing When the velocity of the object is increasingby 20 m s l every second,
(c) A lift approaching the the acceleration is 20 m s-2. When the velocity of the object is decreasing
intended floor by 20 m s-1 every second, the deceleration is 20 m s-2.
(d) An MRT train leaving a
stati on
(e) A car coming to a halt

Chapter 2
 --: 'ctlowing equation can be used to determine the uniform acceleration a
:- =- object:
Are uniform acceleration
where u - initial velocity (in m s-t); and uniform motion
_\ttt VU y = final velocity (in m s-t); the same? Explain your
+ answer.
[, - time at which an object is at initial velocity u
(in s);
+
[v- - the time at which an object is at final velocity
v (in s);
Lv = change in velocity (in m s-t);
at = time interval between t, and t,(in s).

Worked €xampl€ e.3

:ar at rest starts to travel in a straight path. lt reaches a velocity of L2m s-1 in 4 s (Figure 2.6).
^at is its acceleration, assuming that it accelerates uniformly?

Solution
,'r e assign the direction to the right as positive.
3 ;ve n . in itia I ve loc ity u = 0 m s-t (since the car starts from rest)
final velocity v - 12 m s-1
time taken at = tu-tr=4s 0ms-1 v--lrnis,
" G., .R*
Since its acceleration IS assumed to be uniforffi,
m s-1_

At 4s =3ms-2 t =4s
The acceleration is 3 m s-2 A Figure 2.6

Worked €xampl€ ?.4

Thevelocityofagolfball rollinginastraightlinechangesfrom8ms-1to2ms-1 inlOs(Figure2.7).
what is its deceleration, assuming that it is decelerating uniformly?

Solution
we assign the direction to the right as positive.
Given: initial velocity u = 8 m s-1
final velocity v- 2 m s-1
time taken At = 10 s

Since its acceleration is assumed to be uniforffi,

Af = 10 s
-,_v-u
it-
(2-8) ms-1
m s-2 A Figure 2.7
At 10s
The deceleration is 0.6 m s-2
 N o n-u nifo r m ac cel e r ati on
An object undergoes non-uniform acceleration if the change in its velocity
for every unit of time is not the same (Table 2.4).

v Table 2.4 Object moving with non-uniform acceleration

00
I 10 10-0=10
2 40 40-10=30
60 60-40=20
(9
-. Let's Explore! 70 70- 60 = 10
From what you have 5 50 50-70=-2O
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
Let's Explore (a), (b) Note that the change in velocity is not the same for every second. The
and (c)? moving object is undergoing non-uniform acceleration.

7-. Scalar quantities are physical quantities 7. An object undergoes acceleration when its
that have magnitude only. Examples include speed and/or direction change(s).
distance, speed and time. change in velocity
2. Vector quantities are physical quantities Acceleratioh =
that have both magnitude and direction. time taken
Examples include displacement, velocity and 8. An object undergoes uniform acceleration a if
acceleration. the change in its velocity for every unit of time
3. Speed is the distance moved per unit time. is the same, i.e. the rate of change of velocity
Its Sl unit is the metre per second (m s-t). is constant.
total distance travelled L,v
4. Average speed = e= Mrere Lv - the change of the velocity;
total time taken at '
=, At = the time interval over
-
5. Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. which the change in
Its Sl unit is the metre per second (m s-t). velocity occurs.
isplacement
d
9. An object undergoes non-uniform acceleration
VelocitY =
time taken if the change in its velocity for every unit of
6. Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. time is not the same.
Its Sl unit is the metre per second
per second (m s-').

e.l t a,e
1, From point A, a boy walks 4 m to the east, 2 m 4. At the start of a journey, the odometer (i.e. a
to the south,4 m to the west, and finally 2 m meter that tracks the total distance a car has
to the north. Find (a) the distance he travelled; travelled) showed an initial reading of
(b) his displacement. 50 780 km. At the end of the journey, the
2. What is the difference between speed and odometer reading was 50 924 km. The journey
ve loc ity? took two hours. What was the average speed
3. "An object moving at a constant velocity is of the journey in (a) km h-1; (b) m s-1?
moving in a straight line. " ls the statement true -.
b What is acceleration?
or false? Explain your answer. 6. Given that the velocity of an object moving in
a straight line changes uniformly from u to v in
time t, write an expression for the acceleration
of the object.

Chapter 2
2.3 Graphs of Motion
--!m,ng outcomes You should be able to:
. -
. .

. : : .: ''ornration about motion from the shape of a d isplacement-time graph ;

' - - --= ^'ornration about motion from the shape of a velocity-time graph;
' :-- -= displacement by calculating the area under a velocity-time graph.

Drsp I ace ment-ti me gtaphs

= -'= : 3 shows a car travelling along a straight line in one directiofl, sta rting
=
: ' ' ' -l'-r the starting point O. lf the direction to the right is set as poi nt
: .:,- .'len the positive gradients of graphs in (b)-(c) mean that
_t o
: -- *ravelling towards the right. The displacement of the car is
- :: --3d for every second. The displacement and time are recorded A Figure 2.8 Motion of a car
: - - ='aph is plotted using the data. The results for four possible
.-
. =. s are shown below.

(a) Car at rest

o '-t-itti1l2ls -----J----
i i -----.T'- -.?
20i20izolzo
r--il-- 20
a:ement/m
The graph has zero gradient.
The displacement is a constant
for every second.

The magnitude of the

gradient gives the speed
of the car. The sign of
Time/s the gradient gives the
d irection of the car.

(b) Car travelling at uniform velocity of 1-0 m s-1

Sketch a displacement-
time graph of another
ca r th at trave s at
I

a higher velocity
) splacement/m compared to the car in
The graph has a constant gradient. Figu re 2.8.
The displacement increases 10 m
every second.

Time/s
 (c) Car travelling with increasing velocity (non-uniform velocity)

Displacement/m
1-25 The graph has an increasing gradient.
The velocity increases.
100

75
The instantaneous velocity of the car at t = 3 s is
50 given by the gradient of the tangent at the point.
a\

25

Time/s

(d) Car travelling with decreasing velocity (non-uniform velocity)

] r | 2 | s I - I '_
o iou Iro lros lnolns i

Displacement/m

r25 The graph has a decreasing gradient.

The velocity decreases.
100

75

50

25

Time/s

v/elocit y--1ti gtaphs

A boy plalyr
/inngI ir deo arcade controls his car by stepp ng on a pedal. Velocity-
tirme graprhhsSCvo used to illustrate uniform and non-un form acceleration in his
ffi,rotion in ol
)n€
re tion in a straight line.

(a) Car at rest (b) Car travelling at uniform velocity of 10 m s-1

Velocity/m s-1 Velocity/m s-1

50 The velocity remains 50 The velocity remains

40
atOms-1,so 40
at 10 m s-1, so
the car has zero the car has zero
30 acceleration. 30 acceleration.
20 20

10 10

Time/s Time/s
 c i
='
:ravelling with uniform acceleration

10 20 30 40 50
(\r\

The velocity of the car increases

by 10 m s-1 every second.
Hence, the graph has a positive
and constant gradient, and the
acceleration is constant.

a By stepping on the pedal all

ime/s the way, the boy moves his car
with constant acceleration.

d ) )ar travelling with uniform deceleration

50 40 30 20 10

The velocity of the car decreases

by 10 m s-1 every second.
Hence, the graph has a negative
and constant gradient, and the
deceleration is constant.

a By releasing the pedal,

Time/s the boy moves his car with
a constant deceleration.

(e) Car travelling with increasing acceleration (non-uniform acceleration)

18 32 50

The increase in velocity is increasing

with time. Henc€, the graph has a
positive and increasing gradient, and
the acceleration increases.
The instantaneous acceleration of the car at t= 3 s
is given by the gradient of the tangent at the po i nt.
a By stepping on the pedal slowly,
Time/s the boy moves his car with an
increasing acceleration.
(f) Car travelling with decreasing acceleration (non-uniform acceleration)
2,S.
L----,*--"...-- i.
5
lii1

18 '32t42
,i
50

Velocity/m s 1

The increase in velocitY is

decreasing with time. Hence,
the graph has a Positive and
decreasing gradient and the
acceleration decreases.

a By releasing the Pedal slowlY, the

boy moves his car with a decreasing
Time/s acceleration.

Comparisons between displacement-time

Compare deceleration and velocity-time $taPhs
but they
and decreasing Velocity-time giapns anO Oisptacement-time graphs look very similar,
acceleration. What are give diiferent lnformation. We can differentiate them by looking at the labels
the differences between on the y-axes.
the two?
uniformly
Assume that the car in Fi$ure 2.8 starts from rest and accelerates
in one direction to a constant velocity. The car then comes to a stop at a red
graphs of the
light. Figure 2.9 shows the displacement-time and velocity-time
car and how theY are related.

Car accelerates Car moves at constant Car decelerates uniformlY

uniformly from rest. velocitY. to a stop.

Displacement-time graPh
The y-axis indicates displacement. Thus,
this is a displacement-time graph.
Displacement/m Displacement moved increases
uniformly over time. Hence,
Displacement moved increases gradient is a Positive constant
at an increasing rate. Hence, (represented bY a \
\
Displacement moved increases
straight linel
i
gradient increases (rePresented
at a decreasing rate. Hence' i
by a concave curve). gradient decreases (represented i

\ ; by a convex curve).
Time/s

A
Velocity increases Velocity-time graPh
The y-axis indicates uniformly over time. Velocity decreases
ve loc ity. Th u s , th is is uniformly over time. Hence,
Hence, gradient is
a velocity-time graPh. a positive constant gradient is a negative
(represented bY a constant (represented bY a
Velocity/m s-1
straight line).
straight line).

\ \ /
Velocity is constant. Hence, the
graph here is a horizontal line.

Time/s
BC
Chapter 2 A Figu re 2.9 Displacement- and velocit\'-tittre graphs
 amp_l€
-u "F:
splacernent-time graph of a car. Assume that the direction of ther car
c1 r

g lr [) rS positive.

)+ Oiu"L ch""k
\. Refe r
o
to Figu re 2, 10,
E F ls the car n-toving at a urrifornr
velocity for the stretcl of the
T nrei s Journey described by c.ur ve CF?
-)
J 456 . Conrpare and cot'nlltetrt un tlre
a Figure 2.LO velocrty at D and at E
o ls tl.re velocity increasu rg, or
,-,,'run of tlre car at each stage: decreasing fronr E to f:'t

t
I

:tcn
-
- the car is described in Table 2.5.

:: a 2,a ,itltot of tlre car

--tt-

Displacement is 40 m from O.
ity is ze ro.
Ve loc

Velocity is uniform.

a Displacenrent is 90 m from O.
Ve loc ity is ze ro.

o car travels in the opposite direction back towards o

ftoE o Displacernent decreases at a decreasing rate.
o Velocity is non-uniform and decreasing.

Displacement remains al 28 m from 0.

e) EtoF
ity is ze ro
Ve loc .

J-1.

C s-i"n** sit*; I'r

l}---. -.
!-rr.,
|Jf.
Have you heard of the Vertical Marathon? lJtr
r}qr
r-
r,
f\r:q
> rlce 1987 ,Ilte Vertical Mar,rtlit-.,it has beetr takirrg ;riftt e arrnulcllly at tire
-
rJ+ l.
lJ {} r\:
226 rll-tall Swisscltel The Stairtfortl itt Singapore . ln 2i)i;8. I lronras Doicl ;eacl-red Jar
lI'.ftl.
rri,
--'le 73rd storey of tlle
hotel trr a record tinre of 6 r'nirrltcs ancl 52 seconcls.
Jurring the process, Tlronras clirn[.red a total of 1330 :,icptsl

Calcurlate lris speecl rn nleties pe' seconci arrcj in ster;: ortj Wi r ret r speed
\voLtlcl you USt: tr-l iJctce
yortrst.if r1 /oLl are airninp, to i,t. i)t( ' /

, i ,l ,l't.,td
Worked Cxample e,G
The velocity-time graph of a car is shown in Figure 2.11. Describe the motion of the car.
Velocity /m s-r

effi
When interpreting
the motion of the car
in a velocity-time
graph, explain what
is happening interval
by interva I .

Time/s
20 25
r Figurc 2.Ll
Solution
The motion of the car is described in Table 2.6.

v Table 2.6 Motion of the car

Velocity increases uniformly from o m s-1 to 15 m s-1

0-5s Acceleration is uniform at
(15-0) ms-1
e=#-3mS-2
5s
Velocity increases from 15 m s-1 to 20 m s-1 at a decreasing rate.
5-10s Acceleration is non-uniform and decreasing.

Velocity is uniform and is at a maximum.

10-15s Acceleration is zero.

Velocity decreases uniformly from 20 m s-1 to o m s-1

Acceleration is uniform at
15-2Os (0-20)ms-1
e=+--4mS-2.
5s
Therefore, deceleration (or retardation) m s-2
Velocity is zero.
20-25s Acceleration is zero.
Velocity increases uniformly from 0 m s-1 to 10 m s-1
Acceleration is uniform at
25 - 30 s
(10-0)
ms-1
Q=+-2ms-2
5s
Velocity decreases from 10 m s-1 to O m s-1 at a decreasing rate.
30-35s Deceleration is non-uniform and decreasing.

Ghapter 2
I

I
h

mr uurtlder velocity-time gtaph

'llllu,, - -- : - - ,,s --he velocity-time graph for an object moving with
, ililil ,ritFr

ilt"

tllf
a
+

":468 10 12 14 16
e/s

. =elrre 2.L2 V'elocity-time graph of an object moving with uniform ve loc ity

6 m s-1 from time t=0sto t - 1,4 s. What is the total

from t= 0 s to t- 10 s?

: u iate it as follows:
t-10s

l-Oms-1 x10s=60m
-- :-: t-,ct of velocity and time gives the displacement.
-: ='.2 of the shaded rectangle.
: :: :, m S-1
I

o Only the area under a

velocity-time graph gives
Displacement is the the displacement. The area
area of the rectangle under a displacement-
under the velocity-time time graph does not give
z graph d isplacement.
. We can derive the total
e/s displacement from a
rl
vl 246810 displacement-ti me graph
A Figure 2.L3 Displacement of the object is the area of the rectangle under by reading the values
--
= ', eiocity-time graph. directly off the y-axis.
 Now, consider the following velocity-time graph (Figure 2.I4) for an object
that accelerates, moves with uniform velocity and then decelerates.

Velocity /m s-t

Velocity-time graph

Time/s
246810 L2 1,4 16 1g 20 22 24
r Figurc 2.L4 Velocity-time graph of an object that accelerates, moves with
uniform velocity and then decelerates

Calculation of total displacement

Total displacement of the object is the total area under the velocity-time graph
= Area of the trapezium
I , sum of parallel sides x height
=
Z
1-
=;r(9s+24s)x36ms-1
=594m

Calculation of average speed

Average speed of object
total distance travelled 594 m
= 24.8 m s-1
total time taken 24 s

Description of motion
Fromtimet=0stot=6s,
o Velocity increases uniformly from 0 m s-1 to 36 m s-1
o Accereration- (36-o) ms-1 -6m s-2
(6-0) s
From time t= 6 s to t- 15 s,
o Velocity remains constant at 36 m s-1
o Acceleratioh=0ms-2

From time t - 1-5 s to t - 24 s,

o Velocity decreases uniformly from 36 ms-1 to0ms-1
o Accereratioh=ffi -_4m s-2

Chapter 2
 tr (€..d €xample ?.7
,rlllrrr
'r0rlF- : , es of f from Aljunied station and travels along a straight track towards paya Lebar
ril.,h

trr ,,;llll : i-5 shows how the velocity of the train varies with time over the whole journey.

llt-

Time/s
60 70 80 90
A Figure 2.Ls Velocity-time graph of an MRT train

a l::ermine the average speed of the train between t= 0 s and t- 70 s.

b lescribe the motion of the train between
(i) t=Osandt-10s;
(ii) t-10sandr-70s;
(iii) t-70sandt-90s.
5.,3 rJ t io n
a Velocity/m s-t
: : :J:.,'il:113,:J,rH;
t=0sand t- 70s
ffi ?lffi Jno'
area of shaded trapezium (on the right)
1

- ;'(60 s+70s) x1_5ms-1

Ave rage total distance travel led

$ s peed time taken
975 m
70s
1-3.9 m s-1
(b) (i) The velocity-time graph of the train has a gradient
that is positive and constant. This means that the
We can also find the same
train is undergoing uniform acceleration.
shaded area under the velocity-
(ii) The velocity-time graph of the train is a horizontal time graph by adding the area
line. That is, its gradient is zero. This means that of the small shaded triangle and
the acceleration of the train is zero. area of the shaded rectangle.
(iii) The velocity-time graph of the train has a negative
and decreasing gradient. Th is means that the Try computing the total
velocity of the train decreases at a decreasing rate. displacement using the method
above. Check if it gives the same
The train is undergoing decreasing deceleration.
answer as in the solution to
Worked Example 2.7.
Worked €xample e.El
A motorist approaches a traffic light junction at 54 km h-1. The
traffic light turns red when he is 30 m from the junction. lf he takes Visit http:/ /www.
O.4 s before applying the brakes, and his car slows down at a rate of stoppi ngd i stances. org. uk
3.75 m s-2, determine whether the motorist is able to stop his car to watch a simulation
of how the stopping
in time.
distance changes
under various driving
The assumptions are: conditions.
o The car travels at a uniform velocity of 54 km h-1 until the brakes
are applied.
o lts deceleration of 3.75 m s-2 is uniform.
U nderstand
5olution the problem.
Note: First, convert 54 km h-1 into a speed in m s-1.
54 km 54 000
54 km h-' = :-1;i: = ffi
m
= 15 m s-1
Plan the problem-
Velocity-time graph of vehicle: solving approach.

v/m I

Can

t/s
00.47 To answer that,
F-At-------+l
we need to find its
d is placement.
Find: time interval At between the point at which the motorist applies
the brakes and the point at which the car stops I

Y
Given: uniform deceleration = 3.75 m s-2
(i.e. acceleration a = -3.75 m s-2) Its displacement is
change in velocity Av= final velocity - initial velocity the area under its
= -15 m s-1 velocity-time graph.
Lv
"=E Y
I

_J,. /b " = -15 m s-1

ITt S_. To find the area,
At we need to find At.
At=4s
Displacement = area under velocity-time graph
= area of trapezium
t (O.4 s + 4.4 s) x 15 m s-1 Solve the problem.
= )x
=36m
Since the displacement of his car is more than 30 m, the motorist is
unable to stop his car in time.

Chaptet 2
 ::dlfit+l:.-: Fne gtaph against velocity-time gtaph
=: - that is tossed vertically upwards (Figu re 2.1-6) and allowed
-
=gligible air resistance. We assign the upward direction from
- : : - S -- Ve.
time t = t,
velocity v - 0

t= O
V= U

A Figure 2.LG The upward and

downward journey of a volleyball

-
- and 2.1'8 show the speed-time graph and the velocity-time graph
I respectively. What do you notice about the areas under the
:'.u

d i stance trave lled Total displacement

by the ball of the ball

-.'a,elled Distance travelled h

= Displacement Displacement
.s -oward during its downward increases durrng its decreases during its
:. .::he journey from the upward journey to the downward journey from
==: COint highest point highest point. the highest point.

Velocity /m

Time/s

Time/s

a Figure 2.LZ Speed-time

graph of of the volleyball r Figure 2.L8 Velocity-time
graph of the volleyball

For the speed-time graph, For the velocity-time graph,

total distance travelled by the volleyball total displacement of the volleyball
= total area under the speed-time graph = total area under the velocity-time graph
= Ar+ A, = Ar* Ao
= h+h = h+ (-h)
=2h =0

Quick Gheck
o Why is the displacement of the volleyball during its downward journey negative?
o
a Sketch the velocity-time graph if the downward direction is defined as positive.
 From what you
7.. (a) The gradient of a displacement-time graph gives the velocity of an object.
have learnt so far,
(b) The gradient of a tangent on a displacement-time graph for non-uniform
velocity gives the instantaneous velocity of an object at that instant.
have you found the
a n swe rs to Let' s
2. (a) For an object at rest, the displacement-time graph is a horizontal line.
Explore (d)?
(b) For an object travelling at uniform velocity, the displacement-time graph is
a straight line with constant gradient.
(c) For an object travelling at increasing velocity, the displacement-time graph
is a curve with increasing gradient.
(d) For an object travelling at decreasing velocity, the displacement-time graph
is a curve with decreasing gradient.
3. (a) The gradient of the velocity-time grapn gives the acceleration of an object.
(b) The gradient of the tangent on a velocity-time graph for non-uniform
velocity gives the instantaneous acceleration of an object at that instant.
4. The displacement can be determined by calculating the area under its
velocity-time graph,

a.3
t. Study the displacement-time graph shown in Figure 2.19.
Displacement/m
I

,:l
,l
I
300
I

250
200

> Time/s
40'
r Figure 2.19 Displacement-time graph of an object
For each time interval, specify whether the object is moving at uniform velocity,
moving at non-uniform velocity or at rest. Calculate the average velocity for the
given time intervals.
2. How do we tell whether an object is stationary from its displacement-time
graph?
3. How do we determine the velocity of an object using its displacement-time
graph?
4. Figures 2.2O and 2.2L show the displacement-time and velocity-time graph of
a car. For both graphs, describe the motion of the car from
(a) point O to point A; (b) point A to point B;
(c) point B to point C; (d) point C to point D.

Displacemenl/m Velocity /m s-t

Time/s Time/s
r Figure 2.2O Displacement- r, Figure 2.2L Velocity-time
time graph of a car graph of a car

Ghapter 2
2,1 Acceleration due to Gravity
r.,ir ng Outcomes
-
You should be able to: -
' .-- '- e acceleration of free fall near to the Earth's surface approximately
i

.'- e rlotion of free-falling bodies with and without air resistance;

--ernr terminal velocity when describing the motion of falling bodies.

Galileo's discovery
a large stone and a small pebble from the same height at the
which object will hit the ground first?

: --il-r century, Galileo Galilei discovered through a series of experiments

:,.-:'Jl observations that all objects, regardless of mass or size, fell
; sa're acceleration due to the Earth's gravity. Galileo's finding was
-.'.. ro the widely accepted claim made by Aristotle that a heavter object
.::e'than a lighter object.

Aristotle's claim Galileo's finding

t= 0

t= t,

Find out if an object that

is projected sideways
takes more time to hit
the grou nd.
a lf you were a scientist in the 17th century, would you have
accepted Galileo's finding? Why?
7-. Set up a ruler and two
coins as shown below.
Acceleration due to gravity g is a constant. For objects close to the Earth's
=-."ace, the value of gis generally taken to be 9.8 2m s-2. For simplicity in
--.:"rlations, we approximate this value to 10 m s throughout this book,
- - ess otherwise stated.

@ s"-"""" ti*t
Open-mindedness
To be a good scientist, ofle has to have an open
r-nind, that is, to be willing to consider alternatives 2. Press on the ruler and
even if they are contrary to what is widely tap the end as shown,
accepted. Galileo's willingness to challenge the so that coin A falls
claims of Aristotle, a famous philosopher, led to vertically, while coin B
his discovery that the acceleration of all objects, is projected sideways.
regardless of mass or size, due to the Earth's 3. Observe whether they
gravity is the same. This discovery is core to our hit the ground at the
scientific knowledge today. A Galileo Galilei (1-564-L642) same tinte.

Kinematics
Objects falling without air res
An object can only be in free fall if the o
own weight. Figure 2.22 shows the path
a hammer falling in a vacuum (i.e. in fr

At rest
t- 0 s --r
l
Weight of feather, Wr displaceme
Weight of hammer, Wh

t- 1s ---l -
V

10m s-1

displacement s, ltsr)

t- 2 s

d sp aceme

s-1

r Figure 2.22 A feather and a hammer in free fall v/m s-r

gradient gives
40 acce le ratio n \
From Figure 2.22, we can make the following deductions:
3
r The velocity of the two objects under gravity increases by 10 m s-1
every second. That is, both objects undergo a constant acceleration of 2
10 m s-2.
. The direction of their motion is downward (i.e. towards the centre of 10
the Earth).
. The acceleration of the free-falling objects does not depend on their r234
t/s
mass or size. ln other words, all objects fall freely at a constant r, Figure 2.23 Velocity-time
acceleration of 10 m s-2. Figure 2.23 shows the velocity-time graph graph of free-falling motion
that describes the motion of the two free-falling objects.
Ghapter 2
 Wolked €xample a.9
: :.-=z fell off a bamboo pole from the third floor while it was being put out to dry.
-'= : --e taken for the sandal to reach the ground was 1.34 s. lf air resistance was

. '-c the velocity of the sandaljust before it hit the ground;

! '-c the height of the third floor from the ground;
c :: you expect any change in the velocity-time graph if a sock fell off instead?
Solution
: -'-.'.re air resistance is negligible, the sandal is in free fall t= 0 sandal
: 'ccelerating at 10 m s-2). vo=o c
' .i-:time taken tto reach the ground is tr= !.34 s
+ve
-: .Sralise the problem, we sketch the path and the velocity-time
height = ?
:'==^ of the free-falling sandal.
tr= 1'34 s
al Gradient of v-t graph = constant acceleration due to gravity vr= ?
(v, O
- O) m s-1
(I.34 =10ms-2 a Path of the free-falling sandal
- 0) s
v"= t3'4 m s-1 v/m st
The veloclty of the sandal just before it hit the ground
was 1,3.4 m s-1.
I b) Displacement = area under v-t graph

Height of third floor from the ground =

+vrt,
=1x !3.4ms-1 x 1-.34s
2
t/s
=9.0m t"= r.34
(c) No. Both the sandal and sock would give the same
r, Velocity-time graph of
velocity-time graph, since acceleration is constant at 1-O m s-2. the free-falling sandal

Objects falling with air resistance

I' hen you run fast, do you feel air brushing against you? you are experiencing
air resistance. Air resistance is a frictional force. lt has the following
:haracteristics:
. lt always opposes the motion of moving objects.
. lt increases with the speed of the objects. air resistance
. lt increases with the surface area (or size) of the objects.
r lt increases with the density of air.

> Air resistance pushes upwards

against the open parachute
to counter the weight of the
parachutist and his gear. weight of
parachutist
and gear
 Small dense objects (e.9. steel balls) fall through air at the same acceleration
and hit the ground at the same time. This is because they experience low
air resistance. ln comparison, a piece of paper is light and has a large
surface area. lt experiences greater air resistance. The paper falls at a
lower acceleration.

Figures 2.24 and 2.25 show the velocity-time graph and the motion of a
piece of paper falling through air respectively.

t=0s .__{tlgr_t__-

t- 1, s -t
v!
)

t- 2 s -I
v, (> vr)
)

v/m s-I t= 3 s -T
I

*
v, (> vr) )

t=4s
T
I I

Area A, I

A Figure 2.24 Velocity-time graph of

I
vo F vr)
a piece of paper falling through air

Table 2.7 below summarises the forces involved, the changes in velocity
and acceleratiofl, and the displacement of the piece of paper at different
time intervals.
Y Table 2.7 Summary of the forces involved, changes in velocity and
acceleration, and displacement of the paper falling through air

t=0sto W Velocity increases from zero to v7. s, (= Ar)

t- 1s There is acceleration.
t- lsto i W> R2 o Velocity increases from v, to v2. s, (= Ar)
t- 2s R,, R1 o Ay smaller i.e. (vr- vr) . (v, - 0) srtsl
' o Acceleration is lowerthanthat between t= O s and t= 1s.
t=2sto t,W R3 . Velocity increases from v2lo v3. s. (= Ar)
t=3s ,R.t R2 . Ay smaller i.e. (y. - vr) . (vr- vr) s.ts2
o Acceleration is lower than that between t = 1, s and t - 2 s.
t = 3 s to ', W= Ro o Velocity stays constant. so (= Ao)
t= 4 s o Av= O, i.e. V3= Vo= terminal velOCity (so = s3, only slightly)
o Acceleration is zero.
Ghapter 2
 ./

r:.-: :.oerience higher air resistance when their speed increases. When
- :''=s stance against an object equals its weight, the object starts to
: = '='., :onstant speed known as terminal velocity. This means that the
' .- -:S Zero acceleration.
=

ralls through a short distance, it may not reach terminal velocity

"g the ground.

rtl'ork€d €xamplc e.lO

- I I ,', cleaner drops a sponge from a window at time t = 0 s. Figure 2.26
. : :-e velocity-time graph for the motion of the sponge.

t/s
: 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.O ilTime
a Figure 2.26

at Describe the motion of the sponge between A and D.

bl Find the displacement of the sponge between t- 0 s and t= 0.6 s.

