MINERAL PROCESSING EQUIPMENT

(Prepared by: K. P.Ajit, AP, Deptt. of MME)

WHAT CONSTITUTES MINERAL BENEFICIATION?

Ore is an aggregate of minerals and contains valuable and gangue minerals. The mineral
beneficiation involves separation of gangue minerals from ore. It has three steps

 Liberation
 Separation
 Concentration

1) Liberation of valuable mineral by size reduction.

2) Separation of coarse and fine particles.

3) Concentration to separate the gangue minerals to increase the metal grade.

If the first step is not done correctly, the second step will be incomplete.

Fig. 1. A simplified Flow Chart for Ore Dressing

COMMINUTION

When raw materials are processed in solid state, particle size reduction is essential. The raw ore
may be as big as 3 m in size. Minerals should be liberated before concentration. This liberation
accomplished by comminution.

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 1

Comminution is one of the primary operations in mineral dressing; takes place in a sequence of
crushing and grinding processes.

COMMINUTION - The whole operation of reducing the raw ore to the size required for
mechanical separation or metallurgical processing. It is used to

- Create particles in a certain size and shape,

- Increase the surface area available for next process
- Liberate valuable minerals held within particles.

Comminution is further divided into two sections:

1. Crushing
2. Grinding

OBJECTIVES OF COMMINUTION:
 Reduction of large lumps into smaller sizes.
 Production of solids of desired size ranges.
 Breaking apart valuable minerals from gangue (liberation of valuables).
 Convenience of handling the ore and its transportation.
 Preparation of feed material for different ore processing techniques (Eg: - granular
material for gravity separation, fine particles for froth flotation etc.).

Difference between crushing and grinding-

 Crushing (dry) - Size reduction occurs preferentially on large fragments.
 Grinding (wet) - Size reduction is less selective- all pieces get ground to fine particles.

Steps in Comminution -

S. No Process Size reduction

1. Explosive shattering Infinite size to 1 m

2. Primary crushing 1m – 100 mm

3. Secondary crushing 100 mm -10 mm

4. Coarse grinding 10 mm - 1 mm

5. Fine grinding 1 mm- 100 microns

5. Very fine grinding 100 microns – 10 microns

6. Superfine grinding 10 microns- 1 micron

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 2

Size reduction/Comminution Process:
 Extremely energy-intensive.
 5 % of all electricity generated is used in size reduction.
 Efficiency of size reduction: 1 %.

Blasting can be described as the first stage of comminution carried out in the mine site in order to
remove ores from their natural beds.

ENERGY IN COMMINUTION:

 Energy utilisation in comminution = (Energy theoretically needed for a particular degree

of size reduction)/ (Energy actually consumed)

Where, Actual energy consumed

= power input to the mill

= energy needed to move the working parts with suitable load + energy needed to overcome
friction + energy needed to grind away the metal from the working face + energy needed for size
reduction.

A major part of the energy is lost as HEAT.

 If the particles of the ore has SINGLE MINERAL only – FREE PARTICLES.

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 3

  If they have two or more minerals- LOCKED PARTICLES.

Normally the ore consists of at least two minerals which are intimately interlocked.

DEGREE OF LIBERATION – of a certain mineral is the percentage of that mineral occurring

as FREE PARTICLES w.r.t. the total of the mineral occurring in the FREE and LOCKED forms.

DEGREE OF LOCKING - of a mineral is the percentage occurring in LOCKED PARTICLES

w.r.t. the total occurring in the FREE and LOCKED forms.

Bond’s law (1952): Energy required is based on geometry of a crack expansion as it opens up.
Bond has developed an equation which is based on the theory that the work input is proportional
to the new crack tip length produced in particle breakage, and equals the work represented by the
product minus that represented by the feed. The total work input (represented by a given weight
of crushed or ground product) is inversely proportional to the square root of the diameter of the
product particles.

Kb = Bond's Constant and fc = crushing strength of the material

Fracture of the ore lump occurs by the extension of existing cracks.

