ME-311

Fundamentals of Machine Design

Introduction

Prof A P Harsha
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology (BHU)
E-mail : apharsha.mec@itbhu.ac.in
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To design is either to formulate a plan for the satisfaction of a
specified need or to solve a specific problem.

If the plan results in the creation of something having a physical

reality, then the product must be functional, safe, reliable,
competitive, usable, manufacturable, and marketable.

Design is an innovative and highly iterative process. It is also a

decision-making process.

Design is a communication-intensive activity in which both words

and pictures are used, and written and oral forms are employed.
Engineers have to communicate effectively and work with people of
many disciplines.
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Classification of Design
• Clothing Design
• Interior Design
• Highway Design
• Landscape Design
• Building Design
• Ship Design
• Bridge Design
• Bridge Design
• Computer Aided Design
• Heating System design
• Machine Design
• Engineering Design
• Process Design

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• Mechanical design is a complex process, requiring many skills.

• Extensive relationships need to be subdivided into a series of

simple tasks.

• The complexity of the process requires a sequence in which ideas

are introduced and iterated.

• Design is an iterative process with many interactive phases.

• Many resources exist to support the designer, including many

sources of information and an abundance of computational design
tools.

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Engineering tools such as
✔ Mathematics,
✔ Statistics,
✔ Computers,
✔ Graphics, and languages are combined to produce a product
and
it should be
• Functional
• Safe,
• Reliable,
• Competitive,
• Usable,
• Manufacturable, and marketable
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 Mechanical Engineering Design
• Design means different things to different people
What is Machine Design?
Creation of new and better machines AND
Improving existing ones
So that it is economical in the cost of
production and operation.
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• A mechanical system is a synergistic
collection of machine elements.
• It is synergistic because as a design it
represents an idea or concept greater than
the sum of the individual parts.
• For example, a mechanical clock, although
merely a collection of gears, springs, and
cams, also represents the physical
realization of a time-measuring device.
• Mechanical system design requires
considerable flexibility and creativity to
obtain good solutions.
ME 311_Introduction 6
What is the basic knowledge required for Machine Design?

• Mathematics

• Engineering Mechanics • Mechanics of Machines

• Mechanics of Materials
• Strength of Materials • Fluid Mechanics &
Thermodynamics
• Workshop Processes

• Engineering Drawing

• Computing

• Finite Element Analysis, Computational Fluid Dynamics etc

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How a design is born Market
survey

Aesthetic
marketabili
ty
Requireme Ease of
nt handling

Safety
Availability of
Creation FUNDS
Economical
Model Available
(Rough Recyclabilit
idea)
material y
Manufacturin
g
resources

Force/stres Material/s
Analysis Sizes
s used

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 Phases and Interactions of the Design Process

• What is the design process?

• How does it begin?

• Does the engineer simply sit down at a desk with a blank sheet of
paper and jot down some ideas?

• What happens next?

• What factors influence or control the decisions that have to be

made? Finally, how does the design process end?

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 The phases in design

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Identification of need generally starts the design process.
• the need often constitute a highly creative act

The definition of problem is more specific and must include all the
specifications for the object that is to be designed.

• The specifications are the input and output quantities, the characteristics
and dimensions of the space the object must occupy, and all the limitations
on these quantities.
• Specified characteristics can include
• Specifications define the cost the speeds, feeds, temperature
• number to be manufactured, limitations, maximum range, expected
• the expected life,
• the range,
variations in the variables, dimensional
• the operating temperature, and and weight limitations, etc.
• the reliability.

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The synthesis of a scheme connecting possible system elements is
sometimes called the invention of the concept or concept design.
• Various schemes must be proposed, investigated, and quantified in
terms of established metrics.

• Analyses must be performed to assess whether the system

performance is satisfactory or better, and, if satisfactory, just how
well it will perform.

• System schemes that do not survive analysis are revised,

improved, or discarded.

• Synthesis and analysis and optimization are intimately and

iteratively related.
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 • Evaluation is a significant phase of the total design process.
• Evaluation is the final proof of a successful design and usually involves the
testing of a prototype in the laboratory.
• Here we wish to discover if the design really satisfies the needs.