Solution
a) From A to B, the velocity of the sponge increases uniformly and the acceleration
rs a constant 10 m s-2. From B to D, the velocity is still increasing but at a
decreasing rate. The acceleration decreases. After D, the acceleration soon
becomes zero and terminal velocity of 12 m s-1 is reached.

b) Displacemeht = area under velocity-time graph

- |" (0.6 s) x (6.0 m s-1)

= 1-.8 m
 (:

{i
I
$

I f{
What is the physics of skydiving? gains speed, the air resistance increases until it
Just like a piece of paper falling through air, when a eventually equals his weight. At this point, he falls at
4J

skydiver leaps off a plane, two forces act on his body terminal velocity and his acceleration is zero. il
the Earth's gravity (i.e. downward force) and air
-resistance (i.e. an upward aforce).
::

The amount of air Surface area of a skydiver II

resistance a skydiver experiences depends on his
speed and surface area.
Speed of a skydiver
Air resistance increases with the skydiver's speed.
During the initial part of his descent, the skydiver's
weight is greater than the air resistance. Hence, he
falls with acceleration towards the ground. As he
How a skydiver positions his body during his fall is
important. A larger surface area will create more air I
resistance. A skydiver falls in a spread-eagle position
to maximise his surface area. ln this way, he can
achieve a lower terminal velocity and stay in the air
longer. To fall faster, he simply reduces his surface
area by falling head or feet first.
For the rescue attempt mentioned at the beginning
of the chapter, Gregory Robertson adjusted his body
to fall head first. He increased his speed to catch up
with the unconscious Debbie Williams. Upon nearing
her, he went into a spread-eagle position to slow
down before grabbing her and opening her parachute.
Robertson and Williams landed safely.

From what you have

learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
Let's Explore (e)?
7-. ln the absence of air resistance (i.e. in vacuum), all objects fall under
gravity at constant acceleration g. lt is approximately 10 m s-2 near the
Earth's surface.
2. ln the presence of air resistance, the velocity of a falling object
increases at a slower rate (i.e. decreasing acceleration).
3. An object falling through air achieves terminal velocity when its weight
is equal to the air resistance against it.

Visit http ./ /www.

dsc.discovery.com to
watch a video on the
physics of skydiving.
Use keywords such as
"video " and " skydive ".
?.4
7-. An object is released from an unknown height and falls freely for 5 s
before it hits the ground.
(a) Sketch the velocity-time graph for a time interval of 5 s,
assuming there is negligible air resistance.
(b) What is the velocity of the object just before it hits the ground?
(c) What is the unknown height?
2. Why does a feather reach terminal velocity faster than a hammer, even
though both are released from the same height?

Chapter 2
rFr

' "- ry!nn

: - -:c:r/phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/moving-man to watch a simulation of a moving man.

, :. :' Run Nouvl to start the simulation program.

Getting familiar with the program

Setect lhe lntroduction lab on the top left corner of the program window.
a

-t
1 (a) Drag the Position, Velocity and Acceleration sliders to change the values of these
variables.
. Position slider from I.2O m to -1.2O m
c Velocity slider from t.2O m s-1 to -1.20 m s-1
. Acceleration slider from t.2O m s-2 to -1.20 m s-2
(b) Check lhe Velocity Vector and/or Acceleration Vector boxes to visualise the man's
movement.
(c) Click the P/ay button at the bottom of the window to start the motion of the man according
to the variables specified.
3 At the end of the simulation for one setting, click on the Pause button followed by lhe Clear
cutton before entering the values of the next setting.
{ Observe and describe how the motion of the man changes with time for individual settings.

. Predicting and sketching displacement-time (s-t) and velocity-time (v-t) graphs

t. Select the Charts tab on the top left corner of the program window.
2. Explore the different tabs and buttons as was done in Part 1.
3. Without running the simulation, predict and sketch the s-t and y-t graphs for the following
two scenarios.
Scenario 1: At -8.0 m from his mother, a toddler started to walk towards his father at a
constant velocity of !.2 m s-1. He bumped into his father, who was 10 m away
from his mother.
Scenario 2: A departing tourist stood -5.0 m from the departure hall at the airport, looking
for her passport. lt was 4 s before she started walking towards the hall at a
constant velocity of 0.50 m s-1. After 4 s, she decided to walk faster at an
acceleration of 1.0 m s-2 before stopping at a souvenir shop.
.1. Enter the relevant values into the program, and run the simulation to check if your graphs
match the ones generated by the program.

Collaborative learning
1. lf any of your predicted graphs differ from those generated by the program, discuss and clarify
your doubts on the chapter with your classmates and teacher.
2. ln groups of four, discuss how a velocity-time graph can be drawn if you are given a
displacement-time graph.
 have have both o Magn itude
on ly o Direction

Distance Speed Displacement Velocity Acceleration '

(Sl unit: m) (Sl unit: m s-t) (Sl unit: m) (Sl unit: m s-t) (Sl unit: m s-2) ,

I
I

I
I
I

Y v v _,q
I
o Speed distance ;;", ,n0", o
?

' =-- Ume taKen velocity-time graph

Acceleration = ilme taKen
I

+ displacement
Gradient of velocity-time graph
total d istance
o Average speed = + acceleration
total time taken
itu, ,**h
Acceleration due to gravity g
-

without air resistance, object

displacement
. Verocity = time taken falls with constant acceleration
with air resistance, object falls
o Gradient o with decreasing acceleration
d is pl acement-ti me graph and may reach terminal velocitY
+ velocity

State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

(a) Velocity is a scalar, and

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e) The velocity-time graph

lf weight is the only force

(f)
terminal veloctty.

Answers are available at the back of the book.

 .t \l ultiple-Choice Questions Section B: Structured Questions
-=: ::eed of a car is 35 km h-1. How 7-. (a) Define average speed.
'- = n45minutes? (b) Figure 2.27 shows a cyclist's route. He
B 26.25 km started from point A at 6 am and went
.- D 467km past three other points B, C and D, before
returning to point A at 6 pm.
: :----es uniformly from 5 m s-1 to
-I s. What is the acceleration of pm am

- : . s thrown vertically upwards at

: lecelerates uniformly at 10 m s-2.
- _ ,', ill it take to reach zero velocity?
I =
_2s B 2.4s
. - r_s D 12.0s
12 noon
' _ '-e of the following velocity-time graphs
a Figure 2.27
: S=-:s the motion of an object slowing down
- - _'--lniform deceleration? Calcu late the average speed of the cyclist
(i) from A to B;
(ii) from B to C;
(iii) for the whole journey.

2. A train travels along a straight track from one

station to another. Figure 2.28 shows how the
Time velocity of the train varies with time over the
whole journey.
D Velocity
Velocity/m s-1

Time

,', I ich of the following velocity-time graphs

-epresents the motion of an object falling to the
Time/s
:'ound in the presence of air resistance?
a Figure 2.28
Ve loc ity B
(a) State the time interval over which the train
is decelerating.
(b) Determine the acceleration of the train
during the first two seconds of the journey.
(c) Determine the
Time Time (i) displacement between the two
C Velocity Ve loc ity stations;
(ii) average speed of the train.

Time Time
3. Figure 2.29 shows how the velocity of a moving Section C: Free-Response Questions
body varies with time t.
!-. Figure 2.31- shows a smooth track ABCD. The
Velocity /m s-t
track has a horizontal section BC calibrated in
metres. A smooth, steel ball bearing of mass
0.3 kg was released from a point on the slope AB.
steel ball bearing

1.0 m 2.0 m 3.0 m 4.0 m 5.0 m

r Figure 2.37.

A stopwatch was used to time how long it took

the ball bearing to go past the various calibration
marks. The times were recorded in the Table 2.8.
The timing on the stopwatch started some time
Time/s after the ball bearing went past B.
20 30
A Figure 2.29 v Table 2.8

(a) Determine the acceleration of the body

during the first 1-O s.
(b) Between t = 30 s and t = 45 s, the body
decelerates uniformly to rest.
(i) Complete the graph for this
time interval.
(ii) From the graph drawn in (i), obtain the
velocity of the body when t = 37.5 s. (a) Using graph paper, plot a displacement-time
(c) Determine the displacement of the body graph for the steel ball bearing.
between t= 30 s and t= 45 s. (b) Calculate the average speed of the ball
bearing between the 3.0 m and 4.0 m
4. Figure 2.30 shows the velocity-time graph of a marks.
car in motion. (c) Assuming there was negligible friction
Velocity/m s-t between the ball bearing and the track,
calculate the displacement of the ball
bearing from B just before the timing started
on the stopwatch.
(d) What was the acceleratlon of the bearing as
it rolled along BC? Explain your answer.
(e) The ball bearing slowed down on its way
up slope CD and stopped momentarily at T
before rolling back down the slope. Given
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Time/s that at T the reading on the stopwatch was
a Figure 2.3O 13 s , colculate the deceleration of the ball
bearing as it rolled up slope CD.
Describe the motion of the car between
(a) t- 0 s and t- 10 s; 2. A feather was released from rest rn vacuuffi, and
(b) r- 10 s and t= 15 s; then in air. ln both situations, the feather was
(c) t- 15 s and t= 20 s; released from a significant height.
(d) r- 20 s and t= 30 s; (a) Compare and comment on the motion of the
(e) t- 30 s and t= 35 s. feather in vacuum and in air.
(b) Sketch the velocity-time graphs of the
motion of the feather in vacuum and in air.

Chapter 2
 Now, consider the following velocity-time graph (Figure 2.I4) for an object
that accelerates, moves with uniform velocity and then decelerates.

Velocity /m s-t

Velocity-time graph

Time/s
246810 L2 1,4 16 1g 20 22 24
r Figurc 2.L4 Velocity-time graph of an object that accelerates, moves with
uniform velocity and then decelerates

Calculation of total displacement

Total displacement of the object is the total area under the velocity-time graph
= Area of the trapezium
I , sum of parallel sides x height
=
Z
1-
=;r(9s+24s)x36ms-1
=594m

Calculation of average speed

Average speed of object
total distance travelled 594 m
= 24.8 m s-1
total time taken 24 s

Description of motion
Fromtimet=0stot=6s,
o Velocity increases uniformly from 0 m s-1 to 36 m s-1
o Accereration- (36-o) ms-1 -6m s-2
(6-0) s
From time t= 6 s to t- 15 s,
o Velocity remains constant at 36 m s-1
o Acceleratioh=0ms-2

From time t - 1-5 s to t - 24 s,

o Velocity decreases uniformly from 36 ms-1 to0ms-1
o Accereratioh=ffi -_4m s-2

Chapter 2
Jumping off an aircraft at an altitude of 4000 metres is definitely not for the faint-
hearted. So is it possible for someone to experience the thrill of skydiving without
jumping from such a great height?

ln May 201L, Singapore opened the world's largest skydiving simulator, iFly Singapore,
an indoor skydiving wind tunnel with a height of L7 .2 metres and a diameter of 5.03
metres. What is the physics behind a skydiving simulator?

.F

a Our hands exert either
a push or a pull on our
luggage to move it.
From what you have
learnt so far, have you
fou ndthe answers to
Let's Explore (a)?
Y Table 3.1 Types of forces and their nature
The push exerted by a surface on
an object pressing on it
- thisto
push is always perpendicular
the surface
r The normal reaction by the table
surface on the cup is perpendicular
to the surface.
pu I exerted by the E
ty on any object (i.e.
I The gravitational force pulls the
diver down into the water.
Chapter 3
3.1 Forces
What is a force?
To move our luggage from one point to another, we can either push it or pull it.
A force is either a push ora pullthat one object exerts on another object.
It can produce, slow down, speed up or stop motion. lt can also change the
direction of motion.
What are the types of forces?
Forces are produced by the interaction between objects. Forces can be
classified into two types:
contact forces, which exist between objects that are in contact;
non-contact forces, which do not require objects to be in contact to exist.
Table 3.1 lists some contact and non-contact forces.
j
E
The force that opposes or tends to The pu ll exerted bya stretched
oppose motion between surfaces
in contact
spring, strin$ or rope on an object
attached to it
I The friction between the tyres and r, The tension in the rope pulls the
the slope prevents the vehicle from wakeboarder fonruard.
sliding down.
The attractive (i.e. pull) or repulsive The attractive (i(i.e.
. e. pull) or repulsive
(i.e. push) forces between electric (i.e. push) forces between
charges magnets
l' Attractive electric forces between r Attractive magnetic forces between
unlike charges unlike poles
+
'1)-+
r. Repulsive electric forces between a Repulsive magnetic forces between
like charges like poles
 Vector Diagrams
Outcomes You should be able to:
.
- a graphical
e:iors using method;
: r enrs that involve three forces acting stat ic usrng $ra ph ica I

flq 37s vector quantities represented?

- . :: s a vector- it has both magnitude and direction. lts Sl unit is the GI.,*the
Reca I I def in itions
nanlon N . At any time, two or more forces may be acting on an object. The
of scalars and vectors
.::-a\ have different magnitudes and directions. ln such cases, we can in Chapter 2.
.::,:::c'' diagrams to add up these forces.

-: . :-:or diagram, a vector quantity is represented by an arrow. The length

--: :"ow is proportional to the magnitude of the vector. The direction of
: ="::, indicates the direction of the vector.

:-'= -1.1 shows the vector diagram of a force of 20 N in the direction 45.
. -- :'east.

Step L
--::se an appropriate
: -
' e to represent the force. Scalelcm:5N
Step 3
Draw an arrow at the angle
measured. The length of this
arrow should be proportional
to the magnitude of the force.
This is defined by the scale
Step 2
in Ste p 1,.
I'aw a base line (horizontal
this case) and measure the
-=q u ired angle with
a protractor.
---f
r' Figure 3.1 A vector diagram

How do we add vectors?

3:alar quantities (or scalars) such as distance and speed have only
-'agnitude. When we add scalars, we add their magnitudes only.

-rlike scalars, vector quantities (or vectors) have magnitude and direction.
," henwe add two or more vectors, we cannot add their magnitudes only. We
'eed to find a single vector that produces the same effect as the vectors
:ombined. The single vector, called the resultant vector, must be equivalent
:o the individual vectors combined in terms of magnitude and direction.
 Addition of parallel vectors
Let us assign the direction towards the right as positive. Figure 3.2 shows
two parallel forces of magnitudes 3 N and 5 N acting on a block. Both forces
act in the same direction (i.e. towards the right). The resultant force is g N
(i.e. 3 N + 5 N = 8 N) and is directed towards the right. A resultant vector is
usually indicated by a double-headed arrow.

resu ltant
force - 8

of vectors acting in the same direction

ln Figure 3.3, the two forces are still parallel but act in opposite directions. The
resultantforce is 2 N (i.e. 5 N + (-3 N) = 2 N) and is directed towards the right.
ln Figure 3.3, why is
the 3 N force ne$ative?
resultant
Ce=2N

r Fi$ure 3.3 Addition of vectors acting in opposite directions

ln Figure 3.4, two parallel forces of 3 N acton the block in opposite directions.
This produces zero resultant force.

resu ltant
force = 0 N

r Figure 3.4 Addition of vectors that are equal in magnitude but act in opposite directions

Addition of non-parallel vectors

There are two methods of adding non-parallel vectors: lhe parattetogram method
and the tipto-tail method. Both methods give the same resultant vector.

consider two forces, 5 N and 3 N, acting on a block (Figure 3.5). The forces
r Figure 3.5 Forces acting do not act along the same line (i.e. they are not parallel). Figures 3.6 and 3.7
at an angle to each other
describe how we can obtain the resultant force.

o Choose an appropriate scale. Scalelcm:1N

e Complete the parallelogram by adding
dotted lines AC and BC, which are
Draw arrows to represent the parallel to OB and OA respectively.
A
forces.

O 5N O 7N O The resultant force is

represented by the diagonal
of the parallelogrdffi, OC. To
400
:tH#l; ude,measure the
200 length of OC;
direction, measure the
O 3N angle between OC and the
B
horizontal baseline.
r Figure 3.6 Addition of vectors using the parallelogram method

Chapter 3
:
I

I
I

::= an appropriate scale. Scalelcm:1N From A, draw arrow AC to

, ?.' arrow to represent represent the 3 N force. The
, ' :'t e fo rces. He re, we tip of the arrow OA is joined
lA to represent the 5 N to the tail of arrow AC.
: - 'St.
3N
5N

* j* Join O (i.e. the tail of the 5 N force) to

. igure 3.7 Addition of vectors using the tip-to-tail
C (i.e. tip of the 3 N force). This forms
the triangle OAC. The resultant force is
represented by the arrow OC. To obtain its
method
o magnitude, measure the length of OC;
o direction, measure the angle between
OC and the horizontal baseline.

=- :ne parallelogram method or the tip-to-tail method, we arrive at the

--swer: the resultant force has a magnitude of 7 N, and acts at an
:' 18o to the horizontal.

't/onk€d Cxampl€ 3.1

. -:.ectO weighing 6.0 N hangs from the end of a string OC that is pulled
::,,, a!'s by a force F. The string OC makes an angle of 30" with the vertical,
: :-rlvn in Figure 3.8. The tension fhas a magnitude of 7.O N. Given that
-= '=sultant force is zero, determine the magnitude of the force Fusing the
a I carallelogram method;
r I :ip-to-tail method. 3.8
w- 6.0 N
Solution
a) The parallelogram method (b) The tip-to-tail method
F
'l Drawaforce Using a scale of l-.75 cm
- ='al lelogram with a
30' 1 cm : 2 N, draw force
::3reof 1Cm:2 N. vector W, followed by force
vector T, with a 30o angle
between the vectors. W
3.0 cm T
resu ltant
of #;+ Since the forces are
fand W in equilibrium, that is, the
I $ ince the resultant force is zero, the
'esultant force is arrows representing the
W
f,t ln order to balance forces W, Fand f result in a
rero, force F must this resultant, F must
oe balanced by the closed triangle.
also be 1.75 cm long.
.esu ltant of weight
This means force F is
W and tension T. %,$ By measurement, the length
3.5 N.
of F is I.7 5 cm, so force F has a
magn itude of 3.5 N .
The resultant of f and W is represented by the
diagonal of the parallelogram. By measurement,
the length of the diagonal is I.7 5 cm.

The force Fhas a magnitude of 3.5 N, and acts towards the left.
offi
When using the tip-to-tail method, if the
arrows representing the forces result in a
closed triangle, we say that the forces are
in equilibrium (i.e.the resultant force is
zero).

lf the arrows do not result in a closed resu ltant

triangle, there is a resultant force acting on
the object. lt is represented by the arrow
from the tail of the first arrow to the tip of
the last arrow. ^r. Forces acting on an object r Forces acting on an object do not
form a closed triangle if they form a closed triangle if they are not
are in equilibrium. in equilibrium.

tffi
Visit http:/ /phet.
colorado.edu and learn
more about vector
addition with the help
of a simulation. Use
keywords such as
"vector addition" and
"simulation".
t. When we add two or more vectors acting on a body, we need to find a
resultant vector that is equivalent to the individual vectors combined, in
terms of magnitude and direction.
2. Addition of forces (i.e. vectors)
(a) For parallel forces, take one direction as positive and the opposite
as negative. Then, add up the forces to find the resultant force.
(b) For non-parallel forces, add the vectors using the parallelogram
method or the tip-to-tail method to find the resultant force.

3.1 t 3,e
7-. Name three types of forces in our daily lives.
3. An object O of weight W is supported by
2. Figure 3.9 shows a lorry that is stuck in
two strings, os shown in Figure 3.10. The
muddy ground being pulled by two jeeps.
tension in each string is 10 N. Using a
Each jeep exerts a force of 3000 N at an
vector diagroffi, find the value of W.
angle of 20" to the horizontal. Using a vector
diagram, find the resultant force on the lorry.

pulled by jeep 600 600

3000 N

pu lled by jeep
3000 N
r, Figure 3.9

r, Figure 3.1O

Chapter 3
 j3 Forces and Motion
0 utcomes You should be able to:
-.,r-r S - of nrotion
'avr/s to

-- tire effects of balanced forces and unbalanced forces on a body;

-ctron-reaction forces acting on two interacting bodies;
-t'.ntr.rla resultant force
= filass x acceleration lo solve problems.

,', -Bt effects does a force have on the motion of

i :cdy?
lrrserve how forces affect the motion of objects in sports
: i l t.

> ;>-- I
r ;4!

: -i onary football r A nroving hockey ball r A descending parachutist r, A ntoving tennis ball is
. - ,', hen it is kicked. nroves faster when it slows down due to air returned when it is lrit. There
s a change in speed. is pushed. fhere is an resistance. There is a is a change rn direction.
increase in speed. decrease in speed.

r Figure 3.11 The effects of forces in s ports

=::h of the four sports rn Figure 3.11, when a force is aoplied on an object,
=: is a change in speed and/or direction a change in velocity
- over
:-e'iod of time. This means that there is -acceleration (or deceleration).
-'-.s. a force can cause an ob.yect to accelerate (or
decelerate). Does this
=an there is no force acting on an object when its acceleration is zero?

-='o acceleration implies that the object can be stationary or moving with
,'rstant velocity (Figure 3.L2). However, even though acceleration is zero,
loes not mean there are no forces acting on lt; it means that the resultant
'ihese forces is zero.

still measures a for-ce th31 acts on Lrs our weight.

 Balanced forces and Newton's Fitst Law
lf the resultant force acting on an object is zero, we say the forces acting
on the object are balanced.

The table exerts an upward force F(i.e. A force F is applied on a book and it moves in a
normal reaction) that pushes on the straight line across a rough table. The size of the
book. F is equal to W. applied force F is equal to the frictional force f
between the book and the table.
table exerts normal
book sliding across a surface at a constant velocity
reaction F on book

table
table
weight

These two forces are equal but act

in opposite directions. Hence, the Since the two forces are equal but act in
resultant force is zero and the book opposite directions, the resultant force acting
I

remains stationarY. As the book is on the book remains zero, and the book
at rest, its acceleration is zero. continues moving at a constant velocity.

(a) A book at rest (b) A book moving at a constant velocity

I Figure 3.!2 Forces on an object at rest or moving at a constant
veto-ty are balanced. The resultant force on each object is zero.

The two examples in Figure 3.L2 illustrate Newton's First Law of Motion
(i.e. the Law of lnertia).
You will learn more
about inertia in
Chapter 4.

We now know how an object behaves if the resultant force acting on it is

zero. What if the resultant force ts not zero?

fan fan
The physics of indoor skYdiving spinning spinning
The skydiving simulator, iFlY
Singapore, is based on the
principle of balanced forces.
The weight (1 4 of the skYdiver
is balanced bY the uPWard force
(fl of the fast-moving air that
comes from the bottom of the
tunnel. This is how the skYdiver
is able to stay susPended in
the tunnel. flow of fast-moving air flow of fast-moving

A Schematic diagram of a skydiving simulator

Chapter 3
lFlced forces and Newton's Second Law
1t-* =:-'."- force acting on an object is not zero, we say the forces
r---E : - '-: :31ect are unbalanced. There are two other
forces that act on the
ilr'
tb : '-2 c ). the forces on the book are balanced and it moves at book: the weight of the
book and the normal
'' nt ,5_ 4
.= :: ty. lf the applied force F is now increased, the forces that
reaction on the book
: :: I'k are no longer balanced and the book accelerates (Figure due to the table (Figure
3.I2(a)). These two
forces are equal in
7t force F is now removed while the book is still in motion magnitude but act in
'-3 o ), friction is the resultant force that causes the book to opposite directions, so
3.d eventually stop. they balance each other.

fri cti o n

table

- --
3uSh is larger than the friction, (b) When the pushing force is removed,
'-. =: :l< will accelerate. the only force acting on the book is
friction. This will cause the book to
decelerate to a stop.

r, Figure 3.13 Friction causes a book to decelerate.

' :' :'- e re is a res u lta nt fo rce acting on an object, the object will
-- : -a:e in the d irection of the resu ltant force. The relationship between
: .:': force, mass and acceleration is described by Newton's Second ln Figure 3.13(a), is the
_' \'lotion. push on the book the
resultant force?

:,,:ln's Second Law of Motion in symbols: Experiment 3

What is the
:= rtjo where F= resultant force (in N); relationship between
/n = mass of object (in kg); acceleration and
a = acceleration of object (in m s-2). applied force?

.=,,,ton's Second Law of Motion tells us that

- a resultant force Fon an object produces an acceleration a;
- doubling the resultant force Fon an object doubles its acceleration a;
: with the same resultant force E doubling the mass m halves the
acceleration a.

Ire newton is defined as the force that produces an acceleration of

- ''n s-2on a massof 1kg. lf m-I kgand a- 1, m S-2, by F- ffio,
:- 1, kg x 1, m s-2
= I kg m s-2
 Worked €xampl€ 3.e
Curiosity important
- an
attitude of a scientist
A boy pushes a stationary box of mass 20 kg with a force of 50 N.
Calculate the acceleration of the box. (Assume that there is no friction.)
Sir lsaac Newton can be
considered one of the
greatest physicists and 5olution
mathematicians in history. Given: mass m = 20 kg
force F= 50 N
One day, while he was
roaming around his orchard, From Newton's Second Law,
he saw an apple fall to the F = tnd, where a = acceleration of the box
grou nd . Cuilodty had h im F
thinking about why it fell,
m
and he finally concluded
that the same force that 50N
caused the apple to fall kept 20 kg
the Moon in orbit around =2.5m s-2 in the direction of the applied force
the Earth. This force, which
he called the gravitational
force of attraction, also kept
the planets in orbit around Worked €xampl€ 3.3
the Sun. His research in
the field of light led to the (a) A shipping container of mass 1000 kg rests on a frictronless floor.
discovery of the reflecting
A rope pulls it to the right, causing the container to increase its
telescope, which gained him
entry into the Royal Society
speed to 20 m s-1 in 5 s. Calculate the tension force tn the rope.
of London. (b) Subsequently, the same container is pulled by an additional leftward
tension force of 5000 N. Find the resultant acceleration and state
ln honour of his its direction.
contributions to the field of
physics and mathematics,
the unit of force. the newton
Solution
(N), is named after him. Given: mass m - 1000 kg
initial speedu=0ms-l
final speed v-20 ms-1
timeAt=5s
(a) From Newton's Second Law,
tension force T - ma, where a - acceleration produced,
V_ U
At
20ms-1 -0ms-1
5s
4 m s-2
ma
1-000kgx 4m s-2
4000 N
r lsaac Newton (1643-L727)
b) Note: The direction of the additional tension force is towards the left.
This is opposite to the direction of the tension force of 4000 N
in (a). Hence, the additional tension force is -5000 N.
Resultant force 4000 N + (-5000 N) = -1-000 N
F
m
The relationship -1-000 N
V_ U 1-000 kg
a- At- onlyapplies - -1, m s-2
to motion of uniform The resultant acceleration 1, m s-2 to the left.
acceleration.

Chapter 3
[r

hl;'ion's Third Law

, , : n a pOOl,dOyOU sometimes push your feet against the wall
3.1,4)? When you do this, you are applying
Offi
Describe the action-
: -: Law of Motion. reaction relationship
between the egg and
the egg cup.

o The boy's feet exert

force Fr* pool
a
on the wall
by pushing against it.

o They
Fr* and F*, occur as a pair.
are equal in magnitude,
?a -'a ,', all exerts a reaction force but act in opposite directions.
: _ I'r the boy's feet. This
a-

F*, Fr* acts on the wall, whereas

-
-
-:e propels the boy forward. (force F*, acts on the boy.
IF
-rj:81:3 r.; {r!' wall on

r Figure 3.14 Newton's Third Law of Motion at work

: ':'every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction, and they act
.',ally opposite bodies.
: 3.15 shows some examples of action-reaction pairs.

Force of man
on basketball

Force of
basketba I I

on man
Grou nd
pu shes
forw
Force of bat
on ball
\ ons Skater pushes
t."- backwards on ground
a A baseball player strikes r A basketball player aims a A skater speeds on
'-e baseball with his bat. the basketball at the net. her in-line skates.

a Figure 3.15 Some examples of action and reaction forces

book

4, is the gravitational force of Earth on book.

C. is the gravitational force of book on Earth.
table

F* is the contact force of table on book.

F* is the contact force of book on table.

r, Figure 3.16(a) Forces between r, Figure 3.16(b) Forces between

book and Ea rth book and table
 Weight is a force exerted by gravity on every object. ln Figure 3.12, does the
force of the table on the book form an action-reaction pair with the weight
You will learn more
of the book? We examine the forces acting on the book and the table with
about mass and
weight in Chapter 4.
the book (Figure 3.16).

The pair of action and reaction forces are:

o The gravitational force f, exerted by the Earth on the book, and the
upward force F* exerted by the book on the Earth, which are equal in
magnitude but act in opposite directions (Figure 3.1-6(a));
o the contact force Fm by the table on the book, and the contact force F*
by book on the table (Figure 3.16(b)).
From what you have
learnt so far, have you
Hence, the force of the table on the book does not form an action-reaction
found the answers to
pair with the weight of the book.
Let's Explore (b)?

Newton's Third Law of Motion tells us four characteristics of forces:

1,. Forces always occur rn parrs. Each pair is made up of
an action and a reaction.
2. Action and reaction are equal in magnitude.
3. Action and reaction act in opposite directions.
4. Action and reaction act on mutually opposite bodies.