Such cracks lower the activation energy of fracture.

LIMITATIONS OF COMMINUTION LAWS:

 The size and shape which can be determined by these methods is not very perfect.

It is determined on the average method. The methods discussed above can’t measure the accurate
area of the particles. So results may not be accurate.

 It is very difficult to determine accurate area of the finer particles by these methods.

There is no suitable method available for the determining the area of the fine particles.

 Even if the above conditions are determined, the surface areas of cracks present in big
particles would remain unaccounted.

If all the above conditions are considered then the area of the cracks which are present in the
particles can’t be calculated. It is the major drawbacks of the calculating the area of the particle
surface.

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 4

Reduction ratio (RR) – Average diameter of the feed / average
diameter of the product.

In primary crushers, RR = Gape / Set.

Gape - Size of the receiving opening (max size acceptable in the

machine).

Set - Size of discharging opening (max. size passing through the

discharge end).

Normal RR - 3-7 (for coarse crushing), - as high as 100 (for fine

grinding). Energy requirement increases with RR.

 Free crushing - Individual particles are crushed freely. The crushed product is removed from
the crushing zone quickly. It avoids formation of excessive amounts of ‘fines’ (the number of
contacts are less, hence less crushing).

 Choke feeding - It is the reverse of free crushing. The feed hopper of the crusher is always
full (choked). It prevents complete discharge of the crushed products. It increases the amount
of ‘fines’. Preferred when process becomes more economical (one or more intermediate
crushing stages can be dispensed with).

 Closed / Open circuit operation - Oversized material is returned to the size reduction unit
for further reduction after sizing. Closed circuit operation is more economical and gives more
uniform product. If no material is returned- open circuit.

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 5

 Crushing:

Primary Secondary Crushing

Jaw crushers & Gyratory crushers Cone crusher & Roll crusher

The feed size varies from 3” to 30” The feed size varies from 1.5” to 6”

CRUSHING THEORIES - Crystal structure is bound together by its inter-atomic forces of

attraction. Disruption of these bonds needs stress = theoretical strength of the crystal. When the
applied tensile load exceeds the elastic limit, a flaw (defect) is produced in the crystal. The stress
which the crystal can withstand depends on the length of the crack.

σ ~ √ length of crack GRIFFITH’S LAW

i.e., the product of the square root of the flaw length (a) and the stress at fracture (σf) was nearly
constant, which is expressed by the equation:

i.e. fracture occurs at a much lower stress loading in the presence of a crack. Once sufficient
energy is given, the crack propagates very fast (5000 m/s).

Most ROM (run of mines) ores have such fine cracks. So crack propagation becomes very easy
at lower crushing loads. There is a critical value for the crack length at any particular level of
stress. Now, the increased stress level at the crack tip is sufficient to break the atomic bond at
that point. Such rupture of the bond will increase the crack length. It increases the stress
concentration and causes a rapid propagation of the crack through the matrix. This leads to final
fracture. When fracture occurs, some of the stored energy is transformed into free surface energy
(the potential energy of atoms at the newly produced surfaces).

REDUCTION RATIO IN CRUSHING - for comparing the performance of various crushing

machine - Max. size of the particles in the Feed / Max. size of particles in the product.

Crushing occurs due to one or a mixture of the disruptive forces viz. Compression, Tension,
Shear, Torsion, Impact, Shatter.

MECHANISM OF CRUSHING - COMPRESSION /SHEAR. Crushing results from stresses

that are applied to the particles to be crushed. Crushing is done by a moving part, working
against a stationary / another moving part. The stresses setup strains within the particle. When
the strain exceeds elastic limit, the lump fractures along principle shear stresses into large and
fine particles. If the crushing force is not sufficient, no crushing occurs. The material may
deform. THAT IS THE REASON TO USE RUGGED, MASSIVE CRUSHERS IN MINERAL
DRESSING.