✔ Is it reliable?
✔ Will it compete successfully with similar products?
✔ Is it economical to manufacture and to use?
✔ Is it easily maintained and adjusted?
✔ Can a profit be made from its sale or use?
✔ How likely is it to result in product-liability lawsuits?
✔ And is insurance easily and cheaply obtained?
✔ Is it likely that recalls will be needed to replace defective parts or systems?
The project designer or design team will need to address - engineering and
non-engineering questions.
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 Presentation
• Communicating the design to others is the
final, vital presentation step in the design
process.

• Many great designs, inventions, and creative

works have been lost to posterity simply
because the originators were unable or
unwilling to properly explain their
accomplishments to others.

• Presentation is a selling job. The engineer,

when presenting a new solution to
administrative, management, or supervisory
persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to
them that their solution is a better one.
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 Design Considerations

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 Design Tools and Resources

Computational Tools
• Computer-aided design (CAD) software
• AutoCAD, CadKey, I-Deas, Unigraphics, Solid Works, and ProEngineer,
Computer-aided engineering(CAE)
• Finite-element analysis (FEA)
• Algor, ANSYS, and MSC/NASTRAN
• computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
• spreadsheet software (e.g., Excel, Lotus, and Quattro-Pro), and
• mathematical solvers (e.g., Maple, MathCad, MATLAB, Mathematica,
and TKsolver).

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Acquiring Technical Information
Libraries (community, university, and private)
• Engineering dictionaries and encyclopedias, textbooks, monographs, handbooks,
indexing and abstract services, journals, translations, technical reports, patents, and
business sources/brochures/catalogs.
Government sources
• National Technical Information Service; and National Institute for Standards and
Technology.
Professional societies
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Society of Manufacturing Engineers,
Society of Automotive Engineers, American Society for Testing and Materials, and
American Welding Society.
Commercial vendors
• Catalogs, technical literature, test data, samples, and cost information.
Internet
• The computer network gateway to websites associated with most of the categories listed
above.

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 working on a design problem
• Understand the problem

• Identify the knowns

• Identify the unknowns and formulate the

solution strategy

• State all assumptions and decisions

• Analyze the problem

• Evaluate your solution

• Present your solution.

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 Product
Development
Approaches

Approaches to product development. (a) Classic

approach, with large design iterations typical of the
over-the-wall engineering approach. Source: Adapted
from Kalpakjian and Schmid [2003]. (b) A more
modern approach, showing a main design flow with
minor iterations representing concurrent engineering
inputs. Source: Adapted from Pugh [1996].

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 Standards and Codes
• A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes
intended to achieve uniformity, efficiency, and a specified quality.
• One of the important purposes of a standard is to limit the multitude of
variations that can arise from the arbitrary creation of a part, material, or
process.

• A code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture, and

construction of something.
• The purpose of a code is to achieve a specified degree of safety, efficiency,
and performance or quality. It is important to observe that safety codes do
not imply absolute safety. In fact, absolute safety is impossible to obtain.
It could be about making a product, managing a process, delivering a service or supplying
materials – standards cover a huge range of activities.

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Design Standards and Codes (ASTM Standards)

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The organizations of interest to mechanical engineers are:

Aluminum Association (AA) ASM International

American Bearing Manufacturers Association
(ABMA)
American Gear Manufacturers Association
(AGMA)
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE)
American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME)
American Society of Testing and Materials
(ASTM)
American Welding Society (AWS)
British Standards Institution (BSI)
Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFI)
Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE)
Institution of Mechanical Engineers
(IMechE)
International Bureau of Weights and
Measures (BIPM)
International Federation of Robotics (IFR)
International Standards Organization
(ISO)
National Association of Power Engineers
(NAPE)
National Institute for Standards and
Technology (NIST)
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

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 Uncertainty
Uncertainties in machinery design exists. Examples of
uncertainties concerning stress and strength include
• Composition of material and the effect of variation on
properties.
• Variations in properties from place to place within a bar of
stock.
• Effect of processing locally, or nearby, on properties.
• Effect of nearby assemblies such as weldments and shrink fits
on stress conditions.
• Effect of thermomechanical treatment on properties.
• Intensity and distribution of loading.
• Validity of mathematical models used to represent reality.
• Intensity of stress concentrations.
• Influence of time on strength and geometry.
• Effect of corrosion.
• Effect of wear.
• Uncertainty as to the length of any list of uncertainties.