7.. Balanced forces and their relation to 2. Unbalanced forces and their relation to
Newton's First Law of Motion: Newton's Second Law of Motion:

When forces are balanced When forces are unbalanced

+
Resultant t[r." is zero Resultant force is not zero
t +
Acceleration-0ms-2 Acceleration*0ms-2
/\ i'\
Object at rest Object in motion Object at Object in motion
will remain at will remain rest will start will change its
rest in motion at moving velocity (i.e. speed
constant velocity and/or direction)

3. For an object of a constant mass, the product of its mass and acceleration gives the
resultant force that acts on the object, i.e. F= ma.
4. A resultantforce of 1N produces an acceleration of 1m s-2 on a mass of 1kg.
5. Newton's Third Law of Motion states that for every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction. Action and reaction forces act on mutually opposite bodies.

3.3
7-. What can you deduce about the resultant force acting on an object that is
(a) moving at a constant speed in a straight line?
(b) accelerating?
2, An object is initially moving at a constant speed. After a while, it starts to accelerate. Use Newton's
laws of motion to explain this situation.
3. An unloaded van has an acceleration of 5 m s-2. A fully loaded van weighs twice as much as the
unloaded van. lf the forward thrust on both vans is the same, what is the acceleration of the fully
loaded van?
4. The AIM-9 Sidewinder air-to-air missile, which the Singapore Air Force uses, has a mass of 86.5 kg.
I

I
lf the missile can accelerate from 300 m s-1 to 700 m s-1 in 6 s, what is the average resultant force
on the missile? (Assume thatthe loss in mass of the missile is negligible after it is launched.)

Chapter 3
i4 Friction and lts Effects
,;r,rni. 3 -tcome You should be able to:
:' -:ion- affects the motion of a body.

qrt'r does friction affect motion?

:: :- I ses motion between surfaces in contact. lt is the result of

- =s of the surfaces (Figure 3.I7).

Surface irregu larities

R catch onto one another,
causing surfaces to
resist motion.

A Figure 3.L7 Microscopic view of two surfaces in contact

:'-'rple, if a force is applied to move a book across a table towards

: i^'.. friction will act towards the left. lf the applied force is removed,
:' -- ,vill cause the book to slow down and come to a stop eventually.
:{ow does friction affect us?
--=
='fects of friction can be positive or negative. Table 3.2 lists some of
=== effects. Can you think of other effects of friction?

' Table 3.2 Some positive and negative effects of friction

. r!e can walk without slipping. Cars are less efficient by up to a Friction between the
. \loving vehicles are able to slow 2Oo/o. brake pads and wheels
down when needed. Moving parts in engines, motors slows down a bicycle.
and machines suffer wear and tear.

How can negative effects of friction be reduced?

Wheels
- an you imagine pushing a shopping trolley that does not have wheels?
,',e would need to exert a great deal of force to overcome the large friction
:etween the metal basket and the floor! Being circular in shape, wheels
g.eatly reduce the friction between the basket and the floor. A smaller force
:an be applied to move the shopping trolley around.
 Ball bearings
Being spherical rn shape, ball bearings are used to reduce friction
between moving parts of machines, cars and in-line skates (Figure
3.18). Placed between moving parts, ball bearings roll around and
prevent moving parts from rubbing agdnst each other. This reduces
the wear and tear to these parts.

a Figure 3.18 ln-line skates make use of ball bearings

to reduce friction between the wheels and axles.

Lubricants and polished surfaces

Applyinga layer of lubricant, such as oil or grease, between surfaces
in contact can greatly reduce friction. Lubricants are frequently used
between the moving parts of an engrne to reduce wear and tear. This
helps prolong the life of the engine. Polishing a surface removes surface
irregularities. This can also reduce friction between surfaces in contact.

Air cushion
Designed to move on a thin cushion of air, hovercrafts and magnetic
levitation (Maglev) trains can move faster because of reduced friction.

v A hovercrafl floats above water

with the he I p of h igh-pressu re a ir
fk't" ejected from its u nderside.

r A Maglev train floats above

the rail with the help of
electromagnetic repulsion.

a
- &
*J
 'in@t !€n positive effects of friction be enhanced?
al;}ilgS
: : "tant to the motion of vehicles. Without friction, a vehicle
: as its tyres will just spin at the same spot. Friction enables
-- :'
:r the road surface and roll without slipping.

- -.,., a moving vehicle may skid on wet roads. lts tyres need to have
- . . . :^e road to prevent skidding. This is why tyres are designed with
-- 1 _ l\es that quickly channel water out from underneath the tyres.
_ _.:s rhe grip of the tyres on wet roads, thus preventing skidding. r Treads on a car tyre
increase the amount
of friction between the
*-rcnute tyre and the road, which
::-=-:e is a type of friction in air. A skydiver in midair varies air reduces the chance of
-':: :l change his speed. To speed up, he reduces air resistance by skidding on rainy days.

=:-= head-first position. To slow down, he increases air resistance

.:--=
__
a spread-eagle position. To achieve a safe landing, a skydiver
--':ase air resistance significanily. He does this by making use of
' srger surface area of an open parachute.
eH Recall what you learnt
about the physics of
skydiving in Chapter 2.
.1,:€, r
' . --cers need to have a firm grip on the rock surface with their
: .' : feet. They usually use chalk powder on their hands to absorb
: - ':_ cn and improve their gn p.

chalk bag

. - -UK c limbers always carry a bag of chalk powder with them.

=riction is the contact force that 7.. Can you lean against a wall From what you have
lpposes or tends to oppose motion without slipping if friction is learnt so far, have you
cetween surfaces in contact. absent? Explain your answer. found the answers to
1 There are positive and negative 2. How can you reduce the effect of Let's Explore (c)?
ef fects of friction. friction on the nrotion of a body?
 3.5 Free-Body Di agrams
Learning outcome You should be able to:
o -
identify the forces acting on a body and sketch a free-body diagram to
represent them.

Forces acting on a body and free-body diagrams

Throughout this chapter, we have been drawing simple block diagrams with
arrows to represent forces acting on individual objects. These diagrams are
called free-body diagrams.

when we solve problems about forces, we need to identify the forces acting
on individual objects. Drawing a free-body diagram of an object helps ui
identify and visualise the forces and their effects on the object.

Figure 3.19 shows some examples of free-body diagrams. These examples

will give you an idea of how to identify forces when solving a problem.

Forces on apple on tree branch

o Weight W of apple
o Tension force f by tree branch

Forces on hird in flight

o Weight W of bird
o Lift t by wings
o Thrust T by wings
. Air resistance R

Forces on apple at rest

o Weight W of apple
o Normal reaction force F
by ground
 r,-r€d €xample 3.4
. : -: ^. of mass 5000 kg pulls a lrailer of mass 1000 kg along a level track
: .= .'?tion of 0.10 m s-2 (Figure 3.20). The resistances are 10 N per 1_000 kg
- -' -'-
=ngine and 5 N per 1000 kg for the trailer.
m - 1000 kg

(forward thrust
by engine)

tow bar
I Figure 3,20

r - '.,,. a free-body diagram of the engine and the trailer.

! - -= :- ate the
| :ension in the connecting tow bar between the engine and the trailer;
rir 'orward thrust exerted by the engtne.

5:,rtion
I acceleration o=O.10ms-2 acceleration d = 0.10 m s-2
trailer truck engine

Figure 3.27. The free-body diagram of the trairer A Figure 3.22 The free-body diagram of the engine

-=L us assign the rightward direction as positive.

(i) Note: Examine all the forces acting on the trailer only. Referring to Figure
3.21, two forces are acting on the trailer tension r and the resistance R,
to the trailer. -
For the trailer, using F= ma, where Fis the resultant force on the trailer,
F= rfid
T- p2
Rr=
T= ma* R,
=1000k9x0.10ms-2+5N
=105N
(ii) Note: Examine all the forces acting on the engine only. Referring to Figure
3.22, rhree forces are acting on the engine the forward thrust F" exerted
by the engine, tension I and the resistance- R"on the engine.

For the engine, using F= ma,

F"- T- R"= tfto
F.=tT12+f+R
= 5000 kg x 0.10 m s-2 + 105 N + 5 x 10 N
=655N
Worked €xample 3.5
A box is dropped from a helicopter (Figure 3.23). The mass m of the box is 5.0 kg.
(a) Determine the resultant force on the box when
the total force opposing the motion of the box
helicopter
at a particular instant during its fall is 20 N.
moving at
(b) Determine the resultant force acting on the co n sta nt
box when the box reaches terminal velocity. ve loc ity
(c) Sketch a velocity-time graph to show the
motion of the box through air until it reaches
te rm in a I ve loc ity. initial acceleration
(d) Descnbe the motion of the box, in terms of the a=tOms-2
forces involved. weight
(Take g- 10 m s-')
a Figure 3.23
Solution
Let us assign the downward direction as pos itive.
(a) Given: mass m of the box = 5 kg
Let F - resultant force of the box at the instant when the total opposing force is 20 N.
Resultantforce F- 50 N + (-2O N)
=30N
(b) When the box reaches terminal velocity, the acceleration becomes zero and the resultant force
is0N.
(c) Velocity/m s-1

Terminal velocity

Time/s

(d) When the box is released from rest, the only initial force acting on the box is the weight of
the box. So, the box accelerates downwards at 10 m s-2.
As the box falls, the air resistance it experiences increases. The resultant force is now less
than the weight of the box. The box still accelerates, but the acceleration is less than 10 m s-2.
Air resistance increases with the increase in velocity. Eventually, the air resistance balances
the weight of the box. The resultant force decreases to O N, and the box falls at terminal
velocity (i.e. zero acceleration).

Search the Internet for

Drawing a free-body diagram of an object helps us identify and visualise the
a simulation that shows
forces and their effects on the object.
how to draw free-body
diagrams for objects
undergoing different
types of motion. Use
3.5
keywords such as
7-. A force of 50 N is needed to keep a trolley of mass 60 kg moving at a
"construction of a
uniform velocity of 2 m s-1. What is the frictional force on the trolley?
free-body d iagra 2. A feather and a stone are released simultaneously from the same height.
Explain why the feather will hit the ground much later than the stone,
even though the acceleration of free fall is the same for both objects.
Chapter 3
t

II
\

tE'3 Fhst Law of Motion
itGlr :q€ct will continue in its
GrE :n rst or uniform motion
ilr r *aght line unless a
qs"rft force acts on it.
Newton's Second Law of Motion
When a resultant force acts on an object of
constant mass, the object will accelerate
in the direction of the resultant force.
Resultant force _ mass _ acceleration
(N) (kg) (m s-r;
Newton's Third Law of Motion
lf body A exerts a force Fo, on
body B, then body B will exert
an equal and opposite force
Fro on body A.

applies to

resultantforce=ON resultantforce*ON

Balanced forces Unbalanced forces

l: rest Moving at a Accelerating Decelerating

constant velocity

;:=e whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct ilie false statement(s). Revise the
:etant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

When an object does not move, therg is no force

lpplild
to it.
H
Forces are produced by the interaction between two objects either in contact or
separated from each other.

To find the combined effect of two forces on an object, we add the magnitude of the
(c)
individual forces.

(d) The product of mass and acceleration is a force.

(e) When there are forces acting on an object, the object will accelerate.

(f) Newton's Third Law ensures equilibrium.

(e) Friction opposes motion between surfaces in contact.

(h) A free-body diagram shows all the forces that act on a body.

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions (b) Calculate the
1, The figure below shows four forces acting on (i) friction between the car on tow and
a block. the road;
(ii) the forward tractive force of the tow
3N 4N truck, given that the friction on the
+-
tow truck is 750 N;
2N -L
7N (iii) the resultant force acting on the
system of the tow truck and the car.
What is the resultant force?
A 5Ntotheleft 2- A car moves 4 km in an easterly direction and
B 6 N to the right then turns to move 3 km in a northerry direction.
C 11 N to the right By means of a graphical approach, find the
D No resultant force resultant displacement of the car.

2. ln the figure below, object A and object B are

stacked one on top of the other. Given that
the masses of objects A and B are 3.0 kg
Section C: Free-Response Questions
and 2.O kg respectively, what is the horizontal 7-. Figure 3 .24 shows cords supporting an object of
acceleration of object A when object B is pulled weight 100 N. Find the tensions I, and T2.
by a horizontal force of 1_0 N? (Assume all the
surfaces are frictionless.)

A 0ms-2 B 2.O m s-2

C 3.0 m s-2 D 5.0 m s-2
r Figure 3.24
3. A parachutist of weight 700 N falls at terminal
2. Figure 3.25 shows a light, smooth pulley with
velocity. which combination gives the weight , air
masses ffi, and m2 on opposite sides connected
resistance and resultant force acting on him?
by a light, inextensible string hung over the pulley.
Weight Air Resultant Find the acceleration a and the tension r in the
resistance force string in terms of m' m2, and the acceleration
700N due to gravily g.
a
'! downwards
700N
Zero
downwards

B o"l,:$)0, Zero 700

downwards
N

700N 700N _
Lero
downwards upwards
700 N 700 N 700 N
downwards u pwards downwards

Section B: Structured Questions

7-. A tow truck of mass 1500 kg is towing a small mtE
car of mass 1000 kg. The horizontal force r Figure 3.25
exerted on the car by the truck is 1000 N, and
the system of the tow truck and the car has an
acceleration of 0.50 m s-2.
(a) Draw a free-body diagram of the
(i) tow truck;
( ii) car.

Chapter 3
r
Recall what you have Which is heavter?
learnt about scalar and When we say an elephant weighs more than
vector quantities a cheetah, we are comparing the gravitational
in Chapter 2. forces acting on them. A weighing scale is
simply an instrument that allows us to measure
and compare the gravitational forces acting on
them. So, why do our weighing scales measure r The gravitational force acting on
in kilograms and not newtons? Are our common the elephant is la rger than that acting
weighing scales wrong? You will find out later, on the cheetah.
 *,
m'

tl
r

Tides
- evidence of the
Moon's gravitational force
-irere is a gravitational force of
Ittractic'r between Fartl-r anC the
Voon \A,e can see the effects of the
Voon's grav,tational force or Eartlr
rr the hrgn and low tides of -he seas.

a H igh ticti a Low tide

Mass. Weight and Density

r

Characteristics of
gravitational force
Sir lsaac Newton, who
discovered gravity,
descri bed gravitational
force as having these
th ree characteristics :
1. All masses attract
one another with
this force.
2. The larger the
masses, the
stro nge r th e fo rce .
3. The smaller the
distance between
the masses, the
stronger the force.
taffiffiffiffiill:CGt
r Figure 4.7, The electronic
balance is a commonly used
laboratory instru ment for
measuring mass. In actual
fact, electronic balances
measure weight, but they are
calibrated to give readings
for mass.
Chapter 4
How are mass and weight related?
The weight or gravitational force acting on an object is dependent on its
mass. The more mass an object has, the greater the gravitational force
acting on it.
We have learnt in Chapter 3 that
force - mass x acceleration
Weight is the gravitational Acceleration of free fall S
force acting on an object. constant (10 m s-2).
We can see that, near the Earth, weight is directly proportional to the mass
of an object, since the acceleration of the free-falling object is constant.
We can write
w- mg where lll - weight (in N);
m - mass of the object (in kg);
g - gravitational field strength (in N kg-t).
The acceleration of free fall (10 m s-') is equal to the gravitational field
strength (10 N kg-1).
Worked €xampl€ 4.1
A mobile phone has a mass of 7 5 g. Find weight if g is 10 N kg-'
Solution
Mass of mobile phone = 75 g - 75 x 10-3 kg = 0.075 kg
Weight of mobile phone = mass of mobile phone x g
- 0.075 kg x 10 N kg-' - 0 .75 N
What do common weighing instruments measurc?
Common weighing instruments like the electronic balance (Figure 4.1),
spring balance and bathroom scale actually measure the weight of an object,
not its mass. These machines, however, are calibrated to give'qeadings in
grams (g) or kilograms (kg).
Using these instruments, an object will have different mass readifuU.ua
different gravitational field strengths. For example, if an astronaut steps \
a bathroom scale on the Moon, the reading will be lower than the reading' ..
taken on Earth. This is because the gravitationalfield strength on the Moon
(1.6 N kg1) is less than that on Earth (10 N kg_').
This means that a weighing scale calibrated for use on Earth cannot be
used on the Moon. The weighing scale has to be calibrated to the Moon's
gravitational field strength in order to give accurate mass measurements
on the Moon.
 ilry-

Moon

Earth
e, The elephant'loses'weight when it is on the Moon!

7+ is mass measured?
I ir aving to ca librate we igh ing scales for different gravitational field
_

=---
s. the mass of an object can be measured using a beam balance
= *.2).

.^- balance compares the gravitational force acting on an object with

;::ing on standard masses. As both the object and the standard
=:s experience the same gravitational field strength, the mass reading
' 'cr a given object, whether on Earth or on the Moon, will be the same.

-aole 4.1
' Differences between mass and weight

o l1 amount of matter
: scalar quantity (i.e. has only A vector quantity (i.e. has both
^'agn itude) magn itude and d irection)

Sl unit: kilogram (kg) Sl unit: newton (N)

*'*F-''

ndependent of the gravitational Dependent on the gravitatronal

'r e ld stre ngth field strength
Figure 4.2 A simple beam
Veasured with a beam balance or a
cal ibrated electronic balance
o Measured with a spring balance balance used to measure mass

ft Take Note
At a given place, the acceleration of free fall in m s : is equal to the You will learn more about how a
o grdVitational field strength in N kg-t. beam balance works in Chapter 5.

Mass, Weight and Density

 Worked €xampl€ 4.?
The acceleration of free fall on the Moon is 1.6 m s-2. The acceleration
of free fall on Earth is 10 m s-2. A rock has a mass of 10 kg on Earth.
Calculate the weight of the rock on
(a) Earth;
( b) the Moon.

Solution
We know that
. the mass ofthe rock does notchange whetheron Earth oron the Moon;
o weiEht = mass x acceleration of free fall.

(a) Therefore, the weight of the rock on Earth = 10 kg x 10 m s-2 = 100 N

(b) The weight of the rock on the Moon = 10 kg x 1.6 m s-2 = 16 N
(Note:1kgms-2=1N)

Worked Cxamplc 4.3

What happens to the (a) mass and (b) weight of a satellite as it is launched
from Earth into space?

Solution
(a) The mass of the satellite remains the same.
(The mass of an object does not change at different locations.)

From what you have

(b) since the gravitational field strength is weaker in space than on Earth's
learnt so far, have you
surface, the weight of the satellite decreases as it moves from Earth
found the answers to to space.
Let's Explore (a)?

4.1
7.. Mass is the amount of matter in a body.
The Sl unit of mass ls the kilogram (kg).
2. Weight is the force acting on an object
due to gravity. The Sl unit of weight is the
newton (N). 3.
3. The weight of a body is related to its mass
by the equation W - mg.
4. Gravitational field strength g is the
gravitational force acting per unit mass. 4.
-.
5 The gravitational field strength at a place in
N kg-t is the same as the acceleration of
free fall in m s-2 experienced at the
same place.
6. The weight of an object varies according to 5.
the strength of the gravitational field it is in. strength g (10 N kg-') is the same as its
7. The mass of an object is a physical acceleration due to free fall, a, (10 m s-2).
property of the object. lt does not change They are said to be dimension-ally the same
when there is a change in the gravitational even though their units are different. Prove that
field strength. N kg-t is the same as m s-2.

Chapter 4
4: r,nertia

dflip'',t l -:come _ you should be

?' . on a safari in Africa when a big elephant

- :: ^harging at you. To escape the charging
U

I \/ou run in a straight line or in a zigzag

JJ

= =. . -i.3)?
- : -- a\ seem
obvious, but what is the reasoning
- - ='clain it, we need to understand inertia and how
--:l .-'rlass.
A Figure 4.3 How would you
t'*a't is inertia? escape a charging elephant?

- 'reasure of inertia. An object with a greater mass will have

=.:ia. ln other words, the larger the mass of an object, the
-

be for the object to start moving, slow down, move faster or

va
.rs why it is harder for an elephant to chase you in a zi{zag
fact, if the elephant tries to do that, it will probably trip and fall!
' . - so explains why people shou ld wear seat be lts. lf the d river
-' . applies the brakes, he will continue to move forward due to his
' . ,\ ithout a seat belt holding him back, he wou ld crash into the
: - -=en (Figure 4.4(a)). A seat belt provides the necessary opposing
From what you have
: ^ at stops him (Figure 4.4(b)). learnt so far, have you
sudden stop L sudden stop found the answers to
-t
-: ,, T Let's Explore (b)?

z -
-',er not wearing seat belt (b) Driver wearing seat belt
A Flgure 4.4 Seat belts are designed to help prevent injury.

@ Tt), tt ort
':,, may have seen magicians pull a tablecloth from under a set of dishes without
- --rsing the dishes to fall. How do you explain this phenomenon? Use the lnternet
. r r 'ind out whether there are variations of th is trick.

Mass, Weight and Density

v Table 4.2 Densities of
common s u bstances 4.3 Density
Learning outcome You should be able to:
- mass
o recalt la
Gases
and apply the formu densitv
' = volume to solve problems.

Dry air 0.00123

Oxygen 0 00143 What is density?
when we talk about density, we are talking about how much mass is
Liquids packed into a given space. The density of a substance is defined as its
0.87 mass per unit volume.
_lro:ntine-' -t-';
oit i 0.92 ln some cases, density can be used to identify substances. For example,
water i
Pure 7 the density of pure gotd is 19 300 kg p-s. tf the density of a gotd ring is not
19 300 kg m t, then it is not made of pure gold
Seawater i I.O25
impurities in it. - it must have some
Mercury I 13.6
To calculate the density of a substance, we need to know its mass m and
Solids
its volume v. Density p (Greek letter'rho', pronounced 'row') is given by
Po lystyre ne 0.016
Cork o.24 where p- density;
m- mass of the object;
Pine wood 0.5 V= volume of the object.
lce o.9!7
Glass 2.5 The Sl unit of density is the kilogram per cubic metre (kg m-3).

lron 7.874 lf mass is measured in kilograms (kg) and volume in cubic metres (m3),
Gold 19.3 the unit of density would be the Sl unit. However, if mass is measured in
grams (g) and volume in cubic centimetres (cm.), the unit of density would
be gram per cubic centimetre (g cm .).

offi
To convert density
As most objects we handle daily have relatively small masses and volumes,
the unitI cm-t is more commonly used. The densities of some common
substances are shown in Table 4.2.
values from g cm-3 to
kg 7'11-4, w€ simply
multiply them by 1000. Substances that float on water have lower densities than water. substances
that sink in water have higher densities than water.

ht*-----
's

tu rpentine water mercury

P = 87 0 kg pp1-a p= 1-OO0 kg m-a P= t3 600 kg r"1"1-a

a lce cubes placed in three different liquids. The density of the

liquid determines whether the ice cube floats or sinks.
Chapter 4
ilth a heavy steel ship float?
a
: all sinks in water, but a large and heavy ship (Figure 4.5)

: s an object that is made up of more than one material. ln

s--eel. it contains a large volume of air in the various rooms and
i':'cre. we will have to consider the average density of the ship.
:=- rensity of an object is calculated by dividing its total mass by
: --e.
: -: =. a ship of mass 7.68 x LO7 kg is 268 m long, 32 m wide and

-i=:uboidalshape,
. = J^'
*he ship 268 m x 32 m x 25 m 2I4 400
=
L = m3;
::: :' '-te ship = 7.68 x IO7 kg.

:'.'t --ne average density of the ship: v Figure 4.5 Why does a
large and heavy ship float,
x
:::: ::^sitv/ =- mass - z'68 1o? [g =- 358 kg p-s
while an iron ball sinks?
m-
*rr. 2r44oo m3 I
*;,
density of the ship is actually less than the density ''l

which is about 1,025 kg m-3 Therefore, the It

to float! a aa
rl
aa tl

tlrllrrlllF

lnr
d"&. I

-:.=."rine the density of a liquid

beaker, electronic balance, retort stand bu rette

= -d the mass mrof a dry, clean beaker.

-.-e beaker (Figure 4.6).

= nd the mass m, of the beaker and the liquid.

', -en reading the volume of the liquid, make sure that your
:.:s are level with the base of the meniscus of the liquid.

beaker
' :re masses are measured in g, and the volume in cffi3,
-en the density p of the liquid is
_ m^- m^g \.,!rr ^ m^
Ctlf- '^ 1-000 kg rp-s
_________=______
6 = _
V V
lnvestigation
Objective I
To determine the density of regular objects (Figu re 4.7)

Apparatus cuboid
Vernier calipers, metre rule, electronic balance

Procedure
L Find the mass m using the electronic balance.
2. Determine the volume V by taking appropriate measurements
and then calculating the volume using the following formulae:
(a) Cuboid
o measure the length l, breadth b and height h
V-lxbxh cylinder

(b) Cylinder
o measure the diameter d and length I
t/-(+)xt
(c) Sphere
o measure the diameter d
v-+"er sphere
r Figute 4.7
Precaution
Check the instruments used for zero error, and avoid parallax
error when taking readings. '/\
e, Praetical Book Link
Calculation Experiment 4
How are the densities
lf the mass is in g and the volume in cm3, then
of regular and irregular
density = g cm-3 - 10OO kg m-..
+ ff " solids determined?

Worked Cxample 4.4

An experiment was carried out to measure the density of air. A thick-walled bottle fitted with
a tap, as shown in Figure 4.8, was used. The readings obtained were recorded in Table 4.3.
Y Table 4.3

Bottle containing air 4LO

Evacuated bottle 409

bottle
Bottle with water

What is the
(a) mass of water needed to fill the bottle;
(b) volume of the bottle;
(c) mass of air needed to fill the bottle;
(d) density of air?
Take the density of water to b e L g cm-3. a Figure 4.8

Chapter 4
T

-' air in bottle = volume of water needed

Can balloons carry you
to fill the bottle up into the sky?
ln L982, Mr. Larry
-
= -1099-741,9 Walters, a man from the
USA, attached 45 helium
weather balloons to a
: -' :'te bottle lawn chair, sat in it and
_ :f water needed to fill the botile soared into the sky. He
--_.:f water _ 74IE==T4Icm3 reportedly reached a
: height of 5000 m before
bursting the balloons one
-' arr used to fi ll the botile = 41,o g - by one with a pellet gun.
409 g = r g
On his way down, the
. :f mass of air Ig balloons' loose cables
air = - 1n-3crnrn-3
volume of air -1?q\1 got entangled with power
lines. This resulted in a
20-minute blackout in
Long Beach, USA! After
: - <€d Cxample 4.5 his misadventure, Larry
was nicknamed the
"Lawn Chair Pilot".
,' s Je 2.O cm has a density of 6.0 g cm-3 A hole of volume
s Jrilled into the cube. The hole is filled up with a certain Based on what you have
-' density 5.0 g cm-3. What is the density of th is co m pos ite learnt about density, can
(a) g cm-3; (b) kg m-s2 you explain why balloons
can lift a person into the
sky?
:: -:iOn
: t>: of 1.0 cm3 of the material of density 5.0 g cm-3
I
Balloons, however,
cannot carry a person all
the way to outer space.
.- -nre of cube after a hole of 1,.0 cm3 is drilled Find out why, using the
lnternet.

','ass of cube after a hole of 1.0 cm3 is drilled

Density of composite cube

mass of composite cube
me of com pos ite cu be
vo lu
(42.o + 5.0) g
(7 .O + 1.0) cm'

5.9 g cm-'

To convert to kg m-., recall that

1, kg - 1000 g (or t g - 10-3 kg)
S ince 1, m - 100 cm,
1' m3 - (100)t cm3 = 106 cm3 (or 1 Cm3 = 10-6 m3).

Therefore,
rgcm3 = !9^=
Cm3
1, 10-6 m3
!
19:ng==loookgr^p-:

Thus, 5.9 g cm-3 - 5.9 x 103 kg m-..

Mass, Weight and Density


From what you have
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
Let's Explore (c)?
!.. The inertia of an object is the object's reluctance to change its
state of rest or motion, due to its mass.
2. Mass is Ameasure of inertia. The larger the mass of an object,
the greater..its inertia.
3. The density \ an object is defined as its mass per unit volume.
The Sl unit of dqnsity is the kilogram per cubic metre (kg m-t).
(Note: 1000 kg rn-e - L g cm-3)
4. Objects that are less dense than water will float on water.
Objects that are denser than water will sink in water.
5. The density of an object can be determined using the formula
. mass
Y' 'r --
densttv
volume'

-
4.? t 4.3
7.. Two groups of people get into two identical cars. One group consists
of five sumo wrestlers, while the other group consists of five marathon
runners. Assuming both drivers step on the accelerator such that the
driving force for both cars is equal, state and explain which car
(a) takes off faster from rest;
(b) will need a longer braking distance, once in motion.
2. Given that the density of water is 1OO0 kg m-3, what is the mass of
1 cm3 of water in grams?
3, (a) What is dens itn
(b) How would you measure the density of an irregularly shaped
object that
(i) sinks in water?
(ii) floats in water?

State whether each of the following statements is true or false

relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confi

tal i Weightles-sness means no gravity is present.

(b) gravitational force
* ---i-: The is the same for all falling obj

(c) | Th tional force acts on one mass at a time. i 4.

- --_-f--
(d) , Gr alfit)ld streneth g= wei8ht. '
:

mass
. 4.

J"fl!g:: i-._1l"jt9l
q_u.allity, whereas weight is a scalar quantity. 4.L
anobjecttochangeitsstateof restormotion,dueto
fn iiii:tJj..lthereluctanceof 4.2

lf a block of metal is broken into two equal parts, the density of each part is half
4.3
the density of the original metal block.

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Ghapter 4
 defined as

rsa
is related to measure of

defined as defined as

by the by the
eq uation eq uation

ti

Gravitational field strength g :

Gravitational field is a region in
is the gravitational force which a mass experiences a force
acting per unit mass. due to gravitational attraction.
-+
:

:he gravitational field strength to be L0 N k{t, unless otherwise stated.

Section M ultiple-Choice Questions 3. The mass of a measuring cylinder is 60.0 g. when

:- Which of these statements is correct? 30 cm3 of olive oil is poured into it, the total mass
A is 87.6 g. The density of olive oil in g cm-3 is
The mass of an object can be measured
with a spring balance. A 0.34
B The weight of an object can be measured
B O.92
with a beam balance. c 1.09
C The mass of an object does not change D 2.OO

with location.
D 4. A measuring cylinder c
The weight of an object can never change.
when ten identical steer balls are immGlse6in the
2, A rock on the Moon has a mass of 0.5 kg. lt is water, the water level rises to 50 cm3. lf one ba
brought to Earth, where the gravitational field is has a mass of 27 g, what is the density of the ste
stronger. On Earth, the rock will have in g cm-3?
A less mass and less weight A 0.9
B less mass and the same weight B 8.1
C the same mass and the same weight c 9.0
D the same mass and more weight D 13.5

Mass, Weight and Density

 *5. Figu re 4.9 shows a rectan$ular solid block of
Section B: Structured Questions
dimensions 20 cm by 1-0 cm by 15 cm. lt has a
7-. ( a) Define the term densitY and state cylindrical hole bored at its centre'
its Sl unit.
(b) When solid A of mass L2 g is completely
immersed in a measuring cylinder filled
with water, it displaces the same volume
of water as does solid B of mass 8 g. What 15 cm

2.
can be deduced about the densities of
solids A and B?

Table 4.4 shows the densities of several

substances.
O 20 cm
10 cm

Table 4.4
a Fi$ure 4.9

2.7
Aluminium The mass of the block is 14.9 kg, and it is made
Copper 8.9 of a material that has a density of 5 g cm-t. What
is the cross-sectional area of the hole in cm2?
Cork
Gold
Platin u m i 2r.5 Section C: Free-Response Question
(a) Determine the volume occupied by 1-0.0 g
7-. ( a) Explain the following observations:
of gold.
(i) The mass of a Piece of rock,
measured using a beam balance, is
(b) (i) Determrne the mass of a thin wafer the same on Earth and on the Moon'
of Platinum that measures 2'5 cm bY
1.0 cm bY O.2 cm.
(ii) The weight of the same piece of rock,
measured using a sPring balance, is
(ii) The mass of another thin wafer of the
different on Earth and on the Moon'
same dimensions is 4.45 g. Which
(b) Define the terms mass and inertia. How are
material could this wafer be made of?
they related?
(c) A student was standing in the middle
3. Taking the density of water to be 1000 kg ffi-3,
section of a travelling bus when the bus
answer the following questions:
driver suddenly jammed on the brakes. As
(a) A boy made a model ship with a mass of the bus came to a stop, a wooden box hit
I.L kg and a volume of 900 cm3. will it float
the student's legs. He claimed that the box
on water?
came from the front section of the bus' ls
(b) The SAF operates the M113 Ultra APC' his claim true? Explain your answer.
This armoured vehicle has a mass of
1,.1,1-5 x L04 k$ when loaded, but yet it is
able to float! what can you deduce about
its volume?

4. A breakfast Cereal packet carries the label "This Worksheet 4

package is sotd by weight, not volume' Some
settting of the contents may have occurred during
transport." lf Settling occu rS, what changes, if
ony, will occur to the
(a) mass of the contents;
I

(b) welght of the contents;

I

I
(c) volume of the contents;
(d) densitY of the contents?

,3r.
': rlltr
 How do you think a tightrope walker is able to walk the entire length of rope without
falling? How does he maintain his balance. and how does carrying a long pole help?
There is some interesting physics behind tightrope walking. which you will discover in
this chapter.

rl
r{

',e +'
*f
t34:

-t rf/

-_ i*

{
+'{

e-
 5.1 Moments
Learning Outcomes should be able to:
- You
. state that the moment of a force is a measure of the turning effect of a force;
. relate the moment of a force to everyday examples;
o state the formula moment of a force (or torque) = force x perpendicutar distance
from the pivot, and use it to solve associated problems.

why does the boy require more effort to pull the doorknob when it is nearer.
to the hinge (Figure 5.t)? To answer this, we need to study the tuming
effect of a force.
\.J Figure 5.2 shows the free-body diagrams of the door for the two situations
shown in Figure 5.1. when the boy pulls (i.e. applies a force to)the doorknob.
the door turns at the hinge. The hinge is a fixed point called the pivot.
represented by a small triangle.

door

hi
force A
(a) A small pull (i.e.force A) is applied on the doorknob that is
far from the hinge (i.e. pivot).

r. Figure 5.1 The force needed

to pull a door open depends on
where it is applied. hinge pivot)

force B

Recall what you have (b) A large pull (i.e. force B) is apptied o the doorknob that
learnt about free-body ls near the hinge (i.e. pivot).
diagrams in Chapter 3.
r, Figure 5.2 Free-body diagrams of a door g pulled open

Two factors determine the turning effect of the pull on the door:
. The magnitude of the putt on the door (i.e. force apptied)
. The perpendicular distance of the pull from the hinge (i.e. pivot)
line of
action of F By finding the magnitude of the force applied and its perpendicular distance
from the pivot, we can measure the turning effect of a force (i.e. moment of
a force) (Figure 5.3).

r Figure 5.3

Chapter 5
F

,,il, -,*"-' -: 3 tofce = FXd Whefe F-fOfCe (in N);

d - perpendlcular distance
from the pivot (in m).
- -':ne moment of a force is the newton
metre (N m).
-- - . :,' a force is a vector quantity.

=:^e nloment of a force, we need to state its

: ',vhich has an Sl unit of N m;
: ' ,', hich can be either clockwise or anticlockwise (Figure 5.4).

anticlockwise clockwise
moment about moment about
the pivot the pivot
pivot
a Figure 5.4 The moment of a force can be clockwise or anticlockwise.

-.:Jens when there is more than one force acting

at different
. :'ar object? will the forces cause the object to rotate clockwise or
- -'"' se? we will learn how to determine the moment in such situations
.- _'5.2.

,', cnked Cxampl€ 5.1

'--, relt conducts an experiment on the turning 50 cm 40 cm 15 cm 0cm

: - . )' a force, os shown in Figure 5.5. mark mark dlark mark
' ine weight w is placed at the 1,5 cm mark as
: ^ own , determ ine its moment about the 40 cm
-- ark, where
the half-metre rule is held. half-metre ru le of
weight is then shifted to the 5 cm mark. As a negligible MASS
-esult, the student feels that it is
more difficult to
'-raintain the half-metre rule in a horizontal position 5N
-ompared to (a). Why? 5.5

Solution
3 r {t the 15 cm mark,
3erpendicular distance d 40 cm 1-5 cm -
= 25 cm = 0.25 m
Moment of W about the pivot thumb) = W x d- 5Nx O.2S m 5N
= 1,.25 N m (clockwise)
b) At the 5 cm mark, perpendicular distance d = 40 cm - 5 cm
35 cm = 0.35 m
Moment of Wabout the pivot = W x d= 5 N x 0.35 m
=t.75Nm(clockwise)
The moment of the weight at the 5 cm mark about the pivot is greater than that at the 15 cm
mark' This means that the turning effect at the 5 cm mark is felt more strongly.

Turning Effect of Forces

 From what you have
learnt so far, have you
L. A force applied to a body can cause a turning effect about a
fixed point called the pivot.
found the answers to
Let's Explore (a)?
2. Moment of a force (torque) = force Fx perpendicular
distance d from the pivot to line of action of the force. lt is a
measure of the turning effect of a force.

OffiFigure 5.6 shows the application

3.
4.
The Sl unit of the moment of a force is the newton metre (N m).
The moment of a force is a vector quantity. lt has two possible
directions: clockwise or anticlockwise.
of two equal forces on two lever
arms. Which force produces
a greater moment? 5.1
!.. State two common real-life examples of the turning effect of
a force.
2. Why is it easier to open the lid of a container with a spoon
than with a coin?
fo rce

5.2 Principle of Moments

Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
r Figure 5.6 o state the Principle of- Moments for a body in equilibrium;
. use the Principle of Moments to solve associated problems.

How does a beam balance measure mass?

We have learnt that a beam balance can be used to measure the mass of
Recall what you have
an object. The beam is able to stay horizontal when the masses on each
learnt about the beam
balance in Chapter 4.
side of the pivot are the same.

standard masses

s
pivot

weight of an apple weight of _

- m€ 3sg
standard masses
r Figure 5.7 A simple diagram showing the
forces acting on an equal-arm beam balance

For the equal-arm beam balance, the distance d between

each pan and the pivot is the same. We will let the
unknown mass of the apple be m kg. We want to find
the total number of standard masses needed to balance
the beam.

lf three standard masses, each of s kg, are required to

balance the apple, we can conclude that the mass m of
r, A lady leans over a window ledge to put wet
the apple is 3s kg when the beam is horizontal.

t
'Hhat is the Principle of Moments?
'--=::am in Figure 5.7 is balanced (i.e. in equilibrium), what can we say
ilF --: : ockwise and anticlockwise moments of the beam?

: "om the Principle of Moments, the clockwise moment of the beam

:: equal to the anticlockwise moment.
Visit http : / /www.walter-
=' -se the Principle of Moments to calculate the unknown mass of the fendt .de / phl4e /lever. htm
= gure 5.7). to try out an applet on the
Principle of Moments.
)' Aciple of Moments, taking moments about the pivot,
perpendicular distance
x from apple to pivot = weight of perpendicular distance
= stanOarO x from masses to pivot
MASSCS

mgd - 3 sgd
m=3s
,'.^e rl the equal-arm beam is balanced, the mass m of the apple is
:: :he total mass of three standard masses.

hrfi the Principle of Moments using a compact disc (cD)

riu rwo pairs of button magnets.
I I -=.,, a grid scale on a CD.
: = = -? a pair of attracting button magnets on the two
-. -
''-:es of the CD, such that one magnet attracts
- -: ::'.ef. magnet moved
1 = = -= :he other pair of attracting magnets the same vertically
, ., ;s the first, equidistant from the centre of the CD. downwards
1 -::-: a pen into the hole at the centre of the CD.
- I ,., --ne CD to balance on the pen.
i ' : .. 'lne pair of magnets vertically downwards.
: - ::s :''le CD remain balanced? Explain your answer.

pen
(i .e. pivot)
P?actical Book Link
ir reriment 5 ne of
- :: ,,,e verify the Principle of Moments? cti on

Turning Effect of Forces


Recall what you have
learnt about balanced
forces in Chapter 3.
Gonditions for equilibrium
We have learnt that for a stationary object, the forces acting on it are balanced
(i.e. the resultant force is zero). Similarly, we have just learnt from the
Principle of Moments that when an object does not rotate, the clockwise and
anticlockwise moments acting on it are balanced (i.e. the resultant moment is
zero). Thus, an object in equilibrium must satisfy the following two conditions:
t. The resultant force on the object is zero.
2. The resultant moment on the object is zero.

er When we solve problems involving objects in equilibriuffi, always ensure that the
two conditions above are satisfied.

Worked Cxamplc 5.e

A uniform metre rule balances horizontally about a pivot at its midpoint when a weight of 10.0 N is
suspended from the 20 cm mark and another weight of 8.0 N is suspended from the position R, as
shown in Figure 5.8.
0cm 2Ocm 100 cm

r' Figure 5.8 8.0 N

Fi nd
(a) the moment of the 10.0 N weight about the pivot;
(b) the position R where the 8.0 N weight rs to be hung such that the rule remains horizontal.

Solution
(a) At the 20 cm mark, perpendicular distance dr = 50 cm - 20 .r----==- -
=30cm
= O.30 m
Moment of 1O.O N about the pivot = 10.0 N x 0.30 m
3.0 N m (anticlockwise)
(b) Note: To balance the rule, the 8.0 N weight must be placed on the opposite side of the pivot as
the 10.0 N weight to provide a clockwise moment.
By the Principle of Moments, taking moments about the pivot,
sum of clockwise moments sum of anticlockwise moments caused
caused by 8.0 N about the pivot by 10.0 N about the same pivot
8.0 N x dr= 10.0Nx0.30m
3
dr=
st
0.375 m

The position R of the 8.0 N weight is 0.375 m after the 50 cm mark

= 0.5 m + 0.375 m
- 0.875 m

Chapter 5
 Ulill lllliilllltrrnllililmm €rample 5.3
,'r r = - z^d wrnch. The hand winch is used to move
.', - 3'. is the minimum force required to turn the drum?

load
3000 N

of drum

(not drawn to scale)

r. Figure 5.9

lllitllilililllllilltlllllrlilHltl-

rrlilr
=- :o help us understand the problem. The
: - c winch to rotate clockwlse about the axis force F
--:=- crvot), while the force F causes the hand
: :3kwise about the same axis. The minimum
ll .- .^e clockwise moment caused by L is equal to
ent caused by F.
-
- '.' j.'r'rents, taking moments abo,rt the axis of
load L
- .,. se = 3000 N
_,t sum of anticlockwise
* ' r . -sed by the = moments caused by the
=
rr : -- :-e pivot force Fabout the same pivot

--,- perpendicular distance

= force F x from
._t
=,'r';ttnce axis of drum
j-':'-'.x0.1 ffi=Fx2m
F- 150 N

- -^r force required is 150 N.

[fM'111rrrurqrr # €ramplg 5.4

:'rows a man of weight 1OOO N standing on
. AB of length 4 m and weight 500 N. The
=rd-
- ::d from two ropes tied to its two ends.
the tensions in the ropes. To maintain the
-'-
e horizontal position, the man needs to be
\ away from end A.
'. t-he maximum and minimum values of 1000 N
: ^s Tr and T, for values of x in the range
r Figure 5.1O
r<4m.
,','rat value of x will Tr= 900 N?

Turning Effect of Forces

@
 Solution
(a) To maintain the board in the horizontalposition, the resultant (b) Given T, = 900 N,
moment should be zero. From equation (*) in (a),
By the Principle of Moments, taking moments about A,
(Tr- 250) Nm
sum of anticlockwise sum of clockwise
x-
moments about A moments about A
moment of Tr* _ moment of weight of man +
moment of Tr moment of weight of board
(T2)g m) + (f1X0 rn) = (1000 NXx) + (500 NX2 m)
(4T, - (500 x 2D N m (Tr- 250) N m
X- = (*) T2 is 900 N fo( x = 2.G m.
250 N
(Tr- 250) Nm
Since0m <x<4 m,thenOm <4m
250 N
-rON
=+ 25O N

Since the range of x is the full length of the board,

by symmetry, 2SO N

Worked €xample 5.5

:F::::']t-:Ty:_1i?l :l y":Fh,600 N warking on a uniform prank of rength 20 m and weight 250 N.

At any particular instant, the man is at a distance x from

(a) lf upward forces exerted at P and a are Fp andQ. Fa <- walking direction
respectively, find the two equations expressing Fo and F. p
as functions of x.
(b) Draw a diagram showing the position of the man when the
plank just loses contact with support
Q.
(i) What is the distance the man needs to walk from
(ii) calculate the magnitude of the upward force Fp. Q?
Solution
(a) Sketch a diagram as shown. r Figure 5.11

cffi o Make sure the

units for forces
and distances are
consistent.
o ln Worked Example
5.5, we could also
Taking moments about Q, take moments about
sum of anticlockwise moments - sum of clockwise moments P, instead of Q, to find
250 x 5 + 6O0x= Fo x 10 Fo. Check whether
you can find the same
.'. Fr=60x+I25 --(1) equation for Fo.

Chapter 5
 : the plank is also in equilibrium,
cf upward forces = sum of downward forces
fr + Fr= 600 +250- -(2)
. s:ituting (1) into (2),

(3)

.''e plank to lose contact with

::3rt Q, the man must walk
- rd P. When the plank leaves Q,

the diagram sketched earlier.

Substituting Fq - 0 N into (3),

0--60x+725
6Ox = 725
-
x 1,2.1, m (ii) Substituting Fq - 0 into (2),
'. He needs to walk I2.1 m from a. FP =850N

^e sum of clockwise moments about a pivot

is equal to the sum of From what you have
=^ticlockwise moments about the same pivot. learnt so far, have you
: -^e following steps will help you apply
the Principle of Moments to found the answers to
: I ve problems: Let's Explore (b)?
(a) Draw a simple model to help you visualise the problem.
{b) ldentify the pivot.
tc) ldentify all the forces, including their directions and
perpendicular distances from the pivot. .\\
rd) lf the system is in equilibriuffi, apply the Principle bRMoments.
\
5.a
::ate the Prrnciple of Moments. Discuss how this principle may be used
-- calance a see-saw by two persons of different weights.
: and his father sit at the ends of a see-saw, 2 m from the pivot, os
:^rwn in Figure 5.L2. Where should Ali's mother sit in order to balance
-'= See-SaW?
Father
700 N

r Figure 5.L2

Turning Effect of Forces (!

 5.3 Centre of Gravity
Learning Outcome
o - You should be able to:
explain what is meant by the centre of gravity of a body.

Why does a uniform metre rule balance only at the

5O cm mark?
The weight of an object acts downward towards the ground. When the obje:-
is pivoted near its edge, its weight causes a turning effect about the pir'c:
However, if you place the pivot at a particular position, its weight has - :

turning effect. Where is this position?

Think about the two quantities that determine the moment of a force -
force and perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of :-.
force. Under what conditions will the moment of a force be zero? Let -.
consider a uniform metre rule.

))

point can you

balance the ruler on the tip of your finger?

100
When the pivot is at the 50 cm mark, the rule
balances (i.e. the moment of W about the pivot is
zero). This is because the perpendicular distance
between the pivot and the line of action of the
v weight W is zero (Figure 5.I4(a)).
W \

a Figure 5.14(a) Balanced position of the metre rule

When the uniform metre rule is not pivoted at the

50 cm mark, its weight W will cause a turning effe:
(Figure 5 .I4(b)). The moment of the weight of the
moment
of weight
ruler W about the pivot is not zero. This causes
v of ru le the ruler to turn.
W

a Figure 5.14(b) The rule is unbalanced when it is not pivoted at its centre.

What is the centre of gravity?

lf the metre rule is uniforffi, the entire weight of the ruler can be cors -:
to be acting through a point at the 50 cm mark. We call this point the ce-'r
of gravity of the rule.

Chapter 5
 lrt to find the centre of gravity
-'-
object of regular shape and uniform density, the centre of gravity
:s geometrical centre. Examples of regular shapes are rectangles,
-:s. circles, cuboids, spheres and rings. The centre of gravity of an
' ray also lie outside the object (e.g. the centre of gravity of
a ring)
= 5.15).

nn$
/2
o \
a

: . -'e 5.15 The blue dots represent the centres gravity

of of regular-shaped objects

-re lamina (i.e. sheet object) of irregular shape and

/or non-uniform
,',e can conduct lnvestigation 5.1 to find its centre of gravity.

^ e centre of gravity of an irregularly shaped plane lamina

'::and,plumb line, pendulum

bob, split-cork, pin,
:'; shaped lamina

': :nree small holes near the edSe of the lamina. The holes
rbe as far apart as possible from one another.
. '?'rrple is given for reference (Figures 5.16(a)).

retort stand split cork

irregularly shaped
lamina

plumb line

pendulum bob
ffi
. When locating the
centre of gravity of a
lamina by the plumb
r Figure 5.16(a) r Figure 5.16(b) line method, two
ne lines are sufficient;
the third line serves
: -. scend the lamina freely from a ptn. as a check.
- -'^g a plumb lrne from the pin in front of the lamina. . The centre of gravity

I I
',-:n the plumb line is steady, trace the line on the lamina.
=:'eat steps 2lo 4 for the other two holes.
is usually located
near the region that
has more mass.

Turning Effect of Forces

 ffi
-l!'

1,. The holes must be small so that not too much of the lamina is removed.
2. The lamina should be free to swing about its Point of suspenslon.

The point of intersection of the three lines is the position of the centre
of gravity.

When we solve problems involving forces and objects, we have to note the
positions of the centre of gravity, the pivot, as well aS the forces applied'
Unless the wei$ht of an object is very small and can be i$nored, orthe
pivot
is vertically aligned with the centre of gravity, the moment of the weight of the
object, acting through the centre of gravity, must be included in calculations'

5.4 Stability

Let us consider a book. lt has six faces two broad and four narrow faces'
Suppose we make it stand upright on one of -
tts narrow faces. lf we give it a
slight push, the bookwilltopple (Figure 5.L7). Hence, the book is unstable'

".::,:.,ilg5 iffi.r.
*

r Figure 5.17 A book standing on one of its narrow surfaces is unstable. r Figure 5.18 A book lying flat on its
broad su rf ace is stable .

However, if we lay the book flat on one of the broad faces and give it a
position
slight push, the book will not topple but it will stay in its original
(Figure 5.1-8). lt is considered to be stable'
 of equilibrium
r: ? paper COne tO ShOw how stability is related to the centre of
.'re ntoment of a force. ln Table 5.1, we try to balance a paper
:: ways. The two forces acting on the cone are its weight W and
- 'l rce R.

- -,rl€s of equilibriur-n

After being Befo re be i ng After being Before being After being

tilted tilted tilted displaced displaced

line of i line of
action i
actio n
of W' ofW
ightly tilted,
-- s lf the cone is slightly tilted, lf the cone is slightly displaced,
: ='-rre of gravity rises before o its centre of gravity drops; o its centre of gravity remains
r - _- ts original height', o the line of action through its at the same height;
. - -:tion through its weight W lies outside its base; o the lines of action through its
: I i lies with in its base; o the moment of its weight weight W and contact force
-,t -'lent of its weight about about the contact point C R coincide;
-. coint C causes the o the moment of its weight
-- causes the cone to topple.
=t -.'t1 to its original about the contact point C is
zero; it stays in the position to
which it is displaced.

- , e discussion, we can conclude that to increase the stability

r :f gravity should be kept as low as possible (i.e. more mass

- ts bottom);
.'ea should be kept as wide as possible.

= -ltat the object fulfills the two conditions above, the line of
the centre of gravity of the object will lie within its base,
. - <l.r
v Figure 5.19 A racing car in
- :-lect is ti lted by a la rge a ngle . Singapore's Formula 1, race
has a broader base and lower
--ritions for increased stability arso explain why centre of gravity compared to
most vehicles on the road.
':sengers are allowed on the lower deck of a double-decker bus;
. - - s ,Figure 5.19), Bunsen burners, table lamps and standing fans
:: 3'-e'c with large bases and low centres of gravity.

Q&=
Worked €xampl€ 5.6
Figure 5.2O shows the rest position and the displaced position of a weighted toy. lts centre
of gravity is indicated by the letter G. Explain briefly why the toy eventually returns to its rest
position after being released from its displaced position.

(a) Rest position

a Figure 5.20

Solution
The centre of gravity is the point through which the weight of
an object acts. When the toy is at rest, its centre of gravity G is
directly below the pivot (i.e. its beak).

when the toy is displaced (Figure s.20(b)), G is disptaced

upwards and to the right, os shown. lts weight now has a turning
weight
effect about the pivot. The moment of the weight about the pivot
causes the toy to rotate clockwise towards its rest position.

Work€d €xample 5.7

Figure 5.2r shows a boy on a rocking horse. The boy
can stay balanced, or rock himself back and forth
by moving his arm. Explain how he is able to do so.

Solution
Before moving his arm, the weight of the boy (acting
through his centre of gravity) passes through the
point of contact between the rocking horse and the
ground. Therefore, there is zero moment, which (a) Boy stays balanced (b) Boy rocking
explains why he stays at rest. a Figure 5.21

However, when the boy moves his arm towards his

head, the centre of gravity sh ifts backwards. H is
weight, which acts through this new centre of gravity,
creates an anticlockwise moment about the point of
contact between the rocking horse and the ground.
Hence, he rocks backwards.
{4
when the boy moves his arm forwards, his centre
of gravity shifts forwards, producing a clockwise
moment about the point of contact. This causes the
After the boy
boy to rock forwards. moves his arm

Chapter 5
 '. centre of gravity of a body is defined as the point through which its From what you have
- './e weight appears to act. learnt so far, have you
--: lity is a measure of the ability of an object to return to its original found the answers to
: s tion after being displaced. Let's Explore (c)?
- lo1ect can be in
s:able equilibrium (i.e.if it returns to its original position when slighly
r splaced);
-^stable equilibrium (i.e. if it topples when slightly displaced);
-eutral equilibrium (i.e. if it stays in the position to which it ls
I splaced).
- roject can be made more stable if
:s centre of gravity can be made lower;
:s base area can be made larger.

5.3 t, 5.4
:^e centre of gravity of an object the same whether it is near the
-''.ce of the Earth or the Moon?
:-.-lwellers in Singapore usually hang their laundry out to dry on
:^-3oo poles. These bamboo poles have to be lifted out of the window
-: stuck into specially built, short, hollow pipes. With wet laundry on
. ot of effort may be needed to lift the pole up at one end. What
r. :e can you $ive to reduce the required efforl? (Hint: Some factors
. -: rsider are the turning effects of the weight of the pole and the wet
'-':ry,and the distribution of wet laundry on the pole.)
r . ,',ise to place heavy loads onto the roof rack of an empty minibus?
: -tn your answer.
'--. are the features we need to consider in designing a stable
:: iamp?
=

-:' s -rfing on the ocean waves needs to

- ^-self. By bending his knees, he lowers
': :'gravity.By spreading his legs, he has
- ::= area. Would you be able to balance
-- : sJrfboard?

{F

'*,f tS#, E

,f?-*fi* .,-,
-hi.'i*".

Ital.'n'* * d' !1 dcll*:

*i1lc*e"* Turning Effect of Forces

't;_
 Science Bites
What is the physics behind tightrope walking?
Remenrber the tightrope walker we talked about at the
start of the chapter? For hrrn to maintain his balance and
not fall off the rope. he needs to position his centre of
gravity cirectly above the rope. lf not, the moment of his
weight about the contact point will cause him to fall off.

carrying a long pole helps lower the centre of gravity

of the tightrope walker and make him less likely to fall.
To increase his stability further, the tightrope walker can
use a long drooping pole with weighted ends. This allows
the centre of gravity of the tightrope walker to be lowered a Carrying a long pole with weighted ends lowers
below the rope. the centre of gravity of a tightrope walker.

known

wh ich

Clockwise Anticlockwise

for a body in equilibrium

Principle of Moments
sum of clockwise sum of anticlockwise moments
moments about a pivot about the same pivot

re lated to

Stability an object

af fected

Centre of gravity Base area

Chapter 5
 l, Erirrcing trick
ffiffii l5mr re F::-ret for a video on the trick of balancing nails. Use search words such
"iii,iilllllii,ifFll -li - " and "tfiCk". as "experiment"
nailS

:'*-,- ,rhat you have learnt, can you

- explain how the centre of gravity is critical in ca rrying out the

.l -: " :-e unsuccessful attempts, explain what went wrong.

'iE -ltlier each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
'nr. section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident oi yow answer.

-:'noment of a force about a pivot is zeroif

the force acts through the pivot. 5.1
--:
rr seam b-alance reading of the mass of an object will be the
same on the Earth
=-. :^ the Moon. 5.2

- -: acply the Principle of Moments on any object in

equilibrium,
:--s of clockwise moments and anticlockwise moments about we need to find the
the same pivot. 5.2
r --3 centre of gravity of an object ries within the object.
",*uu" 5.3
'* --: geometrical centre of an object may not be its centre of gravity. 5.
* - i^€ centre of gravity of an object is lowered when tilted slighily, the object is in
::331e equilibrium.