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The safety factor or Factor of Safety can be expressed as

where σall is the allowable normal

stress and σd is the design normal
stress. If ns > 1, the design is adequate.
The larger ns, the safer the design. If ns
< 1, the design may be inadequate and
redesign may be necessary.
Safety factor characteristics D
and E.

nsx = safety factor involving

characteristics A, B, and C
nsy = safety factor involving
Safety factor characteristics A, B, characteristics D and E
and C.

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FACTOR OF SAFETY
The factor of safety (FOS) is defined as (ns)

For ductile materials, the allowable design stress σd is obtained by the following relationship:

For brittle material

For ductile material
Yield strength Ultimate strength

FOS

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 Allowable Stress values

The above allowable stress values are required to be used while calculating
factor of safety or safety factor.

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Load classification
• Static load — Load is gradually applied and equilibrium is reached in a
relatively short time. The structure experiences no dynamic effects.

• Sustained load—Load, such as the weight of a structure, is constant

over a long time.
• Impact load — Load is rapidly applied. An impact load is usually
attributed to an energy imparted to a system.
• Cyclic load — Load can vary and even reverse its direction and has a
characteristic period with respect to time.

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Load classification

• Concentrated load
✔ Nonconformal surfaces
• Some examples of non-conformal surfaces are mating
gear teeth, cams and followers, and rolling-element
bearings

• Distributed load
✔ Conformal surfaces
Example is Journal
bearings

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 Different types of loading with respect
to its applications

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 Load Classification

Load classified as to location and method of application. (a) Normal,

tensile; (b) normal, compressive; (c) shear; (d) bending; (e) torsion; (f)
combined.
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 Circular Bar and Normal Stress
Normal stress:

Normal strain:

Deformation:

Circular bar with tensile load applied. Spring rate:

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 Twisting of Bar and Shear
Shear stress:

Angle of twist:

Angular spring rate:

Power transfer:
(a)Ductile Steel (b)Brittle Cast Iron
Twisting of member due to applied torque.

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 Torsional Shearing Stress, τ

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 Bending
Bending stress distribution:

Maximum bending stress:

Radius of curvature:

Bar made of elastic material to illustrate

effect of applied bending moment. (a)
Undeformed bar; (b) deformed bar.

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Shearing stress is also known as tangential stress. Forces parallel to the area
resisting the force cause shearing stress. It differs to tensile and compressive stresses,
which are caused by forces perpendicular to the area on which they act.

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 Single Shear Double Shear

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 1- Shearing stress failure in rivets
2- Tension stress failure in plate.
3- Bearing stress failure between plate and
rivet.
4- Shearing stress failure in plate.

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 Punching Hole in steel plate

Average Shear Stress

As = Shear area; πdt
V = Shear force

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What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate that
is 25 mm thick? The shear strength is 350 MPa.
The resisting area is the shaded area along the perimeter and
the shear force V is equal to the punching force P.

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Bearing stress is the contact pressure between the separate bodies. It differs
from compressive stress, as it is an internal stress caused by compressive forces.

Bearing Force, Pb= Fb

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Bearing Stress in bolted Connections
• Bolts, rivets, and pins create stresses on
the points of contact or bearing surfaces
of the members they connect.

• The resultant of the force distribution on

the surface is equal and opposite to the
force exerted on the pin.

• Corresponding average force intensity is

called the bearing stress,

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 Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used in the clevis shown in
Figure if P = 400 kN. The shearing strength of the bolt is 300 MPa.

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A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm must carry a tensile load of 400
kN. Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to 120 MN/m 2.

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A 20-mm-diameter rivet joins the plates that are each 110 mm wide.
The allowable stresses are 120 MPa for bearing in the plate material
and 60 MPa for shearing of rivet. Determine (a) the minimum
thickness of each plate; and (b) the largest average tensile stress in
the plates.

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What is the minimum diameter of a solid steel shaft that will not twist
through more than 3° in a 6-m length when subjected to a torque of 12
kN·m? What maximum shearing stress is developed? Use G = 83 GPa.

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 A high strength steel band saw, 20 mm wide by 0.80 mm thick, runs over pulleys 600
mm in diameter. What maximum flexural stress is developed? What minimum
diameter pulleys can be used without exceeding a flexural stress of 400 MPa? Assume
E = 200 GPa.

Flexural stress developed: Minimum diameter of pulley:

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 Conversion Factors
SI Units and Prefixes

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