4,'!sr*- are available at the back of the book.

ruming Effect of Forces (|

Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions 4. The figure below shows a uniform beam pivote-
at its midpoint. An object of 60 N is placed
7-. A minimum moment of 32.5 N m is required to
30 cm to the left of the midpoint of the bean'
open a door.
i€r socm i

h i nges handle

60N
The beam will be balanced by a force of
A 30 N downwards, applied 60 cm to the
right of its midpoint -
What is the minimum distance X between the B 30 N upwards, applied 60 cm to the ri-:'--
handle and the hinges if the force used to pull its midpoint
the door open is to be less than 50 N? c 50 N downwards, applied 40 cm to the
A 0.33 m B 0.65 m right of its midpoint
C 0.77 m D 1,.54 m D 50 N upwards, applied 40 cm to the €-
its midpoint
2. A driver's foot presses on a car pedal with
a force of 20 N as shown. 5. The figure below shows a gauge that meas, -:.
the amount of liquid in a tank. At which po -
A, B, C or D, should the pivot be positione:
so that the pointer turns through the larges.
possible angle as the tank is emptied?
spn ng
empty

pointer

4u cm pivot
float
How much pulling force is exerted on the spri ng?
A 2.5N B 1OON tank
c 160N D 800N

3. A non-uniform rod is balanced as shown.

6. Which of the following diagrams shows a s:
30 cm 20 cm in stable equilibrium?
l-
A "r
B
8og

Given that the centre of gravity of the rod is

14.O cm from the end marked A, what is the c
mass of the rod?
A 4og B 1009
c 10oo g D rr4o g
D

Chapter 5
 -'E -,,tures below show the cross-section of four (b) the distance of the block from the pivot, if
it, rt rbjects. Which object is most stable? the block is to balance a load of 1800 N.

4m 10m

A Figure
Ftgure 5.23

3. Figure 5 .24 shows a barrel of weight 1500 N

and radius 0.5 m that rests against a step of
height 0.2 m.

B: Structured Questions
(i) What is meant by the moment of
a force?
(ii) How can it be measu red?
Figure 5 .22 shows the top view of a door
hinged at A.
r Figure 5.24

What is the smallest horizontal force Fthrough

F=40N
the centre O needed to push the barrel over
the step?

Section : Free-Response Questions

niform rule of 1O cm balances horizontally
about a pivot at its midpoint when a weight of
7 N is suspended from the L.4 cm mark and
r Figure 5.22 another weighl W is suspended from the 9 cm
mark, as shown in Figure 5.25.
(i) lf a man applies a force F of 40 N
at the end marked B, calculate the
moment of this force about A.
(ii) What is the minimum force X that
must be applied at C in order to stop
7N pivot W

the door from turning? I Figure 5.25

(iii) State the principle applied to solve
this problem. (a) Calculate W.
(b) Why is the weight of the rule not necess ary
il
L igure 5 .23 shows a load of 3000 N balanced in finding W?
rt a concrete block of weight W on the jib of a (c) The weight of 7 N is replaced by a 4 N
:rane. The concrete block can be moved along weight. lndicate on the diagram how the
-ne jib. ruler will begin to move, and explain
Calculate your answer.
(a) the weight of the concrete block W
when the crane is balanced, ds shown
in Figure 5.23;

Turning Effect of Forces

@
2, Figure 5 .26 shows a design for a toy balance
that a manufacturer sends for safety testing.
When water is poured rnto a plastic bucket,
the pointer moves over the scale.
(Density of water = 1000 kg m-t)
4. Figure 5 .28 shows a non-uniform rod ABCD
resting on a rough peg at C. R1 and R, are the
normal reactions on the rod by the peg and the
wall respectively. Fis the frictional force exertec
by the peg on the rod. w is the wei$ht of the rod

SCAIC

A
light
beam
pivot smooth
wall
plastic steel
bucket of s pring
mass 100 g
(not to scale)

a Figure 5,26 (a) Expr; ff;:;::o turning errect on

the rod.
(a) When the total mass of the bucket and (b) lf the length AB is x and the length BC is ).
water is 1 kg, the beam is horizontal, as and the acute angle between the rod and
shown in Figure 5 .26. Calculate the force the smooth wall is g, express R,. and & in
that the beam exerts on the sPring. terms of x, Y,0 and W.
(b) The bucket has a uniform cross-sectional
area of 0 .OL2 m2 and a depth of 0.10 m.
Calculate the mass of water needed to fill
the bucket.
(c) Without changin$ the spring, how can the
manufacturer reduce the vertical distance
moved by the pointer when there is a $iven
load in the bucket?

3. (a) State the Principle of Moments.

(b) Figure 5.27 shows a uniform ladder AB of
mass 60 kg and length 4 m. lt is resting
with its end A on a smooth vertical wall
and its other end B on rough ground.

smooth
vertical
wall

rough ground

a Figure 5.27
(i) ldentify and mark on Fi$ure 5.27
all the forces acting on the ladder.
( ii) By taking moments about B, colculate
the reaction force at the wall.
(Take acceleration due to gravity as
10 m s-'.)

Chapter 5
 Battlestar Galactica: Hun'ian versus Cyton al the Universal Studios, Singapore. is the
tallesi duelling roller coaster in the world, at 42.5 metres. The two roller coaster trains
are launched from high posttions. and thus possess a large amount of gr.avitational
potential energy at the start. The amount of gravitational potential energy ciecreases as
the trains staft to move. Why? We will find out in this chapter.

P
J

--)
:1

r
f
t

ll

t
 6.1 Energy
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
r - of energy;
identify different forms
. state the Principle of Conservation of Energr and use the principle to solve probte--=
o energy converted to useful output energy
use the formula efficiency -
total energy input
to calculate the efficiency of an energy conversion.

What is energy?
What does the term energ)/ bring to mind? Dancing to the vibrant bea:_.
music? Waves crashing against the shore? You would probably asso,::'.
energy with strong forces that produce motion. ln Physics,

The Sl unit of energy is the joule (J).

Work usually means making a body or machine move to achieve a puro: :-

For example, when a person rows a boat, work is done. (The concept of ,,.:
will be discussed in Section 6.2.) ln order to do work, energy is transfe'.=
between objects or converted from one form to arsther. Figure 6.1 shows :-
different forms of energy. /'

Kinetic energy
Kinetic energy is the ehergy of a body
due to its motion. ThuS, wind has kinetic
energy and so do sea waves, o spinning
Frisbee and a rolling soccer ball.
*- Kinetic energy can be used to do work.
> Wind turbines
are set up in windy For example, wind and sea waves can
places. Can you be used to turn turbines, which convert
name places in
klnetic energy to electrical energy.
Singapore where
wind turbines could
be set up?
r Hgure 6,1 Different forms of energy
 . energy is the stored energy in a system. This form of energy
- lhe state, shape or position of the system. There are different
: :lotenttal energy. Each of these types of potential energy can be
-
= _:
rnto other forms of energy.

Chemical potential en ergy is the energy stored in a substance due to the position
of the atoms or electrons in the substance. Some sources of chemical potential
energy are listed below:
(a) Food
For example, chemical
potential energy ,s found
in the plants that we eat. Light energy from the Sun
is converted to chemical
potential energy in plants
th rough photosynthes is. #

.c. -,a r.Irrr

When humans or animals consume the plants, they
convert the chemical potential energy to other forms
of energy (e.9. kinetic energy for running).
b ) Fossil fuels
Power stations in Singapore make use of fossil fuels such as oil
and gas to generate electricity.
c ) Batteries
Battertes store chemical potential energy that can be converted
to electrical energy when connected to an electric circuit.

: astic potential energy is the energy stored in

- cody due to its elastic deformation A spring
:' ubber band possesses elastic potential
r

=lrergy when it is compressed or stretched. This

:nergy can be converted to kinetic energy when
--'re spring or rubber band is released.

energy stored in the bow to propel arrows. A fully

'rexed bow stores about 300 J of energy.

il-n

Gravitational potential energy is the energy stored in a body due to its

heisht from the ground. An object has gravitational potential energy when
it is raised to a height above the ground. When the object is released, its
gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic energy as it falls.

energy of water to the kinetic energy of turbines.

Ene196
 There are other forms of energy, such as electrical energy, light, therma
energy and nuclear energy.

Electrical energy is the energy of an electric

charge due to its ntotion and position. it is
used extensively in our everyday lives.

You will learn more about electricity and its

SOUTCES in Chapters 1,7 and 19 respectively,

Light is an electromagnetic wave that

is visible to the eye. lt is made up of
electric and magnetic fields oscillating at
a cerlain range of frequency within the
e lectrorn agnetic spectru rn
.

Natural scurces of light energy include

the Sun and fires. Aftificial sources of
light energy inclurde incandescent bulbs,
fluorescent lamps and light-emitting
d iodes (LEDs).

fhermal energy is the energy stored in e

body due to its tentperature. The particle =

of a hotter body possess nrore thernral

energy than those of a colder body.
Thermal energy is transferred from the
hotter body to the colder body.

Nuclear energy is the energy released

during a nuclear reaction. There are t\^,, :
types of nuclear reactions nuclear
fission and nuclear fusion. -
(a) Nuclear fission
A heavier nucleus splits up into tr'.:
or more lighter nuclei.
(b) Nuclear fusion
Two or more lighter nuclei fuse
together to form a heavier nucler, s

Chapter 6

-L
:* -,-iple of Conservation of Energy 20 J energy in one form
--
=::h a rubber band and quickly place it on thetop of your lip, you will
' .: the rubber band feels warm. Why? Some of the elastic potential
'-re rubber band is converted to thermal energy. When work is done, 20 ) work done

= :onverted from one form to another. The total amount of energy

. -r after the conversion is the same (Figure 6.2).
20 J energy in other form(s)
,ss-lsd{+:
A Figure 6.2 When energy
is converted from one form
to another, the total amount
remains constant.

: - o/es of energy conversions

-emmering a nail
- -e 6.3 shows the energy conversion when a nail is hammered.
r'I nter possesses gravitational g As the hammer falls, the gravitational potential
=rtral energy in its raised position. energy is converted to kinetic energy.

t
ffi The-J<inetic energy is used to
do work (drive the nail into
the wooden block). ln the
,, process, sound and thermal
ene rgy are a lso prod uced .

. -'= 6.3 Hammering a nail involves several energy converslons.

3 rr rning of fossil fuels

t , -.'e 6.4 shows the energy conversion when charcoal, a type of fossil
- . is burnt.

r_l :-=sil fuels, such as # As charcoal burns, the chemical €* The thermal
contain chemical potential energy as converted to energy is used
"coal,
. .: ntia I ene rgy. thermal and light energy. to cook food.

. -'e 6.4 Burning charcoal

- 1-al energy.

Y Solar park at
Marina Barrage

S
J Science Bites
, esting solar energy
, 5 panel solar park at Marina B arrage, Singapore, converts
--'-ergy into electrical energy to supplement the daytime power
-- --e nts of the site. Electrical energy generated from solar

s envi ronmental ly friendly.

tre possible for the whole of Singapore to be powered

-.

) solar en ergy? What about other countries? State the

-

:tion that you need to anSWer these questions. Search for

- rnration
, on the lnternet and answer the questions,
 Principle of Conservation of Energy and the ideal pendulum
To illustrate the Principle of Conservation of Energy, we use an ideal pendu -
(Fisure 6.5). An ideal pendulum will swing forever, with its gravitatic-=
potential energy convertingto kinetic energy and vice versa. Since the tc:'
amount of energy is conserved, energy is not lost from the pendulum. a-:
hence it does not stop swinging.

The pendulum bob is , When it is released, it , As it swings to the other sic=

displaced to a hei$ht x
above the horizontal level.
It gains gravitational
potential energy as it is at
a height above its ori$inal
'
position.
swings downwards, and
the gravitational Potential
energy is converted to
k\net\c energy.
'
Since energy cannot be
created or destroyed, the
kinetic energy gained must
have been converted from
its kinetic energy is converte:
back to $ravitational Potenti'
energy.
The gravitational potential
energy gatned is converted
from the kinetic energy los*.,
Thus, the pendulum bob
slows down as it gains heig- .

the gravitational Potential o At the maximum height,

energy lost.
o The swinging pendulum
bob has maximum kinetic
energy when it reaches its
original position.
it only has gravitational
potential energy.
o This gravitational potential
energy ts converted to kinet :
energy when it swings to its
original position again.

original position

r Figure 6.5 Energy conversion

in an ideal pendulum

original position

Principle of Conservation of Energy and the

non-ideal pendulum
ln the real world, an oscillating pendulum will eventually come to .-
stop. Why? Does this mean energy is not conserved in the real worlc

As the pendulum swings, some of its energy is converted to therma

r Figure 6.6 Height $ained y is
lower than the original height x,
because some of the energY has
been converted to thermal energY
that is lost to the surroundings.
energy, due to the presence of frictional forces. This thermal energ-
cannot be converted back to kinetic or gravitational potential energ..
of the pendulum. As a result, the pendulum bob does not reach th:
same height with every swing (Figure 6.6)' When all of its energy has
been converted to thermal energy, the pendulum stops swinging
Thus, in the real world, the simple pendulum still obeys the Princip:
of Conservation of Energy, even though it eventually comes to a stop
', cnked €xample 5.1
rted a ball from point A to point 81 and pushed it B1 B2
-- -
^tally forward. The ball left the boy's hand at point
--a hit the ground at poirrt C. lt bounced a few times
: 'olling to a rest at point H. Figure G.T shows the
-' '.he ball. c
.eenergy changes for the ball between points r Figute 6.7
- and 81;
- and 82;
:and C;
and H.

.ltion

No, it's converted

to both thermal and
: - CpOSe the sound energy. You
:.: energy lost do hear the ball going
: -- trrverted tO 'bonk'on rebound,
:-'-tal energy. don't you?

Energy, Work and Power

@
'ii

?nergv
ita ::\Q( !,,y

.j'. r
',p.b,r

.+ rf
r .4 -a-

L Ei''e rgy ,

ki:rettc. .]1.)ntial (chenric,r, gra\/rtational c' elastic-). light t-ermal,

electrica a rd nuclear
2 Ene r$y car le 3'Jnverted -'onr orre fornr to anothe
3 The Prini il ri cf lions€rViltrct lf Energy states tha- energly rarnot be
created "t iestrcyed it c.:r'' o'rlv be ccnve'ted fror'-r one *or -- :o anothe,
The tota 3rre [g] r-t an rso areci systern rS Constant
The effrc er cy -;- enet.gy o:)r version can be found tty the fcr.r,tla
usetul encrg\, cutout
Ef icienc, x IOO%
t cta I e ne rg1 'r,put
r

A ,,cftlta ri i^lc ihe atrl' ;t-td Cati. res rl )lt rl way

dc ,,r, 'l lg :ir (.,.,t1-at acts I'l the iall siat, ',te efletgr,
CC -'r,/Q [$ i

St t1e tl'rr r q 'irat *ake 0la, et whe'

(a' wa' I ' (,re :tr c keltle
(b .l 1,,' € .i
-t- a clry cell
A I t.re ll, r I')t',rncrr of it t':e LJsr tg ilte )r r _iple of
C cr -:,
(,, 1'\
; o,-r iruirat 'lalppc.ns tc : re ,raf ,g(
flr,'\, tatil ! y \,\rirglr ll f3il5 -l the g OU,ti.
\,V' ::i , g ',?".'" rrc tha'
Dr
-;duces 35 c)' il ,r tu I outpur-
Ol- ' Pr t : i :\i'9V l,-lIllt'
5.2 Work
'. Ing Outcome
- You should be able to:
:
" - and use the following formulae to solve probrems:
"' Cone - force x distance moved in the direction of the force,
'=: c energY En= T
iru',
:, :ational potential enerEy E, = m€,h.

fq iat is work done?

- -.
--= 6.8, are both the boy and the lady doing work?

tree remains
t e'ro
station ary

:s. work is done only when an object moves under the influence of
Therefore, in Figure 6.8, the lady is doing work, but the boy is not.

A B
direction of motion
+
i distance s moved in the direction of the force : < Figure 6.9

. = gure 6.9, we can represent the work done W by the force F in

= -re object from point A to point B with the following equation:

=-x s where W = wotk done by a constant force F(in J);

F= constant force (in N);
s = distance moved by the object in the direction of
the force (in m).

: - - t of work is the joule (J). Both work done and energy have the same
-.:lle. This is because work done is equal to energytransformed.

'": equation, we can deduce that one joule is the work done by a force
- 'ewton, which moves an object through a distance of one metre in
=::ion of the force.
Energy, Work and Power
 The two students in Figure 6.1-0 are each carrying a heavy pile of boo.
Yet, flo work is done in the upward direction. Can you explain why?

d irection
of motion

J-I $A

Figure 6.1O The two students in the library are not doing work in the upward dire:: :

ln both cases, the distance moved in the direction of force F is ze.:

Therefore, the work done in the upward direction is zero. From Figures e :
How much work is done and 6.10 we can see that no work is done when
when you lift a 50 N . force is applied on an object (such as a wall or a pile of books), but i-=
bag from the floor to
object does not move;
a height of 1.5 m? o the direction of the applied force and the direction in which the ob1e:'
moves are perpendicular to each other.

How is work related to energy and force?

Figure 6.11 summarises the relationship between work, energy and force

is done when an object moves

is needed to do under the influence of a
Energy Force

amp es

Moving a box across the floor

Climbing a flight of stairs

r Figure 6.11 Work, energy and force are related concepts.

Chapter 6

\*4
 : -k€d Cxample 6.e
:
=-
cushes a trolley of books for shelving.
n -:'ce F exerted by the librarian on the
: S 8 N and the trolley moves a distance
(a
r the direction of the force, colculate
,rr - '- Jone on the trolley.
l': -tion
8N
- stance moveds-5m direction of motion

Fxs
8Nx5m
40)
distances=5m

: w is work done related to kinetic enetgy?

that is stationary does not have kinetic energy, whereas a moving
-=:t
-:ces. A force needs to be applied to make a stationary object move.
=':'ce moves the object, it does work. Hence, an object gains kinetic
1. :lecause of the work done on it by a force.

- Oody of mass m moves at a speed v, its kinetic energy is given by

{
: = trr' where En = kinetic energy (in J );
m- mass of the body (in kg);
speed of the body (in m s-t).
' :re equation, we can see that for two objects of
.: same mass moving at different speeds, the faster object has greater r The bus and motorcycle
' -::tc energy;
are moving at the same
speed. Since the bus has a
--erent masses moving at the same speed, the
object of greater mass greater mass, it has greater
;s greater kinetic energy. kinetic energy.

Science Bites
- ow much energy is needed to swim across the English Channel?
:105, former national swimmer Thum ping Tjin was the first
-<aporean to swim across the English
Channel. ln 12 hours and

- 7'ance. The total amount of energy that he used to cross the

''rnel is about the same as that contained in 44 bowls of rice.

t"n"::::
0HANNEL /SLAruDS -i,,r
G,usvnso
(U.KI
krsuy
(U K}

Energy, Work and Power

@

Killer litter
A speed of 36 m s-1 is
equivalent to 1_30 km h-1.
Can you imagine what
would happen rf a falling
marble were to hit a
person at that speed?
lrresponsible acts of
throwing litter out of
the windows of high-rise
buildings have resulted
in numerous accidents.
Read about them on the
I nte rnet.
Since most Singaporeans
live in high-rise buildings,
what are our civic
responsibilities with
regard to killer litter?
Chapter 6
How is work done related to gravitational
potential energy?
An object held above the ground has gravitational potential energy (G.F.:
This form of energy is due to the positionof the object above the ground. c - .
the object is dropped, its G.P.E decreases and its kinetic energy increas=
That is, the object's G.P.E. changes to kinetic energy.
To find the G.P.E. of an object near the surface of the Earth, we conside' .-
work done in lifting an object of mass m vertically, at constant speed, f .:
the ground to a height h (Figure 6 .1.2).
o The work done w (by the force Fto lift the object to
height h) = Fx h.
Since the obiefr{s lifted at constant speed, the force
is equal in rnagnitude to the weight mg of the object.
Hence, W= Fx h
= mgh
ground < Ffgure 6.L2 An object of mass m raised to a heig-
above ground level possesses G.p.E. of mgh.
lf we allow the object in Figure 6.12 to fall freely from height h to drive a sta.
into the ground, the object can do an amount of work on the stake tha:
equal to mgh. we define the G.p.E. of a body near the surface of the Earil^ :
the product of its weight mg and its height h above the ground. Gravitatic-
potential energy Ee is given by
E, = mgh where Eo = gravitational potential energy (in J);
ffi = mass (in kg);
g - gravitational field strength (in m s-r);
h - height (in m).
Wonked €xample 6.3
A boy accidentally drops a 10 g marble from his apartment window. lf
the height from which the marble is dropped is 65 m, what is the speec
of the marble just before it hits the ground? Assume that air resistance
can be neglected and g = 10 N k€-1.
Solution
Mass m of marble = 10 g = 10 x 10-3 kg = o.o1 kg
Eo of the marble = mEh = (0.01 kg)(10 N kg-1x65 m)
= 6.5 J
Since air resistance can be neglected,
gain in kinetic energy
4. = loss in gravitational potential energy f,
*mv'=
2
6.5 J
. 2x6.5J
m
" 2x6.5J
0.01 kg
y= 36 m s-1
Hence, the speed of the marble just before it hits the ground is 36 m s-:
ilUrry;r'\ €xampl€ 6.4
- -'=C a pistol at a stationary wooden target
:U
:- -' 500 m s-1. When the bullet hit the target, it got

--rre
wooden target, the bullet moved together with
'_=--argiet at a horizontal speed

: 'rentarily.
.',

=-.:
of 5.0 m s-1, and swung
3 vertical height of h from its initial position before

as the initial kinetic energy of the bullet when

l?
it left
ffi a Figure 6.13

,',as the final kinetic energy of the wooden target and embedded bullet immediately after
et hit the target?
--caring (a) and (b), what was the loss in kinetic energy? Account for this loss.
:'re gravitational field strength to be l-0 N kg-1, calculate the vertical height h. State any
=
--rtions you made to get your answer.

-tion
: - 'rrass m of bullet = 10.0 x 10-3 kg = o.o1 kg
nitial speed u of bullet = 500 m s-1
- ,,inetic energy of bullet - Lmu'
2

- +(ro o x 1O-3 kgXsOO m s-')' = L.25 x 103 J

2',
: :^: sp€ed vof system of wooden target and bullet = 5.0 m s-1
:ss M of system of wooden target and bullet = (1.0 + 0.01) kg = 1.01 kg
-'='efore, final kinetic energy of wooden target and embedded bullet
- \lV'

1.01 kgx5.0 m s ')' - 1,2.6 J

--e oss in initial kinetic final kinetic energy of

-etic energy energy of bullet wooden target and bullet

=L25x103J-12.6J
= 1.24 x 103 J
-^e loss in kinetic energy is due to the work done in driving the bullet into the wooden target.
-ris work done is manifested mainly as the gain in thermal energy of the wood and bullet, and
=rund energy.
, sing the Principle of Conservation of Energy, at height h,
in G.P.E. of wooden target and bullet = final K.E. of wooden target and bullet
=ain
\\eh = LMu'
"2
!r' 1ts.o m s-'),
,-22'
n = 'g = ..1-o N kg-r- = r'25 m
Assumption: The work done against friction (at the hinge) and air resistance (as the system
swings upwards) is negligible.

Energy, Work and Power

Worked Cxampl€ 6.5 !
A ball of mass 0.23 kg is released from a certain height Velocity /m
at a speed of 2 m s-1. and allowed to fall downward.
I
I
Figure 6.14 shows how the velocity of the ball varies i
with time t. The ball is released at t - 0 s and hits the {;

ground at t - O.32 s. When the ball hits the ground, it I

rebounds with 50% of the speed with which it hits the
ground.
(a) State the maximum velocity of the ball.
(b) Show that the acceleration of free fall is 10 m s-2. Time/s
(c) Determine the velocity of the ball just after it
rebounds.
(d) Calculate the loss of kinetic energy of the ball as
it hits the ground and rebounds.

SOlutiOn r' Fi$ure 6.14

(a) From Figure 6.14, the maximum velocity of the ball
(b) BffFfgrr-d.6.1.4, the change in velocityfrom t= 0 sto t= 0.32 s is
6y = (5.2 - 2.O) m s-1 = 3.2 m s-1.
change invelocity _
Acceleration_ =10ms2(shown)
time taken
(c) The ball will have maximum speed just before it hits the ground. Since it rebounds with 50%
5'2 m s-1
of the speed, the speed of the ball after it rebounds = 2.6 m s-l . The velocity of
the balljust after it rebounds is -2.6 m s-1.
'. 2

(d) Kinetic energy of the ball just before hitting the ground
= Lmv, = l1o.zs kg) x (b.2 m s-1)2 = 3.1-1- J
2 2'
Kinetic energy of the ball just after rebounding
= Lmv, = *(O.ZS kg) x (2.6 m s-t), = O.777 J
22'
Loss in kinetic energy = 3.1-1- J - O.777 J = 2.33 J

I
Making one's own classroom
What would you do if all the schools in Singapore were to suddenly
close down? How would you ensure your continued learning? ls it
important to you that you continue learning? Why?

While the schools in James Prescott Joule's town did not suddenly
close down, he could not attend university, because he had to take
over his father's business when his father fell ill. This unfavourable
circumstance did not extinguish Joule's desire to learn. ln fact, he
went as far as to set up a laboratory in his home so that he could
carry out experiments before and after work! Joule's passion,
dedication and hard work led to the development of the Principle of
Conservation of Energy. The Sl unit of energy, the joule, was named
in his honour.
> James Prescott Joule (1818-1889)

Ghapter 6
 ^-. Let's Explore!
(U
: -'.e. work and energy are interrelated. From what you have
,--" done W by a constant force Fis given by the product of the force and learnt so far, have you
'-: : stance moved s in the direction of the force, i.e. W - Fx s. found the answers to
--: Sl unit of work is the joule (J), which is the same as the Sl unit of energy. Let' s Ex p lo re (c )?
, : ,.,olk is done when the

in which the object moves 1

:'e perpendicular to each other;

. ':,'ce is applied on the object, but the object does not move.
.'r . ,ng objects have kinetic energy.The kinetic ener1y En of an object of
::S m alno!dssppe eov/ rs e iv/e n(oyYEn 1,^
)eeed mvz.
-2
:CJu ec1 trofn
fm
maAS
ESSsmilat
S'1 neeiig ht
h tht
\he ational potential energy Ep
:5r
-5r raviiteat atilior
o)n€ al pote
ral rpo e ntiia len
iallr gy ir lven by E, = mgh, where g iS
ergy
erne
: 'avi1taati
< tr'
ion
rtio )na rl fifiel
r al tieldJ str:r€
rerrngtl
)n 1. ./
rg th.
.
nglfri'tc;tio
ictic ionrfo 0rar pei)l'lt
or lulu
nddt ,r/o r a free-falling body,
ul url
a
=1,,
.- rcal e)n(ter
erg) 1t graviritattic
ly=-6 bgre
rgy lior)n p:
lnalt6 :ntial energy E^+ kinetic energy q
T
I

-nm8
mgh?+
2
-mvyAA
a ^- a) mtu)ftrmlE p -l
-t mlunmEEk
m txrm
max
L
T 2
tgh^max
m,1g MVVmtax
-ft
2

5.e
3 r Define the joule.
b t Complete Table 6.1 with the correct corresponding values.

' Table 6.1

20.o N t IOm
+* i
_-__j*_

Nj
0.1_
. - +-- .-..-**j-
i
!

1l_
20m
I

.-..'+---- -- *-*+
I
:
_"09_l __

500 Ni i
I
3.60 x 106 J

: a xg package is lifted 10 m vertically at a constant speed. Taking the acceleration due to gravity to
: = 10 m s-2, what is the gravitational potential energy gained by the package?
- -: <g block, which is initially at rest at the top of a
:: onless slope, slides 30 m down a frictionless slope
= i-re 6.1-5). what is the kinetic energy of the brock at
". cottom of the slope, just before lt hits the ground?
' :^e speed of a springboard diver decreases by half
-: l' entering the water, by what percentage will his
- etic energy decrease?
',: 'orce ls acting on a rock that moves freely th ro ugh
r Figure 6.15
- --_er space at a constant speed. ls there any work done
--:ne rock? Explain.

q
--{
s > The kinetic energy of a diver
decreases when he enters the water.
pens to this energy?
 6.3 Power
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
-
o state and use the form ula power -
w-ork done
to solve problems.
time taken

What is power?
To explain what power IS, we consider the two scenarios in Figu re 6 .'-.
Two boys have to climb up the stairs, as the lift is out of order.

Sgenario 1 Scena tio 2

o Boy A and boy B have o Boy A has a larger mass than
equal mass; boy B;
o Boy A reached the fourth o Boy A and boy B reached the
storey before boy B. fourth storey at the same time
boy

The two boys are of equal mass Since boy A has a larger mass,
and travel the same distance. he has to do more work to carry
Therefore, they do the same h imself u p the fou r storeys.
amount of work.

However, since boy A took ln other words, boy A is able to

Scenario 1
r Figure 6.16 The amount
of work done by the boys
and the time taken to do
the work determine who
has more power.
a shorter time lo reach the do more work than boy B in the
fourth storey as compared same amount of time as boy B.
to boy B, we say that boy A Therefore, we say boy A has
has more power. more power.
Boy A has more power than
boy B because he can do
the same amount of work
more quickly.

What are the energy ln eq uation form ,

converstons occunng ln
the scen arios described D-W - E
where D_ power (in W);
in Figure 6 .16? tt W- work done (in J );
E_ energy converted (in J);
t- time taken (in s).
watt (W). One watt is defined as the rate of worl.
The Sl unit of power is the
done or energy conversion of one joule per second, i.e. 1W= IJ s-1.

Note that the product of power P and time taken ttells us the amount of worl.
done or the amount of energy being converted from one form to another.

Chapter 6
: -k€d Cxample 6.6
,', ho weighs 450 N, runs up a flight of steps. lf there is a total of ten steps and each

-,20 m high, calculate Eugene's power if he takes five seconds to run up the flight of
: onstant speed.

: -:lon
-"d force F exerted by the muscles to balance Eugene's weight 450 N
distance s moved by Eugene = height of steps = O.2O m x = 2.O m
"d
Fxs,
W by Eugene = 450 N x 2.0 m=900J
t/VEUgene'S
;,r - , pOWe 900 J
5s =180W

: -k€d €xample 6.7

: --- bulb, rated at 40 W, converts 1,o% of its electrical energy supply to light energy.
: =:he quantity of light energy emitted in five minutes.

-tion
But the Principle of
-- - 40 W
1,,,\'er P
-'e t - 5 x 60 s = 300 Conservation of Energy states
s
that energy cannot be destroyed!
It is converted to
- -. sed by bulb in five mlnutes What happens to the oth er 90%
thermal energy. The
of electrical ene rgy?
bulb becomes hot!
'300s
_c* J

- '- of this energy is co nve rted to light ene rgy,

_ _,rt of light energy emitted in five m in utes
. L,2 x L04 )
:)' )

Out
--edean screw is a device that is used to draw water
from water bodies,
' , ers. Several of these devices can be found at Kallang Waterfront,
=. Use these devices to find out who is the most'powerful'among your
"'ends! Rotate the screw to draw water from the river. The person who
.re nrost water in one minute is the most powerful.

'- r:ls of the device and see which group's device is the most effective
-
l \vater.

> Archimedean screw

Energy, Work and Power

@
 q

^-,
(})l Let-s Explore!
From what you have
learnt so far, have you
!.. Power is the rate of work done or the rate of energy conversion.
found the answers to
2. The Sl unit of power is the watt (W). One watt is the rate of work dor^:
energy conversion of one joule per second.
Let' s Ex p lo re (d )?

6.3
7-. (a) Define the terms power and watt.
(b) ln the following situations , cdlculate the power involved.
(i) A force of 50 N moves an object through a distance of
10min5s.
(ii) An object of mass 1 kg is lifted up vertically through
5 m in 10 s. (Take g = 10 m s-')
2. An electric motor in a washing machine has a power output of 1.0
Find the work done in half an hou
3. The same amount of water was poured into two electric kettles, one
rated at 500 W and the other at 1000 W. Comment on the time that
the kettles will take to boil the water.

is the capacity to do

is governed by defined a:
are related to

states that defined as

Energy cannot be
created or destroyed,
but can be converted
from one form to
another.

exam ples of
forms of energy

o Light energy
o Electrical energy
o Thermal energy
o Nuclear energy
Efficiency of an energy conversion can be
o Kinetic energy
calculated using the following formula:
T
L.- -mvz useful energY outPut
^2 Efficiency -
totat
x 7OO%
,r,prt
Potential energy
"n"rgy
Gravitational potential energy
Eo = mgh
Chemical potential energy
Elastic potential energy

Ghapter 6
 'ilE ..ether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
qriFin section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

ren the pendulum is released from the original position, all the gravitational
,',
:,1'-e ntia energy ls immediately converted to kinetic energy.
I '
B 6.1
.+- --.--_-.- _n..it -+--.

! '-OOo/o efficient machine is a machine that converts all the input energy into
6.1
-,reful output energy.
.',^en the speed of a bus is increased twofold, the kinetic energy of the bus
- : reases twofold as well. 6.2

.','ren a pendulum is held at height h above the ground, ,," gr"u*i,o-r, O**ial*-
:^ergy is the product of its mass, the height h, and the gravitational acceleration. 6.2
i

: 10 N force is used to push an objeS.af an inclined plane. Given that the 'i

: fference in the vertical height bef/re and after the force is- applied
/ -'r-r-----' is 2 m, the i 6.2
,,, Jlk done by the force is 20 J. /t
)ower is a measure of the amo{nt of energy an object or person possesses. 6.3
lmtrerls are available at the back of the ok.

*
= ;'a',itational field strength to be 70 N k{t unless otherwise stated.

-rtion A: Multiple-Choice Questions 3. What is the work done by the 25O N force, shown
in the figure below, when the box reaches the top
- : :ar screeches to a stop to avoid colliding
of the inclined plane?
,.. --'''t
a van. Assuming that the road is level,
,..^ot energy changes have occured?
A Kinetic energy + sound energy
B Kinetic energy --> heat and sound energy
C Potential ener$y + heat, sound and
kinetic energy
D Kinetic and potential -> heat and sound
energy energy
A 25OJ
: : ,1.8 kg brick is accidentally dropped from a B 4OOJ
I -,rlding. lt reaches the ground with a kinetic c 500J
:iergy of 24O J. How tall is the building? D 8OOJ
A 19m
B 30m 4. A machine is able to lift 2OO kg of bricks vertically
C I92m up to a height of 30 m above the ground in 50 s.
D 3O0m What is the power of the machine?
A 0.12 kW
B 1,_.2 kW
c 6.0 kw
D 300 kw

Energy, Work and Power

Section B: Structured Questions
L. A cyclist pedals up to the top of a hill.
(a) What kind of energy is being used to do
work against gravity?
(b) State the type of energy the cyclist has
when he stops at the top of the hill.
(c) When the cyclist moves downhill without
pedalling, what type of energy does he gain?
2. A simple pendulum consists of a string of length
50.0 cm and a pendulum bob of mass 10 g.The
string hangs vertically from a fixed point o with
the pendulum bob attached to its lower end at
point P (Figure 6.17).
50.O cm
2.Ocm
A Figure 6.L7
The pendulum bob is displaced to point R, 2.0 cm
above P and released from rest. Assuming air
resistance is negligible, calculate the
(a) gain in potential energy of the pendulum
bob at point R;
(b) kinetic energy of the bob at point Q, 0.5 cm
above P.
3. A model car of mass 1.5 kg, with a string
attached to its front end, is placed on a
slope (Figure 6.18). A 10 N force is applied
on the string to move the car up the slope
at a constant velocity. The force is applied in
a drrection that is parallel to the slope.
table
r *3.
r Figure 6.18
(a) with the aid of a diagram, describe how the
force in the string can be measured.
(b) Calculate the
(i)
gain in the car's potential energy as
it moves from the floor to the table;
(ii) work done by the force as it moves
the car up the slope from the floor
to the table;
(iii) efficiency of this arrangement for
raising the car.
Chapter 6
Section Free-Response Questions
1,. A roller coaste r lrain at an amusement ea(.
mass of I50O kg. lt descends from point p
is 30 m above ground. to point Q, which is _
above grou nd.
(a) Calculate the loss in the gravitationa :_
energy of the train when it moves fro'--
to point Q.
(b) lf 20% of the gravitational potential
is dissipated, calculate the
(i) kinetic en ergy of the train at po -
(ii) speed of the train at point Q.
(c) ln what form is energy dissipated whe-
moves from point P to point Q?
(d) Suggest a way to reduce the amount c'
d iss i pated e ne rgy.
2. The energy input and useful energy output
(i.e. electricity) for five power stations were
measured. The results are listed in Table 6,-
v Table 6.2
(a) Each of the stations uses a different r--:-
to produce electricity.
( i)Calculate the efficiency of each
power station.
(ii) lf you had to build a power statio. #
power station would you choose tc
the design of your power station c' -
whv?
(b) Assuming that the values in Table O .2 a
_
the energy outputs of each power static
day, what is the power generated by po,,
=
station S?
(c) Why is there a difference irr the energy
and usefu I ene rgy output?
A bowling ball and a tennis ball were droppec
vacuum at the same time.
(a) ls the ratio of the kinetic energy they pcs :
as they fall constant, or variable?
(b) Suppose the two balls were dropped in .
from a helrcopter flying h igh above grou r
t
_
and allowed to reach terminal velocity. \1,:
the ratio of their kinetic energies be cor s-
Explain you r answer.
-,flll
 ri;

ill'

It is easier to walk on soft snow in snowshoes than in shoes with high heels. How do
snowshoes enable people to walk on soft snow without sinking? can we use Phys ics
to answer this question? We will soon find out.

h,
 T.L Pressure
Learning Outcomes You should be able to:
- means in terms of force and area;
o explain what pressure
o recall and use the formu la pressure - f:r:? to solve problems.
area

a High heels have a What is pressure?

smaller area in contact
with the ground. Hence,
they exert a greater
pressure on the ground
than flat-soled shoes.
lf a woman wearing high heels walks on muddy ground, her high heels vr
sink easily into the ground. She can avoid this by wearing a pair of sneake.=
(flat-soled shoes). Can you explain why?
Whether the woman wears high heels or sneakers, her shoes exert t.:
same downward force on the ground, since this force is due to her weigf :
When the woman wears high heels, her weight acts on a smaller are=
compared to when she wears sneakers. Thus, the high heels sink mo.=
easily into the ground. The pressure exerted by the high heels is greatr'
than that by the sneakers.

F
p- where p - pressure (in Pa);
A
F - force (in N);
A - area (in m').

The Sl unit of pressure is the newton per square metre (N m-r), also knov,
as the pascal (Pa).

ffiFill a plastic bag with some heavy books. Next, hold Now, wrap the handles of the plastic bag with a towel.
this plastic bag by its handles with one hand for a few Then, hold the same plastic bag of books with the same
minutes. Do your fingers hurt after a while? hand for the same length of time. Do you find it easier tc
hold the plastic bag? Do your fingers hurt less? Why?

't
j
j I.r-,

a Handles a Handles of plastic bag with padding

 - vestigation 7.1

=
c t ivr.t
- . estigate the relationship between pressure and area

: -:-durg
i'?pare two pieces of soft plasticine of approximately the
::Te volume and shape.
r, Figure 7.1(a) Brick resting
: ace a brick on one of the pieces of soft plasticine, with on soft plastlcine, with its
: largest side facing downwards (Figure 7 .I(a)). largest side facing downwards
==nove the brick and observe the depression formed on
'- plasticine.
=
,=rt, place the brick on the second piece of soft
asticine, this time with its smallest side facing
I I ,', nwards (Figure 7 .I(b)).
r:^rove the brick and observe the depression formed on
'^ plasticine.
=
- - -'ipare the depressions formed on the two pieces
-' clasticine.
--'.atiorr
a Figure 7.1(b) Brick resting
: = 0reSSron on the plasticine in Figure 7 .I(b) is deeper than on soft plasticine, with its
Figu re 7 .1,(a). smallest side facing downwards

- iston
= ght of the brick is spread over a smaller area
.'e 7.1,(b). since pressure = lojf^t , the brick exerts greater
area
-'e on the plasticine in Figure 7.I(b) than in Figure 7.I(a).

l 3 n k€d €xample
::e the pressure exerted by a girl on the ground if her mass is 50 kg and the area
:1oes in contact with the ground is (a) 150 cm2 (high heels); (b) 400 cm2 (flat
]-ake gravitational field strength g - 10 N kg-t)

-tion
,='r: maSS m of girl = 50 kg
weight w of girl = fnE = 50 kg x 10 N kg-t =500N
- .? Ar of high heels = 1_50 cm2 = 0.015 m2
: =ssure p.,IAIAI
-- +-+
500 N
3.33 x IOa Pa
0.01-5 m2
- -= 4- of flat soles = 400 cm2 - 0.O4 m2

:SSL.lfe P, =
W 5OON
1,.25 x 104 Pa
' A, 0.04 m2
=ee that the pressure exerted by the girl when she wears high heels is much
:-an the pressure exerted when she wears shoes with flat soles.

I
 Worked €xample 7.?
A rectangular block with the dimensions shown in Figure 7.2 has =
density of 2.00 g cm-t. Given that the gravitational field strength g :
10 N kg 1, determine the maximum and minimum pressure that can :=
exerted by the block when it is placed on one face.

5cm
20 cm
t Figute 7.2
Solution
Since pressure = P, and the force (i.e. weight of the block) is
constant, r.*irr."jre&.ur" is exerted when the block stands on the
face with the smallest area, and minimum pressure is exerted when the
block stands on the face with the largest area.
Mass m of block = density p x volume V
= (2.00 g cm-3) x
(20.0 cm x 1O.0 cm x 5.0 cm)
=2.0x1039
= 2.O kg
Weight W of block = m€
= 2.O kg x 10 N kg-1
o
The mystery of
=20N
Area of smallest face of block = (10.0 x 10-2 m) x (5.0 x 10-2 m)
snowshoes = 5.0 x 10-3 m2
Snowshoes distribute a Area of largest face of block = (10.0 x 10-2 m) x (20.0 x 1O-2 m)
person's weight over a = 2.O x IO-2 m2
larger area. Thus, the 20N
pressu re exerted by the Maximum pressure
5.0 x 10-3 m2
snowshoes is lower than x 103 N m-2 (or
- 4.O Pa)
the pressure exerted
20N
by ordinary shoes, and Minimum pressure
this enables the person 2.O x LO-2 m2
to walk on soft snow
without sinking.

From what you have

learnt so far, have you
e force acting per unit area. ln symbols, , = j.
found the answers to 2. The Sl unit of pressure is the newton per square metre (N m-2) or the
Let's Explore (a)? pascal (Pa).

7.1

!.. Why does the cutting edge of a knife need to be very thin?
2. A rectangular glass block of dimensions 8.0 cm by 15.0 cm by 3.0 cm
weighs 10.5 N. Calculate the minimum and the maximum pressure the
block can exert when it rests on a horizontal table.
Chapter 7
 7-.-rl

" 2 Pressure in Liquids

rg Outcomes should be able to:
- Youdue
-'= formula pressure to a liquid p - hpglo
" ,,1"'"
- solve problems;
r ,.ro rv vvr Yv
Ht vvtvt I t!r,

- :- e and explain
exolain how pressure tranqmittpd in hrrd rntiin systems.
]

nressrrre is transmitted hydraulic cvcrar '

*},*
',e are underwater (Figure .3), we feel the pressure of water on our
7 A Figure 7.3 ln a
. --s. l-1ow do we explain this? The Earth's gravitational pull acts on swimming pool, we feel
=lts, including liquids. This causes liquids to have weight. A body of greater pressure near the
=,9. a pool of water) exerts pressure on an object (e.g. our eardrums) bottom than at the surface.
: 'r it because of its weight.
--
cunt of pressure inside a body of liquid increases with depth. At
-'depths, the weight of t_he liquid above is greater. Therefore, the
.'e is greater. This is shown in Figure 7 .4.

Water spurts farther and faster from ouilet 2

than outlet 1. This shows that liquid pressure hJ
rncreases with depth.

Water spurts out the farlhest and fastest from

outlet 3, the lowest tube. This shows that liquid
pressure rs greatest at the lowest depth.

L
side tubes fitted at different depths \

. cw do we determine pressute at a certain depth

:'liquid?
= 7.5 shows a column of liquid of height h, base area A and density p.

-:uffie V of the liquid is given by V - Ah

--ass m of the liquid is given by m

- pV
',eight W of the liquid column is given by W - nl{ =
@V)g - p6h)g
.l'essure p al the base of the liquid column is given by
=w
jA
p (Ah)g ,
A

:'ore, p - hpg where h = height (in m);

p = density (in kg m-.);
b = gravitational field strength (in N kg-t)
d
A Figure 7.5 A liquid
-'ds, column of height h, base
:SJredueto heightof density gravitational
column= column x of liquidx
area A and densi[y p
- -,id field strength
 From the equation p= hpE, we can see that the pressure in a liquid increases
with the depth and density of the liquid. lt does not depend on the volume
or cross-sectional area of the liquid.

An apparatus called Pascal's vases demonstrates that pressure in a

liquid only depends on the vertical height h of the liquid column above
it (Figure 7.6).

o At any point along the same O Thus, at equilibriUffi,

the liquid level in all
vertical height h (e.9. points P,
Q and R), the pressure is the the columns is at the
same. same height.

o This is because the pressure

in a liquid depends only on
the vertical height of the
liquid column, and not on the any point in a liquid depends
voluffie, cross-sectional area only on the height of the liquid
or shape of the column. column above it.

ln Figure 7 .6, if the height of the water were different across the columns,
the pressure difference would cause the height of each column to drop or
rise until a common level was reached.

Offi
ln which pond does the fish experience
greater pressure? Explain your answer.

r A large but shallow pond r A small but deep pond

Worked €xample 7.3

A rectangular block has a base area A of 25 cm2. lt is
submerged in water of density 1-000 kg m-3 (Figure 7.7).
(Take gravitational field strength g - 10 N kg-t)

(a) Find the

(i)pressure prdue to the water acting on the top
surface of the block;
(ii) pressure p, due to the water acting on the bottom
surface of the block.
(b) Calculate the force exerted by the water on the
(i) top surface of the block; A Figure 7.7
(ii) bottom surface of the block.
Chapter 7
 Solution
3) Given: density of water p = 1000 kg rp-a
I
(i) Pressure p1 exerted by the water on the top surface of the
Buoyancy
Pressure in a liquid
block is increases with depth.
'"13.8tum x looo kg rn-s x 10 N kg-r It acts in a direction
= 5.0 x 102 N m-2 perpendicular to the
(ii) Pressure p2 exerted by the water on the bottom surface of the surface of a submerged
block is object. In Worked
o'=Y.\t, Example 7.3, we found
m x 1000 kg 6-: x 10 N kg-1
LbaI tbe-nressure oD
(
1n" bottom ofl6e 6@cK
- ?.0 x 102 N m-2
,iliill1{l
\

pressure on the toP.

I ren: base area A = 25 cm2 = 2.5 x 1-0-3 m2
o___AF Th\s
-\s\
d\f{erence resutts
a \es\N\as\ r>p-slar\
F--pA
(i) Downward force F, exerted by the water on the top surface \orue \nornn as
buoyancy or upthrust.
of the block is Fr= prA
You can float when you
'5.0 x L02 N m-') x (2.5 x 10-3 m') are swimming due to the
_:-r.25 N upthrust acting on you.
l-l
oward force F, exerted by the water on the bottom surface
-' :he block is F, = prA
= (7.O x 1,O2 N m-') x (2.5 x 10-3 mr)
= L.75 N
b
: -:e the upward force is larger than the downward force, the
rv,,r 0e pUShed upwardS.

Transmission of pressure in liquids ^r A rubber duck floats

- J visit a car workshop, you will probably see the machines shown in Figure
due to buoyancy.
- r- Such machines are called hydraulic machines. Hydraulic machines
:3 e heavy objects like cars to be lifted with a small amount of effort.

z: hydraulic car jack (b) A hydraulic garage lift

a Figure 7.8 Hydraulic machines make lifting heavy objects easier.

-:.', do hydraulic machines work? They use liquids to transmit pressure.

'cressure is applied to an enclosed liquid, the pressure is transmitted
=:rally to all other parts of the liquid. This is known as Pascal's Principle.
3: ution
: 3 ven: density of water p = 1000 kg p-s
i) Pressure p1 exerted by the water on the top surface of the
(
o
Buoyancy
Pressure in a liquid
block is o'l,.,l.1tum
increases with depth.
x 1000 kg rn-s x 10 N kg-r It acts in a direction
= 5.0 x 102 N m-2 perpendicular to the
tii) Pressure p2 exerted by the water on the bottom surface of the surface of a submerged
brock is ,, object. ln Worked
m 3 x 10 N kg_, Example 7.3, we found
that the pressu re on
the bottom of the block
=y::{r,\;r_.3g,* is greater than the
, !en: base area A - 25 cm2 pressure on the top.
ra
F
-

A This difference results

tr- pA in a resu ltant u pward
ri) Downward force E, exerted by the water on the top surface force known as
of the block is F, = grA buoyancy or upthrust.
You can float when you
= (5.0 x L02 N m-') x (2.5 x 10-3 mr) are swimming due to the
= 1,.25 N upthrust acting on you.
t ii) Upward force F, exerted by the water on the bottom surface
of the block is Fr= prA
= (7.O x L02 N m-,) x (2.5 x 10-3 mr)
= 1,.75 N
S nce the upward force is larger than the downward force, the
.', ll be pushed upwards.

-'3 nsmission of pressure r, A rubber duck floats

in liquids due to buoyancy.
. sit a carworkshop, you will probably see the machines shown in Figure
' S -ch machines are called hydraulic machines. Hydraulic machines
be lifted with a small amount of effort.

:.ar lic car jack (b) A hydraulic garage lift

a Fi$ure 7.8 Hydraulic machines make lifting heavy objects easier.

:: hydraulic machines work? They use liquids to transmit pressure.

::sJre is applied to an enclosed liquid, the pressure is transmitted
. .. :o all other parts of the liquid. This is known as pascal's principle.
 The hydraulic press
The hydraulic press is a type of hydraulic machine. Figure 7.9 shows hov, .
simple hydraulic press works. Note that the liquid is enclosed within the hydrau ,
press. The car represents the large load that the hydraulic press can lift.

s. lk Whenaforcefacts The pressure p* is Thus, the pressure below

on piston 1, the transmitted equally to piston 2 is equal to the
pressure at point X in every part of the liquid. pressure below piston 1,. The
the liquid is given by pressure p, of point Y is equa
Fu
P^= -A^,where A^ IS to the pressure p* of point X.
the area of piston 1,.
Pv= Px

L_&
'AY Ax

Since A, ) A^,
therefore F, r Fx

This means that when a smal

force is applied on the small
piston, it resu lts in a larger
S"l force acting on the bottom of
piston T
the larger piston. This allows
with area A\ piston 2
large loads to be lifted with a
with area A,
relatively small force. Thus,
the hydrau lic press works like
a lever by multiplying a force.
Figure 7.9 A simple hydraulic press

The Principle of conservation of Energy applies in the hydraulic press.

Assuming there is no friction, the work done by a smaller force F, over a longer
Reca ll wh at you h ave
distance 4 on piston 1 is equal to the work done by a larger f'orce F, ouei u
learnt about levers
and the Principle of
shorter distance d, on piston 2 (Figure 7.10), i.e.
Conservation of Energy
in Chapters 5 and 6 F*xdr=Frxd,
re s pe ct ive ly.

Fx

I
piston 1
with area A,

piston 2
with area A, _

A Figure 7.tO By using a hydraulic press. a small

force can be applied to lift a heavy load.
,VorKed Example 7 4
- - -,'.e 7 .I1 shows a simple hydraulic press.
15 load L Make your own
-: N force rs exerted on piston X of area hydraulic machine!
_ 25 r',r'r2. Piston y has an area of O.5O
m2. ln sntall groups, obtain
3 r Calculate the
small rnaterials such as
(i) pressure exerted on the liquid by p isto n
la rge
piston Y
wood, ntetal nails,
piston X. syringes and flexible
(ii) pressure exerted on piston y; rubber or plastic tubes.
(iii) force exerted on piston y; liquid Use coloured water so
that others can see
(iv) maximum weight of load L that can
A Figu re 7 .tL how your hydraulic
be lifted, if piston Y weighs 50 N. mach ine works.
what is the distance moved by the small pistorr x if the distance dy
Demonstrate how your
nroved by the large piston y is 0.15 m? (Assume the ef fects of f rictio n
hydraulic nrachine
are negligible in this system.) works to the rest of
the class. Your class
5 c lut ton will then vote for the
3 G iven: E most creative
hydraulic machine.
A, = 0.025 m2
A)
(i) Pressure 0, on liquid by piston X - F-_ 15N _Ann
uvJPa
(ii) Pressure 0, on piston y - 600 pa
i=
(iii) Force f, on piston Y - pv X A, = 600 Pa x O.5O tT2 =3OO N
(iv) Maximum weight of load L - 3oo N 50 N = 250 N
-
Note: The force on the large piston y (300 N) is much larger (20times)
than the force on the small piston X (15 N).

Given: 4=0.15m
Using the Principle of Conservation of Energy,
work done by ( = work done by F,
f, x 4 = ( x d' where 4 = distance moved bythe small piston X
F.
.'.d,-lxd,
'ts,
300 N
/\v'
15N '^15m=3.0m
Note: The distance moved by the small piston x (3.0 m) is much longer
(20 times) than the distance moved bythe large piston y (0.15 m).

Hydraulic machines
Did you know that hydraulic machines are used in the construction
industry? Shovels, cranes, forkrifts and bulldozers are just some
examples of hydraulically operated machinery.

The amount of force generated by a shovel allows it to scoop more I

than a cublc metre of dirt at a time, which is approximately 1.5
tonnes in weight! lmagine that!

a Many of the construction machines

you see are hydraulic machines.

When the driver steps on
the brake pedal, a force
is exerted on the small
master piston. This in
tu rn exerts pressu re on
the liquid in the brake
system (brake fluid).
-------> force
small master
p isto n
large pistons (with
brake pads in contact
to other brakes with the large disc)
As pressure is transmitted
uniformly, the same
pressure is applied to
other brakes in the car.
From what you have
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
Let's Explore (b)?
7-. Pressure due to a liquid
colurnh = height of
colun'rn x density of the
liquid x gravitational
field strength, or p - hpg
2. An enclosed body of
liquid transmits an
applied pressure equally
throughout the liquid.
3. Hydraulic systems,
such as the hydraulic
press, ffioke use of the
transmission of pressure
in liquids to do work.
Chapter 7
The car hydraulic disc brake system
An important application of hydraulic pressure is the car hydraulic disc
brake system. This system allows a driver to control the speed of the
car or stop it.
Figure 7.12 shows how the car hydraulic disc brake system works.
The pressure is At each wheel, the
transmitted uniformly pressure is transmittec
throughout the liquid. to large pistons. Thus,
large forces are exertec
by the pistons on the
brake pads. The brake
pads press on a large
disc connected to the
wheel. The resulting
friction slows down the
wheel and hence the ca'
tyre
large disc wheel
hydraulic disc brake system
lf each large piston at the disc has twice the area of the small maste
piston at the pedal, each large piston will exert twice the force tha:
the driver applies on the brake pedal. The force applied by the driver =
multiplied when the area of the pistons increases.
7.?
!-. The base of a rectangular aquarium measures 100 cm by 200 cm.
Water is poured to a depth of 20 cm. Taking the density of water to
be 1000 kg p-e and gravitational field strength gto be 10 N kg-t,
calculate the pressure on the base, ?fld the force acting on the base
2. Figure 7.13 shows a simplified form of a hydraulic press. A force Fis
applied to the small piston of area a and negligible weight. The large
piston of area A and weight W supports the load L.
F
large piston of area
A and weight W
small piston
of area a
liquid
Figure 7.L3
Write formulae to express the
(a) pressure exerted on the liquid by the small piston;
(b) pressure exerted on the large piston by the liquid;
(c) force L exerted downwards by the load.
Explain what happens to the energy used in pressing down the
small piston.
 value is commonly referred to as L atmosphere. This pressure is almos:
equivalent to placing a 1- kg mass (10 N wei$ht) on an area of 1 cm2. l'
atmospheric pressure is so great, why is it that we cannot feel its effects?

The natural pressure within our bodies is also about 1 atmosphere. Thus
the internal pressure of our bodies is equal to the atmospheric pressure tha:
acts on us. lf this natural pressure were not present within our bodies, we
would be crushed to death by the atmosphere'

v Figure 7.L5 Some Applications of atmospheric plessule

applications and effects of Figure 7.15 shows how atmospheric pressure affects daily life'
atmospheric pressure
plunger

ba rre I

atmospher c A syringe works in a similar way

When we suck through a straw,
pressure to a straw. To fill the syringe
we lower the air Pressure in
with liqurd, we PUll the Plunger
I

the straw.
I

upward. This decreases the atr

I

I
Atmospheric pressure, being
I
greater than the Pressure of pressure in the barrel.
,+ I

the air in the straw, Pushes on

the surface of the liquid in
The atmospheric Pressure
acting on the liquid surface is
atmos..

the cup. greater than the air Pressure in

This forces the liquid to rise uP the barrel. .r8l-a-_

the straw and into ou r mouths. This pushes the liquid uP the
needle and into the barrel.

need le

pa rtia I
o Suction capS are commonly used for hanging up
VACU U NI household items.
atmos phe ric
o When a suction cap is pressed against the wall, most
pressure
of the air underneath the suction cap is squeezed out.
o This Creates a pressUre difference between the t,
tl
atmosphere and the trapped space under the
side view suction cap.
o The higher atmospheric pressure acts on the
,'T!-- quctiopo, holding it firmly against the wall.
.\i 4+ I - .ir. J
ii.<. a^!.'*., :
-

134
Effects of atmospheric pressure
-^e pressure of the atmosphere decreases with increasing altitude.

Our bodies are unable to At high altitudes, passengers on

adyust quickly to changes in
atrnospheric pressure.
lf we travel to higher
aliitudes and the drop in
cressure is too great, we
''rroy suffer from a condition
c a lled altitude sickness.
an airplane are at risk of suffering
from the effects of low atmospheric
pressu re.
To protect the passengers, air is
pumped rnto the airplane cabin as
the airplane ascends.
This reduces the drop in pressure
inside the cabin and prevents the
passengers from experiencing a
great pressure change.

Worked €xampl€ 7.5

:ind the pressure acting on a diver when he is (a) at the surface;
(b) 10 m underwater. (Density of water p = 1000 kg m-t; gravitational
' eld strength g = 10 N kg-t; atmospheric pressure Po = I.Ot x 105 Pa)

Solution
(a) At the surface, oflly atmospheric pressure po octs on the diver.
Qo = 1.01 x 105 Pa

(b) When the diver 10 m underwater, h - 10 m, the pressure p

acting on him is =Po* hPg
= po * 10 m x 1000 kg 6-: x 10 N kg-t
= 1-.01 x 105 Pa + 1.00 x 105 Pa
= 2.OI x 105 Pa

\ote: The pressure acting on the diver when he is 10 m underwater

s about twice the atmospheric pressure. This is because 10 m
of water gives a pressure of about 1.00 x 105 Pa, which is about
1 atmosphere.
 Measuring atmospheric plessure using a simple
mercury barometer
The barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric pressu':
Figure 7.16 shows the parts of a simple mercury barometer and how it wori' :

A vacuum ensures that r:

The mercury is contained in a pressure is exerted on tt^:
thick-walled glass tube about column of mercury.
1" m long.

A metre rule measures

Atmospheric pressure acts on the the rise or fall in the
surface of the mercury in the trough. mercury level.
This supports the mercury column in
the glass tube.
The height h of the mercury level above
the surface of the mercury in the trough mercury barometer
indicates the atmospheric pressure.

At equilibrium, the pressure on the surface (i.e. along line ABC) is equal tc
the atmospheric pressure. This means that the pressure at B is equivalen:
The earliest barometers to the atmospheric pressure.
were constructed using
water, but these were not We have learnt that the atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1.013 x 105 Pa.
very practical due to their
What is the mercury level at this atmospheric pressure?
large size.
(a) lf the density of
water is 10OO kg ffi-3, We know that the pressure pB at B is due to the pressure exerted by the
gravitational field column of mercury. Height h is expressed in m. lf we take gravitationa
strength is 10 N kg-' field strength to be I = 9.8 N kgt and the density of mercury to be
and atmospheric p = 13.6 x 103 kg m-t, we have
pressu re rs
1.013 x 105 Pa, x
calculate the height of Pe= hPE = 1.013 105 Pa
the water column in a Pe 1-.01-3 x 105 Pa
water barometer.
h-
pg (1-3.6 x 103 kg m-3) x (9.8 N kg-')
- 0.760 m = 760 mm
(b) Why is the column of a
water barometer much Hence, at atmospheric pressure at sea level, the mercury column has a
taller than that of a height of 760 mm.
mercury barometer?
(9.8 N kg1 is a more accurate value of the Earth's gravitational field strength.
However, in this book, we often use 10 N kgl for ease of calculation.)

offi
The vertlcal height of the mercury
metre rule

TYlT
depends only on the atmospheric
pressure outside the tube. Even if the
column is tilted (Figure 7 .I7(b)) or the 60 mm
cross-sectional area of the tube is varied,
the vertical height of the column remains
the same.
I -*.en, atmospheric pressure is not expressed in terms of pascal
ra). lnstead, it is expressed as the height of the mercury column
the barometer. For example, we can express I atmosphere as o ln a place of lower
-e0 mm Hg, or 76 cm Hg. (Hg is the chemical symbol for mercury.) atmospheric pressure (e.9.
the Himalayan mountains),
-: convert mm Hg to pascals, w€ simply express the height h of the the mercury column in the
-'ercury column in metres instead of millimetres. We then multiply barometer is shorter.
-3v the density p^eof mercury in kg r'11-s, ofld the gravitational field . This is because there is lower
atmospheric pressure acting
: --ength g in N kg-'. For example, on the mercury surface in the
trough.
-= ght h - 760 mm = 760 x 10-3 m o Similarly, if the atmospheric
-.'-rospheric pressure po = 760 mm Hg pressure increases, the
hxpnexg pressure exerted on the
(760 x 10-3 m) x (13.6 x 103 kg m-t) mercury surface in the trough
is greater, and the column will
x (9.8 N kg-')
be taller th an 7 60 mm.
1.013x1-05Nm-2
1.013 x 10s Pa

Worked €xample 7.6

= "d the pressure (in cm Hg) at points A, B, C and D (Figure 7.I8).

Solution A
'. rte
that the space above the mercury column at A is a vacuum. 96u Z+\
--ere is no force acting on the top of the mercury column.
cr=0cmHg h1

=-Jm the measurements made by the ruler, we have

h2
50 o$ h3

- :lce
)'2ssure
,

at B = 46 cm Hg
pB 20- oQ

j -cssure pc at C -- 76 cm Hg 10- op
I -.cssure pD at D = 86 cm Hg \

Measuring gas pressure using a Only atmospheric pressure

po acts on the surfaces of
manometer the liquid at both A and B.
-'- e manometer is an instrument used to measure Thus, the liquid settles at a
, 'ferences in the pressure of gases or liquids. lt is common level in both arms.
':st commonly used for industrial purposes, such
: s measuring the pressure in a gas pipeline.

--e manometer consists of a U-tube containing a

used to control
:-rid. This liquid is usually mercury, water or oil. Po--> the gas pressure
= 3ure 7.I9 shows the manometer when it is not in petrochemical
: :',rnected to a gas supply. plants.

is not connected to a gas supply

L37
 Figure 7.20 shows a manometer with one end connected to a gas supply.
Note the difference in height of the liquid levels in the two arms of the
A U-tube is filled with two
U-tube. This height difference helps us measure the pressure difference
liquids, A and B. They are
immiscible
between the two sides. How is this possible?
(do not mix).
At B, the gas exerts
Po
a pressure P, on the
1
hB
I A surface of the liquid.
f
h^
Since this pressure is
gas greater than atmospheric
J I su pply pressure, it pushes the
liquid level downwards
to B to equalise the
liquid A of liquid B of pressure difference.
density po density p, lowest
liquid level
Since liquids A and B are
at rest,
pressure at P = one end connected to a gas supply
pressure at Q
Po * hopoE= Po+ hrp"8
(whers Po = atmosPheric At equilibrium, the pressure at B and C must be equal, since they are at the
pressu re) same level. Thus, the gas pressure p, at B is given by
h^pog - hrpr€
hopo = hrp"
pB = atmospheric pressure + pressure due to liquid column AC
h_ = Po+ hPg
Po= o"
4 where h = height of liquid column AC;
Therefore, by measuring p = density of liquid used in the manometer.
the heights h o dnd hu,
the unknown density poof The pressure difference between the gas and the atmosphere is given by
liquid A can be found, if the pressure due to the liquid column, i.e.
the density pu of liquid B
is known. Pu- Fo= hqg

Worked €xampl€ 7.7

Figure 7 .2I
shows a manometer containing mercury of A
density 13.6 x 103 kg 6-s. The manometer is connected
to a gas supply. Calcu late the pressure of the gas
supply in cm Hg and Pa. (Take gravitational field strength 5cm
g - 10 N kg-t; atmospheric pressure go = 76 cm Hg)

Solution C
l lowest
liquid
Given: length of mercury column AC = 5 cm level
atmospheric pressure po = 76 cm Hg
Pressure prof $as supply = Fo * pressure due to mercury column AC i.Figlute7.21,
=76cmHg+5cmHg
=81cmHg
To convert cm Hg to Pa, F"= hp€
= (81 x 10-2 m) x (13.6 x 103 kg m-s1 x (10 N kg-1)
= t.t x 105 Pa
Note: To convert pressure readings from mm Hg or cm Hg to Pa, you need to
express the height of the mercury column in metres.
7-. Atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1.01-3 x 105 Pa. This value is From what you have
sometimes referred to as 1 atmosphere. learnt so far, have you
2 Some daily applications of atmospheric pressure include drinking through found the answers to
a straw and drawing liquid into a syringe. Suction caps make use of Let' s Ex p lo re (c )?
atmospheric pressure to remain stuck on walls.
3 A mercury barometer uses the height of a mercury column to measure
atmospheric pressure. The unit of measurement is mm Hg or cm Hg.
4 A manometer is used to measure pressure differences in gases and liquids.

7.3
7_. (a) lf the liquid in a mercury barometer were replaced
T
with water of density 1000 kg rp-s, what would
ln = 20 cm
the height of the water column be, given that the
atmospheric pressure is 1.013 x 105 N m-2? t_
(b) State the effect on the height of the mercury column
if air were trapped at the top instead of a vacuum.
2. Figure 7 .22 shows a mercury manometer connected
to a large vessel containing neon gas. Given that the
atmospheric pressure is 760 mm Hg, calculate the
pressure of the neon gas in cm Hg.
3. Figure 7 .23 shows a manometer being used to measure gas at pressure pc
the pressure peof a gas in a container. Given that the
atmospheric pressure po is 76 cm Hg, calculate the po
pressure pe of the gas in cm Hg.
I
mercury

def ined

exam ples

measured
ustng

measu red Manometer

usrng
given by

Mercury barometer Pressure difference

I I

lbv I
siven by .*ump es
|
* Y Y
'',leasuring the height Measuring the Pressure p - hp€ Hydraulic press
tf the mercury he ight d ifference where Car hydraulic disc
:olumn above the between liquid h = height of liquid column (m) brake system
surface of the columns p = density of liquid (kg m-a;
-rercury in the trough g = Sravitational field strength (N kg-t)
State whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
relevant section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

(a)
-i
B - ,-"-i.i
t-
I

7.I
-
tv' Accordingtotneequatio^O=iir,,n"Or"rrur"o,",,Or,O,""r*."t*,*"
,rrr
I
I
t-
depth, but not the density of the liquid. i 7.2
**f-l

-
ln a hydraulic press, the pressure of the liquid on both pistons is equal. The force
(c) acting on the larger piston is smaller in magnitude than the force acting on the 7.2
smaller piston (assuming there is no friction).
When the height of the liquid column in a barometer rises, it means that the
(d)
atmospheric pressure has risen.
The manometer can be used to measure the difference between atmospheric
(e) 7.3
pressure and the pressure of a gas.

Answers are available at the back of the book.

Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions 4. A manometer is used to compare the pressure of

two gases, X and Y. What can be deduced about
7.. The atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. What is the
the pressure of gases X and Y?
force exerted by the atmosphere on a rectangular
surface that measures 0.5 m by 0.4 m? gas gas Y
A 20KN B 111 kN
X

c 200 kN D 250 kN

2. What is the height of a column of turpentine that

mercury
would exert the same pressure as 5.0 cm of
mercury? (Density of turpentine = 840 kg m-.;
density of mercury = 13 600 kg m-s;
A 0.06 cm B 0.30 cm tn mm
C 5.0 cm D 81.0 cm
The pressure of gas X is greater than that
of gas Y by 5 mm Hg.
3. At which point in the mercury column is
The pressure of gas X is greater than that
the pressure equal to 10 cm Hg below the
of gas Y by 20 mm Hg.
atmospheric pressure?
The pressure of gas X is less than that of
110 gas Y by 5 mm Hg.
100 The pressure of gas X is less than that of
90 gas Y by 20 mm Hg.
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0cm

Ghapter 7
t
Section B: Structured euestions Section C: Free-Response euestions
t. Figure .24 shows a solid, upright cylinder with
7 7-. (a) Figure T .25 shows the design of a dam.
a height of 20 cm and a radius of 1cm. The Explain why the wall of the dam is thicker at
cylinder is submerged in a liquid with the top the bottom of the lake.
end of the cylinder lo cm below the surface of
the liquid. The liquid has a density of 1.3 g cm-.

10 cm

Ftgute 7.25
Figure

(b) Water tanks are often located on the top

20 cm of high-rise buildings. ln such cases, it is
common for occupants on the higher storeys
to experience low water pressure when they
turn on the taps. Why is this so?

a Figure 7.24 2. State Pascal's Principle. with the aid of a diagram,

describe how this principle is applied in the
It g = 10 N kg-t, calculate the hydraulic press.
(a) pressure acting on the top of the
cylinder; *3. Figure 7 .26 shows a U-tube filled with two liquids,
(b) pressure actlng on the bottom of A and B. They are immiscibre (i.e. they do not mix).
the cylinder;
(c) pressure difference between the two ends llquid B of
of the cylinder. density p,
liquid A of
2. A tank with a base area of 4 m2 is connected density pn
at the bottom to a vertical tube with a cross-
sectional area of 0.01 m' by a horizontal tube. A
A liquid of density 1000 kg p-s is poured into h^l
the tank until a depth of 0.5 m is reached.
(a) Draw a simple diagram of the above ,t
set-up. ln your diagroffi, the depth of liquid P

in the tank and in the vertical tube should

be clearly shown. Figure 7.26
(b) Calculate the
(i) pressure due to the liquid on the (a) lf po = atmospheric pressure and
base of the tank; g - gravitational field strength, give the
(ii) pressure due to the liquid on the formulae for the
base of the vertical tube. (i) pressure at P;
(c) lf the atmospheric pressure were (ii) pressure at Q.
I2O 000 Pa, what would the total pressure (b) lf the values of ho, h" and pB are known, give
on the base of the tank be? the formula for calculating the value of po.

n 4
ln Singapore, innovative solutions have been put in place
to increase the nation's self-sufficiency in water. One of
them is the desalination process that turns seawater into
lntake + F
drinking water (desalinated water). Desalinated water is one Seawater + screenrng
of Singapore's four sources of water supply. Singapore's first
seawater reverse osnrosis desalination plant was opened in Pre-treatnrent

2005. Seawater reverse osmosis technology consumes less

energy as compared to conventional seawater desalination 1st Pass 2nd Pass
technologies, such as distillation. RO + RO

Reverse osr'osrs
The desalination process involves three rnain stages. t
Seawater first goes through pre-treatment, where suspended t;"rllit
Post-treatnrent
particles are filtered off The pre-treated seawater is then un it
- - storage
- -
sent to the reverse osmosis (RO) stage, which is the key Post-treatntent
process in producing drrnking water. The last stage in the
process is post-treatment, where minerals and fluorides
are added back to balance the pH level of the water. These
three stages ensure that the quality of the drinking water
meets the strict standards set by PU B, Singapore's national
water agency, and the World Health Organisation (WHO). The
diagram on the right shows the sequence of steps in the
desalination process.

The two-pass RO process forms the core technology of the

desalination plant. Firstly, pre-treated seawater is pumped 44ry
at high pressure through semi-permeable RO membranes.
These membranes do not allow bacteria, viruses, chemicals, l-'
t__
dlssolved salt and other minerals to pass through. Only water ll€
l,f'

molecules can pass through the membranes. The reverse ln-

l?
a
I
osmosis process is repeated in the second pass. iI
't
/Tt

(Source: Hyflux and PUB)

1, Why is this method of obtaining drinking water ideal for

Singapore?
2 Singapore has Four National Taps (or four sources of
water supply). Find out what they are.
3 Think about the daily activities in which you use water.
{ tr t 1l f-f,-
Can you estimate how much water each activity uses? Et!tilt lt
4 How can you and you r f amily reduce water usage at anq!ltil
'! t"tttf
home? Share your ideas with your class. q tr !t.|l l.l!!trI
b'k#'h

It
During a volcanic eruption, lava gushes down the sides of a mountain in 1ery streams.
These lava streams are so hot that they burn everything in their pathsl Despite
the dangerous and unpredictable conditions, scientists often visit these scenes of
eruptions. By measuring the temperature of the lava streams, the scientists can
monitor the level of volcanic activity. However, the temperature must be measured
quickly, and from a safe distance. How is this possible?
 8.1 Measurement of Temperature
Learning Outcome
. - You should be able to:
explain how a physical property that changes with temperature is used to construct
a temperature scale.

Temperature and heat

ln daily conversation, we often use the words temperature and heat. These
two words have very specific meanings in physics.

O.,n-
You will learn more
about thermal energy
in Chapter tI.

The Sl unit of temperature is the kelvin (K), while the Sl unit of heat is
the joule (J).
Although the Sl unit
of temperature is When we say, "Heat the soup on the electric stove," we mean that thermal
the kelvin, the unit energy will be transferred from the hot stove to the cold soup. The stove can
degree Celsius is also be set to heat the soup to the desired degree of hotness. How is the degree
commonly used. of hotness or coldness (i.e. temperature) measured?

How do we measure temperature?

The metal poles feel colder than the plastic overhead
hand straps in the MRT, although they are both at the same
temperature (Figure 8.1). This is because our sense of touch is
a poor estimate of temperature. To measure temperature
accurately, we use instruments called thermometers.

When designing a thermometer, we need to consider several

factors. For example, will the scale be easy to read? Will the
range of the scale be suitable for a particular usage?

ln general, a good thermometer has the following features:

o An easy-to-read scale
o Safe to use
a Responsive to temperature changes
o Sensitive to small temperature changes
o Able to measure the required range of temperatures

do not provide an accurate

measure of temperature.

Ghapter 8
 OC
upper
fixed
How do we construct a temperature scale?
In order for thermometers to give us a temperature reading, they must be -1-00 poi nt

narked with a temperature scale. A commonly used temperature scale is

the Celsius scale (or the centigrade scale). To derive a temperature scale,
',ve carry out the steps as shown in Figure 8.2. -e0
=
Step 1: Choose an appropriate substance -ro
o Choose a suitable thermometric substance.
. Thermometric substances can be solids, liquids or gases. They have
physical properties that vary continuously and linearly with temperature. -70
These properties are called thermometric properties.
=
v Table 8.1 Thermometric properties of some thermometers
-to
riquid i M.rnr rrrr-in-crtacc rhefmometef;
Vorume of a fixed mass of
i ;; ermometer -50
=
Electrical resistance of a piece of metal I Resistance thermometer
r",oe; ;; ; ; ;";t#i;;. ;l-i ;;;;.", o, ; * - -49
,,
".i,* "";
,.'"
'o;
t =-
_
30

Step 2: Galibrate the thermometer

(a) Choose two fixed points
. Choose two standard degrees of hotness or coldness that are easily
-20
obtainable and reproducible. These are called fixed points.
. Record the values of the physical property of the substance at the two fixed
points. These two fixed points are called lhe lower and upper fixed points. :-10
lower
(b) Set up the scale fixed
o Divide the interval between the two fixed points into a suitable number of -0 poi nt
equal parts (or degrees) to obtain a scale. For example, the Celsius scale
is divided into 100 equal parts between the lower fixed point (0'C) and the
upper fixed point (100'C).
. When setting up the scale, we assume that the physical property varies
linearly with temperature. This means that when temperature changes, the
From what you have
physical property changes uniformly and continuously.
learnt so far, have you
found the answers to
A Figure 8.2 Constructing a temperature scale Let's Explore (a)?

!.. Thermometers use the physical properties
of thermometric substances to measure
tem pe ratu re.
2. Physical properties that vary with temperature
include the volume of a liquid, electrical
resistance of a metal wire, and electromotive
force (e.m.f.) produced by a thermocouple.
3. A fixed point is a standard degree of hotness
or coldness, such as the boiling point or
melting point of a substance.
8.1
!-. "Heat flows from a region of higher
temperature to a region of lower temperature."
State the meaning of this sentence.
2. State the physical property that varies
with temperature for a (a) liquid-in-glass
thermometer; (b) thermocouple thermometer.
3. With reference to the information in Table 8.1
explain why the length of a mercury column
varies with temperature.

Temperature
 8.2 Galibrating a Thermometer
Visit http: / /
Learning Outcomes
resou rces . edb.gov.
o - You should
describe how a liquid-in-glass
be able to: -
thermometer is calibrated;
hk/cphysics to search
for a demonstration
o explain why we need fixed points, such as the ice point and steam point,
on calibrating a calibrating a thermometer.
thermometer. Use
keywords such as
"thermometer" Galibrating a thermometer with the Gelsius scale
and "calibrate". To construct a liquid-in-glass thermometer and calibrate it with the Celsius
scale, we follow the steps in Figure 8.3.

v Figure 8.3 Constructing a liquid-in-glass thermometer

When scientists work together Step 1: Choose an appropriate substance

William Thomson, who adopted The thermometric substance commonly used in a
the title Lord Kelvin, was an liquid-in-glass thermometer is mercury (or alcohol).
lrish-born physicist and engineer,

t
while James Prescott Joule
was an English physicist. They
had many collaborations. Jou le
conducted the experiments, while Step 2= Calibrate the thermometer
Thomson analysed the results and (a) Ghoose two fixed points
suggested further experiments.
Using the fixed points as reference, marks can then be
made to set up the scale for temperature measurement.
Together, their work led to many
important discoveries, such as
the theory of the conservation of For the Celsius scale, we use the following fixed points:
energy, the Kelvin temperature
scale and the heating effect of a
current through a resistor (Joule
heating). The Jou le-Thomson
effect, homed after both of them,
is the basis for the cooling and
liquefaction of most gases, and
the science of cryogen ics.

What attitudes do you think

enabled the successful
collaboratron of Jou le and
Thomson? Which of these (b) Set up the scale
attitudes do you apply in daily After the ice and steam points are determined, we divide
the interval between the ice point and the steam point into
1-00 equal parts. Each interval on the scale is 1oC.

This method of using two fixed points to calibrate a

thermometer assumes that the thermometric property
changes linearly with temperature.

r Lord Kelvin r James Prescott Joule

(r824-Le07) (1818-1889)

You learnt in Chapter 7 that one atmosphere is the pressure

exerted by the atmosphere at sea level.

Chapter 8
 G

lmmerse the bulb and the lower part of the thermometer

stem into a funnel containing pure melting ice.

When the mercury level in the thermometer stem

funnel
remains steady, make a mark, lo,at that level on the
stem. This mark corresponds to the lower fixed point,
called the ice point.

Use crushed ice to ensure good contact between the bulb

and the ice. Use an appropriate volume of crushed ice so
that the mercury level in the stem can be observed just
above the level of ice.

ffi-ff

- cw do we determtne the steam point?

lnsert the thermometer into the apparatus. The bulb

of the thermometer should be just above the boiling
water.

The stem of the thermometer should protrude from

the top of the apparatus.

When the mercury level in the thermometer stem

remains steady, make a mark, lr.oo, at that level on the
stem. This mark corresponds to the upper fixed point,
called the steam point.

outlet for
steam to Use the manometer to check whether the pressure inside
escape the apparatus is the same as the atmospheric pressure
- 'rr ete r
outside. lf the pressure is not equal, adjust the flame
accordingly to increase or decrease the pressure inside.
steam

boiling water

determining steam point

 How do we calculate temperature with a mercury-in-glass
thermometer? ;ii,

ln a mercury-in-glass thermometer, the physical property that changes

continuously with temperature is the volume of a fixed mass of mercur,,,
We can measure the changes in the volume of mercury by measuring the
change in the length of the mercury thread. This is possible because the
cross-sectional area of the mercury thread is uniform. Figure 8.4 shows us
how to calculate temperature.

F Find the following values:

o Length /o of the mercury thread at OoC
o Length /roo of the mercury thread at 100"C

/,.00

Find the length /. of the mercury thread

at unknown temperature 0. We can find
the value of 0 using the equation below:
I _l
(a) At ice point (b) At steam (c) At unknown e - -3-:l- x 1oo'c
(0'c) point (100'C) te m pe ratu re ( 0) '1oo - 'o

r Figure 8.4 Finding the unknown temperatu re 0

Change in Corresponding
physical Celsius Calculating temperature on the Celsius sca/e
property temperature The general equation for calculating temperature on the Celsius scale is

100'c X -X where e - unknown temperature of a body (in "C t:

(steam point) 0-4"hx1oo"c X - physical property of the thermometric
0 substance.
We will learn how this equation can be used to calculate temperature.
0"C (ice po i nt)

on the

Worked €xample 8.1

ln an unmarked mercury thermometer, the lengths of the mercury

l/cm thread lo and /roo are 5.0 cm and 25.O cm respectively. What is the
temperature 0 when le is (a) L4.O cm; (b) 3.0 cm?

Solution
Given: lo = 5.0 cm, /roo = 25.0 cm
(a) When lr= I4.0 cm, (b) When l, = 3.0 cffi,

x 100"C
t-t
0- #x 100'C
lroo- lo
e/"c
5.0) cm (3.0-50) 9!Ix1OO"C
r The length of a mercury thread x 100"C
(25.0 - 5.0) cm (25.0 - 5.0) cm
is assumed to vary linearly with
te m pe ratu re .
= 45oC -10'c

Ghapter 8
-ow do we calculate temperature with a resistance thermometer?
: 'esistance thermometer consists of a platinum wire coiled around a piece
-' mica in a silica tube. lt works on the principle that the resistance R of
: 'xed length of wire varies continuously with temperature over a range
:'values. Platinum is usually chosen, as it has a high melting point. The
--odified general equation is

x 100'C where Reresistance of the platinum wire at

-
Q = the unknown temperature 0 (in A);
Ro = resistance of the platinum wire at
ice point, i .e. OoC (in A );
Rroo = resistance of the platinum wire at
steam point, i.e. 1-00'C (in O).

Worked Cxampl€ 8.a

I piece of metal wire has a resistance of 800 O at ice point and 810 O at steam
ro int. Ca lcu late
the u n known temperature when the resistance of the wire is 803 O.

Solution
Given: Ro = 800 Q, Rroo = 810 Q, Re = 803 O

the unknown temperature be e.

r-et

o =ffir 1oo.c = (803 - 800) o x 1-00"C = 30"C

(810 - 800) o

How do we calculate temperature with a thermocouple?

A thermocouple consists of two types of wires made of different metals,
such as copper and iron. The ends of the wires are joined to form two
junctions. The junctions produce a small electromotive force (e.m.f.) when
there is a temperature difference between them. Therefore, the temperature
can be calculated using the readings of a voltmeter.

One junction is usually kept at a fixed temperature (e.9. 0'C) and the other
junction is used as a probe to measure an unknown temperature 0. The
defining equation of the thermocouple thermometer is
e*A0 where r
= €.rn.f. produced (in V);
A0 = temperature difference between the junctions You will lea rn about
(in "C or K). e.m.f. in Chapter 17.

The temperature can be determined by comparing the e.m.f. reading with

calibrated values for the ice and steam points.

Temperature
 I
Worked €xample 8.3
ln a certain thermocouple thermometer, a voltage reading of +4.00 mV was obtained when the
cold junction was placed in melting ice, and the hot junction in boiling water at one atmosphere.
When the hot junction was taken out of the boiling water and placed in boiling propane, the voltage
registered was -1.50 mV. Find the temperature of the boiling propane on the Celsius scale of the
thermocouple.

Solution
For a thermocouple thermometer,
e.m.f. r * temperature difference A0.
co n sta nt.
(100-0)'c.where
e_ temperature of boiling propane
(4.00 mV)

x (-1.50 mV) - -37.5"C

Measuring lava temperature

The thermocou ple thermometer is an
instrument suitable for measuring the
temperature of lava. lt can measure high
temperatures of up to 1500"C. lt is very
responsive, eflabling temperatures to be
taken quickly. lt can also be used from a
safe distance.

with a thermocouple thermometer

From what you 7-. When calibrating a thermometer, we need a lower and an upper fixed
have learnt so far, point (e.g.the ice point and steam point). We then divide the interval
have you found the between them into a fixed number of equal parts.
a n swe rs to Let' s
Explore (b) and (c)? 2. ThegeneralequationfortheCelsiuSSca|eise-+x1OO.C.
v-
xo
r\"u' v'
Xroo -
3. A thermocouple thermometer consists of two wires made of different
metals joined together to form two junctions.
4. The defining equation of the thermocouple thermometer is
e.m.f. r ". temperature difference Le.

8.e
t-. ( a)What is meant by the term fixed poinQ
(b) Define the upper and lower fixed points of the Celsius scale.
2. Write down the general equation for the Celsius temperature scale.
3. (a) What is a thermocouple thermometer?
(b) How does it work?

Chapter 8
 measured with

make use of such as

o Liqu id-i n-gl ass thermometer

a Res istance thermometer
O Thermocou ple thermometer
that have such as

Physical properties that vary Celsius scale

continuously and linearly with
temperature where e=mx 1oo.c
Lower and upper fixed points
e.g. ice point (O"C),
steam point (100"C)

|), l;.f!:i--!!,-::r.r.t ..:#$.ir:i,.r.+1di

::ate whether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the relevant
::ction(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

ffiM
(a) A physical property that changes continuously with temperature can be used to
construct a temperature scale. 8.1_

Examples of physical properties described in (a) include the volume of a liquid, 8.1-
b)
the resistance of a metal wire, and the e.m.f. produced by a thermocouple. 8.2
To construct a temperature scale for a liquid-in-glass thermometer, we only need 8.1_
c)
to determine the fixed points. 8.2
The general equation for calculating temperature on the celsius scale is

' e -
rd) X.. X 8.2
4;+' 1oo"c.

: - swers are available at the back of the book.

Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions
7.. A mercury-in-glass thermometer and a
thermocouple thermometer are both calibrated
using the same fixed points of O"C and 100"C.
When both thermometers are used to measure
the temperature of a body, the temperatures
measured on both thermometers will be exactly
the same
A for all temperatures between OoC and
100'C only
B only at the fixed points
C for all temperatures at all times
D only at 100"C
2. The e.m.f. of a certain thermocouple with
one junction P in pure melting ice and the
other junction Q in steam is 4.I mV. With
junction P still in melting ice, junction Q is
placed in boiling liquid. The e.m.f. is now
-9.1 mV. The temperature of the boiling
liquid in oC is
A -222 B -55
C +55 D +222
3. The lengths of a mercury thread in a
thermometer calibrated with the Celsius scale
are 5.0 cm and 1-5.0 cm at ice and steam points
respectively. What is the temperature reading
when the length of the mercury thread is
3.0 cm?
A 2O"C B 3O'C
c -20'c D -30"C
2. A device called a thermistor is used in the
construction of a resistance thermometer.
The thermistor has resistance values of
2.2 kQ and 1.0 kQ when it is placed in melting
ice and boiling water, respectively, at
one atmosphere.
(a) On the Celsius scale, what points do
the temperatures of melting ice and boiling
wate r represent? State their values.
(b) A reading of -IL6.7"C is obtained using the
resistance thermometer. Calculate the
corresponding value of the resistance of
the thermistor.
(c) State the assumption you would have
to make, in order for the equation you
used to derive the answer in (b) to be
valid. Explain your answer with regard
to how the physical property of resistance
changes with temperature.
Section G: Free-Response Questions
7-. (a) Using the example of a mercury-in-glass
thermometer, outline how a physical
property that varies continuously with
temperature may be used to construct a
temperature scale.
(b) Describe a laboratory experiment to
determine the two fixed points of a
mercu ry-i n-gl ass the rmometer.

*2. (a) Describe the principal features and the

Section B: Structured Questions working principle of a thermocouple
7-. Complete the following table. thermometer.
(b) Explain what features of the thermocouple
Y Table 8.2
thermometer enable it to be used to measure
(i) rapidly changing temperatures, such as
the temperature in a hot furnace;
Mercury-in- (ii) the temperature at a point
(a) Mercury (a small area).
glass
(b) Resistance Platinum wire
Two wires made
(c) Thermocouple of different
metals
The male Empefor moth,'is easily recggniga,ble' by jtg pa{i 9fi:very;:iafge;,,teAttr:erit
antennae. lts antennae can pick;up the.:sqeni of a:.iemale','Ernpgior,.*ncith,,,irEjaflr;*
1o km awayl rhis makes the male Empetor moth,one, of,,ther,lnost,liowgrtul,si€nt
detectors in nature! From this amazing insect; We.''krio'w that scei*s,,l1an,ip6i 1.'.i;5lg
d:istances. How is this possible? Also, woutd the 6j1gr,1116t5,.'be'rirrore:,swriessfui.iii
--
finding a mate on a hot or a cotd dqy?:Find'out the answeis,tin,this chipter- - .,
 9.1 The States of Matter
A substance in the
Learning Outcome You should be able to:
sotid state is usual\y o -
distinguish between sol'ids, liquids and gases in terms of their physical properties.
more dense than in the
liquid state. Water is an
exception: ice is less
dense than liquid water. Water is a common compound found on Earth. Figure 9.1 shows the three
different states of water. The state of water depends on its temperature
and the pressure it is under. ln general, substances (e.g. water) can exist ir
v Figure 9.1 Water three states of matter solid, liquid and gas.
exists in three states
solid, liquid and gas.
-
-
ffilit'tm

Steoffi, the gaseous state of water, is

invisible to the naked eye. The mist
we see when water boils is actually
tiny water droplets formed by steam
that has condensed in the cool air.

h$ tiim yi:*,rrl* i,' t\ $

q,lr llril

. No fixed shape or volume

. Low density
:: o Compressible

+'1i1i'1i1
h$tiu*s[t$
Water in the liquid state is found in water lce, the solid state of water, exists
bodies such as oceans and rivers. Only to/o of in many fornns, such as snow,
the Earth's water is suitable for drinking. glaciers, icebergs and ice cubes.

j.]ii;i tl
f .. 1.)
,,rr'lif,l,.r ,1'
lr.r'rl1j" !r
,i
:
..r
lt
y,
1 ,i.
,. .1..
I $];s;iu1;ll$rt tlii ,m
o Fixed volume but no fixed shape o Fixed shape and volume
o H igh density o H igh density
o lncom pressilcle o lncompressible

You can see that the properties of a substance vary depending on the st;- i
it is in. Why? What happens in each state? To explain why different sta ": I
have different properties, we need to understand the nature of matte " ::

the microscopic level.

Chapter 9
 9,2 The Kinetic lVlodel of Matter
:Erning Svstwwmws * Nwxs s$xws$N$ fuw Rw:
=
mWNm
- and gases;
>:ribe the molecular structure of solids, liquids
:," -,ce from the Brownian motion experiment that particles are
_ '-, nuous motion;
:: l"ibe how the motion of particles is affected by temperature.

::ter is made up of tiny particles called atoms or molecules (Figure

A Figure 9,2 Atoms are

joined to form molecules.

""'Jperties of each state of matter can be explained using the kineilc

: cf matter (Figure e.3).

Closely packed together, Particles v,ib e'.abwt fixed positions.

solid usually. ln a pattern, The particles are held in position by very
f"grlar
occupying minimal space strong attractive forces between the
Large number of particles per particles.
unit volume Th'is explains why solids have fixed
o This results in solids having volumes and shapes,
,* the highest densities.
IFFFF'

Randomly arranged, with the Pa,rtic'les are'f tomove about within

rquid particles slightly farther apart the liquld. Thgre arer',attractive forces
than in solids between the particles.
Slightly smaller number of
,f n^rr_ particles per unit volume
Th,is expfa,i,ns why l-iquids have fixed
volurnes, but take the s,hape of
F
'Frfff r rtr compared to solids
This results in liquids having
the contaf,ner.

'farrtr relatively high densities.

Randomly arranged and very Particl,es :have"ver)r,ffi|e attracti o n

f^ far apart from one another between them, and move about randomly
'P r=
Small number of particles per
unit volume
at very high speeds. The particles

r This results in gases having

occupy a,ny avallab'fe,''$pace.
This exp,lains why gases have no

r r very low densities. fixed volume or shape, ofld are

highly compressible.

r Figure9.3 Propertiesofthethreestatesof matterexplainedusingthekineticmodel of matter

Kinetic Moder of Matter

ffi
,,wri]1liljld]iirii1i[il]il]iii{ltrr]iiiiillitililitit]lii&lMffi{t,*fr&i$$ffi&ttl
 Figure 9.4 shows how the forces and distances between particles vary '
the three states of matter.

|
.
i!$E
*,,.

I
I
br"u
of aftractoobef
_srl?o
eO partf.c/es
solid
weat

liquid

c/o^
u8*
,o€br4e"

r Figure 9.4 The forces and

distances between particles ch.- i-
according to the state of matte'
they are in.

ffiw$Smwxffiffi ffi$ ffiRffimffiffiR$$mw ffiffi*$ffiwx

The tiny particles that make up matter cannot be seen with the naked e",=
ls there evidence to show that these tiny particles are in continuc - :
random motion?

Brownian motion is named after Robert Brown, the botanist who f '.
observed the continuous, random motion of pollen grains suspended
water, and deduced that water molecules were in constant, random motic,"
Similar behavior is displayed by smoke particles in air (lnvestigation 9.1

Ghapter I
 i st 'WakNt\l,:,-wru,"''. m.ffi
A- eve

.- q,
I \",,

:l-l!' the random motion (Brownian motion) of smoke particles

.D I lsh,
glass cell
,r '"*: s:ope, torchlight, glass cell containing smoke

" -" '$i^

i*: .lp the apparatus as shown in Figure 9.5.

!e: a glass cell containing some smoke and place $lass
--der the microscope.
r-
::':;s the microscope such that the smoke particles
:'e glass cell appear as bright dots. The smoke
l,i,'--rcles appear as bright dots because they scatter torch light
** ,ght that shines on them.
l,tserve the motion of the smoke particles (Figure 9.6). smoke
particles
.: : fl1iltr a
smoke particles moved in a random manner.
r Figure 9.5
Experimental set-up to
arger the particles, the less agitated the motion. observe Brownian motion

:,*:x,e particles moved randomly because air molecules were

',1' =N**'*jnij.
* l,i':ing them randomly. (Air molecules are too small to be seen.)
:: '3l-lom motion of smoke particles in air is called Brownian i,,,.,llii$ilii,iiiiiii,rj;i;,i;riiniiiirj+jjtiiiijrljl$$i$jjriririljlli..
,ri$Iillillilllliij:ilii:jlliiili
u
iiijilijir
.ntititirii*l

$iri$iijiriiiiiNsilil-.'\x.]\l'\.ix$*,\\i\\L\*\\\\\\.\NiNt$I$txi$\iiriii
l$ii$$ji$ixii,.,,i$ii:$iill$lit$il$iiiiiiiii *,,*U51X11lqiqSns.Nl$S,$liiilliiii$iiiiliii

=*N
, "',ltill, "* nnotion refers to the observed random movement of
llll
in a fluid.
r, Figure 9.6 Smoke
'rrvnian motion occurs only in fluids.
l'lrvlli flui A fluid is any substance particles move in a
random manner.
i:i :he ability to flow or has particles that can move freely
s isBS and liquids).

Slhcts of temperature on molecular motion

*,:e":-.Jre. you will notice that the motion of the smoke particles Visit http://www,phy"
is more
r-S and agitated (i.e. they will move faster and change direction ntn u . ed u "tw/ ntn ujava
't 119''lt. Why? to watch an animation
on Brownian motion.
Use keywords such as
"'*'" r-€ temperature of the air increases, the average kinetic energy of "Brownian motion" and
[!ilF- r" -clecules increases. This means that air molecules have greater " random motiol"t".
jffi ," dd.,: soeed at higher temperatures. The faster-moving air molecules
*:: if : -.re smoke particles more vigorously and frequently. This will
cause
'''": .*rr€ particles to move faster and change direction more frequently.
lffi From what you have
bd ,iltrtt
learnt so far, have you
Dliilil" found the answers to
9-l,il, Let's Explore (a) and (b)?

Kinetic Model of Matter

t
t

\ffimnkmd ffixmmpfiw ffi.ffi l-

Figure 9.7 shows the set-up for a typical Brownian
motion experiment.

(a) Using the kinetic theory of matter, explain /X eye

why smoke particles in the glass cell show

continuous random motion.
(b) Sketch a typical path of a smoke particle in
Brownian motion. glass ce
with srnc ":
Sm$ut$mm pa rtic le s

(a) The kinetic theory of matter states that air

particles are in constant, random motion. The gl ass
air particles bombard the smoke particles
continuously, causing the smoke particles to \t7
move continuously in random directions. -)@.
H
converging
(b) right
lens
sou rce

r Figure 9.7

.ffiiffi
ffi*$"
t-. Using the kinetic model of matter, expla -
7-. The three states of matter
gas
- solid, liquid and
can be distinguished by their properties. why the density of a gas is lower than tr;'
2.
-
The kinetic model of matter describes matter of a solid.
as being made up of tiny particles that are in 2. (a) What is Brownian motion?
continuous random motion. (b) As temperature is increased, hott ,"

3. Brownian motion is the random motion of the movement of smoke Particles

particles that are suspended in a fluid. When Brownian motion change?
temperature increases, the particles in the fluid. (c) What would you expect to see if t'=
are observed to move faster and more vigorously, smoke particles were much large"'
4, Brownian motion provides evidence for the kinetic whv?
model of matter.

$e-G ,--gdj 'di$tatrr€€. , scgnts'W,h.efi,they'o,rerti.ea'd,.,

-' , '.$,y
'

tffe'ffi abfe.',ts sne[],because sur nss€s plck up having a strong sense of smell, the ma
chemicals in the air that stimulate our sensory cells. E mperol, mot'hs can. d e thes f'€,
,

The-'$cents we pick up are:actuatiy- mofec:utes,that ' ,from .dista,hces r-:,,; '

of,'up,to',to,k I

d'rift o*t In'the,ain These mol utes move a.'b in '!

'a rafido,,m rTt,finFl€,tr ,as, they s'pread thro Hh the'air. rhe m*ia Enxpe#
:
#A is' a l
tiek u',p'6eents fa$err'an
'
6Vei'i'o r
The male Emperor moth's antennae act like a human distances on a hot day. This can be
n'o$e, ln,faet, the male Ern,peror moth's,tntennae explained using the kinetic model
.tiave such ,Bo rf$ s-ensory cef{s'th ,they are able of ,ffitten A,ir,molee es e..w '
to detect scents from a distance of 10 km away! g',e@ 'r s ded'and-'b,u' o
one afi o r ffi r o 'hig-h

ffi'do'ffia{e Emperor moths neecl sueh a strong tempe@res.' t6;5'r'6pid ffiot:i Ips
'se'nse ,of'smeil? Feffiale Emperor moths release spread the scent.

e-9

L.*'
 i3 Pressure in Gases
.. .: ng Outcwrmes * YmuN shmm$d be mhfie
.: . - how the pressure of a gas is related to its molecular motion;
::e the effects of changes in pressu re, volume and temperature of a gas and
'elated problems.

\ril : t ron of wxrffifimmmXmm ffirRS press&$trffi

: ter 7, we learnt about the effects of atmospheric pressure. A container
*:n au (at atmospheric pressure) is not crushed by the atmospheric
e. because the air inside the container exerts a pressure that is
r the pressure exerted by the atmosphere. The net force acting on the
-er's wall is zero, and hence the container is not crushed.

- ,', do the air molecules inside the container produce a pressure on

: ^ ta iner's walls? We can explain this using the kinetic model of a gas
. 9 .8).
;n air molecule collides with theinner wall of the container, a
:
is exerted on the wall. By Newton's Third Law of Motion, an equal
::osite force Fris exerted by the wall on the molecule. Recall what you have
learnt about Newton's
- sidering numerous such Third Law in Chapter 3.
collisions between the air molecules and the
-'^ average force is exerted by the molecules on the wall. The force per
'.a gives rise to the pressure exerted by the molecules on the walls of
: -tainer.

, we can conclude that the pressure of a

-'t ls
rue to the collisions of the gas molecules
'3 walls of the container.

tr
,i Force exerted on the wall by the air molecule r, Figure 9.8 The air molecules
bombard the inside of the wall
tr Force exerted on the molecule by the wall and exert a force on it.
.1

i : -' some h,ot',\#a r,iffo

,: astic bottle and quickly h0r
"i,q on its ea'p tig,h
i.': water co,ld
: -- :old water over the wate,r
:,::: e to cool ffial,blely-
--= rottle will suddenly
t-t
: - *'r ole. Using the kinetlc r r, '
'
':*€'l'!' Of ma ffiR'VOU , ,, ,,, , +"{*_ , -*t*..13._- :. , r :>d{F ><--
* i: ain why it crumples?' 1t'"t ,.' .
force --l\ ++ smaller
. +.{E__ ir: *ltt +"<_
,
:: li l::

due to arr due tg',ai{ ,' :

,
1.:,1.:.,, 11 : ,, ,
force of
'," ,:' , ',
,,
,
' .. +'*
i:. ,i

Frecaution: :
pr ,i,::'

$Urc",,;i, * -+t-
',,,foree,:of pressure "-< ,/ partial
-p+
: Jemonstration should \_._____/, Steam ,, ,:,*#
il

vacuum
I * -r ce performed by a l -iFi'+{-*
,a:,.:,

,:,+'i+t,.,,,".
,
t+ pressure :, ,,,.,,Bfs
ii;'

:jfu,
rnt
T
'n ?l1ef. .
$:
. +if'

: :: ,, .,:,,.:.,;r::;,,:,.1r::t.,t,,ta, ffi.

Kinetic Modet or rvl"tt"t

ffir ffi
 Pressure-temperature (p-O relationship of a gas
Try touching the tyres of a car before and after it has travelled a long journey,
You will notice that the tyres become hotter after the journey. Since the
tyres become hotter, the temperature of the air in the tyres will have increased
as well.

When the temperature of the air in the tyres increases, the pressure of the
air in the tyres also increases. Can the kinetic model of gases (i.e. kinetic
model of matter applied to gases) be used to explain this relationship?
Let us consider what happens to a fixed mass of air inside a tyre of
fixed volume.

fl + When the car is moving, the tyres get heated. This

causes the temperature of the air in the tyres to rise,
:

* Using the kinetic model of gases, a rise in the

temperature of the air causes an increase in the
r,,
' average speed of the air molecules.

a Heat generated in an overinflated

car tyre after a long journey could The air molecules bombard the inner surface of the tyres
burst the tyre because of the more vigorously and more frequently.
increased pressure.

The average force per collision between the air molecules and
the wall of the tyre increases, and since the volume of the tyres
is fixed, the pressure inside the tyres increases.

force applied to keep the volume of the container constant

Pressu re /Pa

Jf,

slower-moving t'.1
+""'.'
,3'

gas molecules at
temperature T
+> $
iF
r
'*$' faster-moving
gas molecules at
\x
':::
...".
,n" temperatu re 2T
'
, -\
i\"

IG
l'
Tem peratu re /K '

a For a fixed volume and mass of gas, increasing its temperature

r Figure 9.9 Pressure results in an increase in the speeds of the gas molecules. This
vs. temperature graph of a increases the rate and force of the collisions with the wall. Thus,
gas at constant volume the gas pressure increases proportionately.

Chapter 9
 Pressure-volume {p-Vl relationship of a gas
t, -:ve you noticed how bubbles in a fish tank increase in size as they rise
o
l- '":m the bottom of the tank to the top? Do you know why this happens?
c --e answer can be found in the relationship between the pressure and
: ume of a gas when temperature remains constant. The apparatus shown
- trigure 9.10 can be used to study this relationship.
e
c
--e gas to be investigated is trapped in the syringe. Pressure is measured
? :. the pressure gauge, and volume is read from the syringe's scale
tf -en the gas is at the same temperature as its surroundings. When the
: -r:on is pushed inwards, the pressure registered by the pressure gauge
- : "eases. Why?

15 pressu re gauge
:

B.
syringe piston
-= 'rg the kinetic model of gases, a decrease in tsl
F -* l'olume of the gas means that the number of ,'',,,

r *"
: ecules per unit volume increases.
--.'efore, the gas molecules collide more frequently
-- the inner surface of the syringe and this results r Figure 9.10 Experimental set-up
Is to study the relationship lcetween
" : greater force. the volume and pressure of a gas at
constant temperature
* : .? =
VA' L gas pressure increases, and this increase is
s :'- I rr*n on the pressure gauge.
Is

:": - eS exef t a
: :' :he inner
:-i rf the volume halved
: -.r as they r Figure 9.t7. Pressure
" :: vs. volume graph of a gas
-'f the walls at constant tem peratu re
": -:ntainer. pressu re
doubled

* r For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, decreasing

j

its volume results in a proportionate increase in its pressure.

-' '.'re equation p = derive the relationship pV= k. When there

#,*"
: :^ange in the pressure or volume of a gas at constant temperature,
= crV, where p1 and prare the initial and final pressures respectively, t
: ,. and Vrare the initial and finalvolumes respectively. When agraph of V
r Figure 9.L2
Pressure vs.
:,i n - st V is plotted, the result is a smooth curve (Figure 9.11). However, if p t/volume graph of a gas at
1 constant tem peratu re
: ::.:d against!, a straight line is obtained (Figure 9.72).
Kinetic Model of Matter

*'
 coloured
water droplet Volume-temperature tV-D relationship of a gas
thermometer How does the volume of a gas vary with temperature if the gas pressure :
kept constant? A simple experiment can be set up (Figure 9.13) to stu:
capillary tube
this relationship.
insulator
ln this experiment, the gas in the flask is heated. You will observe that =:
the temperature in the flask increases, the coloured water droplet mo',:-:
up the capillary tube. This means that the volume of gas in the flast' :
increasing. Why does this happen? The kinetic model of gases can expia
-

gas this Phenomenon'

heat from !-<Using the kinetic model of gases, a rise in the

the hands is temperature of the gas causes an increase in the
transferred average speed of the gas molecules.
to the gas .. :

2' The heated gas molecules collide more vigorously anc

, t, more frequenttywith the inner surface of the flask.

r Figure 9.13 Experimental Gas pressure increases, and when it exceeds atmospheric
set-up to study the relationshiP pressure a net upward force acts on the coloured wate'
between the temperature and
volume of a gas
droplet, pushing it upwards.

As the coloured water droplet moves upwards, the volume of

the gas increases, causing the gas pressure to decrease. The
coloured water droplet will stop at the point where the gas
pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure.

ln general, a gas expands when it is heated.

atmospheric
pressu re
Volume/m3 piston
free to
atmospheric move
pressu re

+> ,Jr'*'"
r'*{'c
.l\'. -

gas under I
gas expands
atmospheric itf .ri
d!

pressu re 11.'
ii.

0 Tem peratu re /K
^r Figure 9.L4 Volume IC
vs. temperature graph of a [,$
gas at constant pressure
a For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, increasing its
temperature results in a proportionate increase in its volume.
Ghapter 9
 I
il
Ir
ii
ii

ilryrcrk€d Cxample 9.e

::-ple of gas is contained in a cylinder that is closed by a piston (Figure 9.15). The pressure
--: gas can be increased, without a change in the temperature of the gas, by slowly moving the
:::. to the right to compress the gas into a smaller volume (Figure 9.16).
r - molecular terms, explain why the pressure of the gas is greater after compression.
! -'re gas in the cylinder in Figure 9.15 can also have its pressure raised by keeping the piston
'red and heatingthe cylinder. ln molecularterms, explain whythe pressure of the gas rises
:s it is heated.
piston

gas

cyl i nde r

r, Figure 9,15 r, Figure 9.16

5olution
ar {s the gas is compressed, the number of gas molecules per unit volume increases, and hence
--re frequency of collisions of the gas molecules with the walls increases. This causes the
lcrease in pressure of the gas.
!r {eating increases the average kinetic energy of the gas molecules in the cylinder. The gas
^tolecules collide with the walls at a higher frequency and with larger average force. This leads
:o an increase in pressure.

L 9u=
pffiUre is due to the eolfision, o'f ,$as, .rnolecules'with the,watt$ of From what you have
the container. learnt so far, have you
L Using the kinetic model of gases, we can explain why the found the answers to
(a) pressure p of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its Let's Explore (c)?
te,mpe..ratufe7iititsv'olumeVi.s:c0nStant;.
(b) pressure p of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its
VolurrreV,ifitstem]perratUrer.isConstant;.:
(c) volume V of a flxedrfiEs,s.of gas is direc-tly proportional to its
terirrperatufe f, if its pr.essutis:p is constant.

&
'(t
Using the kinetic model of matter, explain
(a) how the air in a container exerts pressure on the walls of the
conta ine r;
(b) why the pressure in a car tyre increases as more air is pumped into
the tyre at constant temperature.
2. lf a gas is heated in a cylinder such that the pressure of the gas remains
constant, describe any change in the volume of the gas using the kinetic
model of matter.
3. Sketch the graph of pVvs. p when the temperature of the gas is constant.

Kinetic Modet of Matter

ffi
 evidence
provided

explains the
properties of

Gas pressure
is due to the collision of gas particles with
the walls of the container.

is directly is inversely
proportional to proportional to

Temperature Volume
' is directly
proportional to

-
-, l.: ',vhether each of the following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the
=, art section(s) if you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer.

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Solids have fixed shapes and volumes, liquids have fixed volumes but not fixed
ai 9.1_
e?l9l 99 l9l l?yg lti* _ll_?!_gl,g'__y9lyT9-l
'h?9_1-'_:_?"1"9
Smoke particles suspended in air demonstrate Brownian motion as the particles
f, r 9.2
I
li*-Yg9l9 "11"i!"i:
'o
-
An increase in temperature results in an increase in the average kinetic energy of 9.2
ct
'
h:.T 1 9 ?_* :: r "11 9i 9i9"*Ti1:T jt ll_"_r g
9 19-:19:*T:9? :t 9:*_ *.e:3
Gas molecules collide with the wall of their container, and therefore exert
dr 9.3
pressure on the wall of the container.
I

(i)
I
tl

lf the volume of a fixed mass of gas is kept constant, heating it will result I
i

in an increased gas pressure. This is because the gas molecules will collide !
9.3
more vigorously with the walls at a greater frequency. i
t,.,."."..,,.,.....

e ) (ii) Decreasing the temperature of a fixed mass of gas without changing i

I
I
9.3
pressure will result in a decrease in the volume of the gas. i
il
!l
t:

i:
i
(iii) The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature is i
I

9.3
J
,i

proportlonal" it3. vol*.t1*"": t

t_o_
:: ..

A dented ping-pong ball can be by 9.3

i,',Ers are available at the back of the book.

I : ction A: MTnxfit$pfim-Shm$cm Qusstioms 2. Which of the following statements about

Brownian motion is correct?
-,f W does the motion of liquid molecules differ from
-.^ ^+
" dL of gas molecules?
A lt applies to gases only.
B ln a Brownian motion experiment, the
Liquid molecules Gas molecules smoke particles in air can be observed to
A Vibrate about their Vibrate randomly dance in a regular, predictable fashion.
mean positions C In a Brownian motion experiment, the
B Vibrate about their Vibrate energetically smoke particles in air will slow down if the
mean positions air temperature is decreased.
c Rotate and move Vibrate randomly D The motion of smoke particles in air is
random ly and energetically
due to the smoke particles colliding with
D Rotate and move Move randomly at
random ly high speeds one another.

Kinetic Model of Matter

q
3. According to the kinetic model of matter, the Section ts: Structured Questions
pressure exerted by a gas is caused by the
7-. (a) What is seen moving in a Brownian motion
experiment?
A collision of gas molecules with one another at
(b) Why is a microscope necessary to observe
high speeds
Brownian motion?
B bombardment of the gas molecules on the
(c) Explain how Brownian motion provides
walls of the container
evidence for the kinetic model of matter.
C random motion of the gas molecules
D gas molecules being far apart from one another
2. Figure 9 .I7 is a diagram of a bicycle pump.

4. A fixed mass of gas is heated while being kept at

handle oiled leather washer
constant volume. How do the followtng properties of
the gas molecules change?
trapped
Average Frequency of Average
speed collisions distance apart
A lncreases lncreases Decreases shaft barrel
oarrel
B lncreases lncreases U nchanged r Figurc 9.17
c lncreases U nchanged U nchanged When the nozzle of the pump is blocked and the
D U nchanged lncreases lncreases handle is slowly pushed to the right, the
temperature of the air in the barrel remains
5. A gas is heated in a sealed container of constant constant, while the pressure of the air rises.
volume. Which of the following will not increase? (a) ln terms of molecular motion, explain
A The average speed of the molecules how the trapped air creates pressure on
B The pressure of the gas the washer. (lgnore any leakage past the
C The number of molecules per unit volume washer.)
D The temperature of the gas (b) Why does the pressure of the air in the
barrel increase when the handle is slowly
(i. At room temperature, a flask is filled with air and pushed in?
plugged tightly with a stopper. The flask is then
placed in melting ice. Assume there is negligible
change in the flask size. Section C: FFee-Response Questions
7-. (a) Describe the motion of molecules in the
solid, liquid and gaseous states.

A-]
[yg
Afme,ng ce
(b)

(c)
State the relative strengths of the
intermolecular forces in the three states
of matter.
How do the above two characteristics, i.e.
motion of molecules and intermolecular
forces, affect the shapes and volumes of
ln the flask, what happens to the pressure of the air solids, liquids and gases?
and the speed of the air molecules?
Pressure Speed of molecules 2. An inflated car tyre is considered to have a
constant volume regardless of any changes in
A Decreases Increases
the temperature or pressure of the air in the tyre.
B Increases lncreases
Use the kinetic theory of gases to answer the
C Decreases Decreases
following questions.
D lncreases Decreases
(a) What causes the air pressure within
7. the tyre?
When a gas of fixed mass is heated under constant
pressu re , the
(b) Why is the pressure equal at all points on
I volume of the gas increases the inner wall of the lyre?
(c) Explain what happens to the pressure
2 average speed of the gas molecules increases exerted by the air in the tyre if
3 average distance between the gas molecules (i) the temperature of the air in the tyre
increases
increases;
A 1 only B 2 only
(ii) more air is pumped into the tyre while
C 2and3 D 1-,2and3 the temperature is kept constant.

Wwwkfumwk
Ghapter 9
Worksheet