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 6

 The best method to cause rapture in
solid materials is the application of
shearing loads. The The SIZE REDUCERS AS CRUSHERS USE COMPRESSION, SHEAR
OR BOTH AS FRACTURING FORCES.

Primary crushers – It is of two types namely; Jaw crushers and Gyratory crusher

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 7

PRIMARY CRUSHING - Reduction of ore = as mined size ~1m to ~ 100 mm size. The objects
of crushing are 1) size reduction 2) production of a minimum amount of fines. Primary crushing
is done on dry material.

The basic equipments for primary crushing- 1) Jaw crushers. 2) Gyratory crushers. 3) Roll
crushers.

JAW CRUSHER- It has two crushing faces - JAWS. The jaws are made of cast steel. They are
fitted with replaceable liners made of manganese steel or Ni-hard (a Ni-Cr alloyed cast iron).
They are mounted on a rigid frame. One jaw is stationary, the other
is movable. It moves towards and away from the stationary jaw by
a small throw. The feed ore is squeezed till it breaks. The
fragments move down to a narrow part of the wedge. They get
squeezed repeatedly. The final products escape through the narrow
gap at the bottom. Jaw crushers are classified based on

1) the point of minimum amplitude of motion on the moving face,

2) the way of transmitting the movement to the immovable face.

BLAKE JAW CRUSHER (1858) - Very large in size. The movable jaw is hinged at the top-
the greatest amplitude of motion is at the bottom of the crushing face. The parts are:
1. Cast steel frame,

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 8

2. Cast steel jaws with replaceable Hadfield steel (13wt% Mn) linings,
3. The movable jaw is pivoted at the top and operated by the eccentric, Pitman and toggles.
4. Angle between jaws- 20o.

The pit man is

nearly vertical and the toggles nearly horizontal. One of the toggles is mounted in steel bearings
at one end of the frame, the other end on the pitman. One end of the other toggle is set in steel
bearings on the back of the movable jaw and the other end on the pitman. The rotation of the
drive shaft causes an up-and – down translation of the pitman. This results in an increase and
decrease of the distance between the back of the movable jaw and the frame. The movable jaw is
pressed against the toggles by tension rods and springs. CRUSHING IS EFFECTED ONLY
WHEN THE MOVABLE JAW MOVES TOWARD THE FIXED JAW. ON ITS BACKWARD
MOVEMENT, THE CRUSHED PRODUCT GETS DISCHARGED.

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 9

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE OPERATION OF A BLAKE JAW CRUSHER –

1. The reduction ratio (Gape / Set)

2. Speed and amplitude of strokes and movable jaw.
3. Size distribution of feed.
4. Crushing properties of ore.

CAPACITY OF A JAW CRUSHER –

T (Tones/ hr) = 3.75 LS

Where, L- Length of feed opening (cm), S- Length of set opening (cm).

Energy requirements of a jaw crusher depend on Size of the feed, Size of the product, Capacity
of the crusher, Characteristics of the ore, Percentage idling time.

TELSMITH JAW CRUSHER - It is similar to the Blake Jaw Crusher w.r.t. the motion of the
movable jaw. It differs from the Blake Jaw crusher in the way the motion is transmitted. The
motion is transmitted to the movable jaw directly from an eccentric on the main shaft. No toggles
/ pitman are used. The machine is very large in size.

DODGE JAW CRUSHER - Here the Jaw action is reverse to that of the Blake Jaw crusher.
Maximum crushing is given to the largest piece and minimum to the smallest. The fulcrum is at
the lower end of the movable jaw. Only a small variation of SET occurs on the advancing and
receding actions of the movable jaw. The jaw is operated through an eccentric (Crusher has
fewer parts)
Advantage- constant discharge opening. More uniform product size.
Disadvantage- stresses are uneven. Used mainly for laboratory applications.

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 10

GYRATORY CRUSHER - The crusher has two vertical, truncated conical shells. The outer
shell has its apex pointing down. It is stationary. The inner shell has its apex pointing up. The
inner shell (the crushing element) is made to gyrate - It alternately recedes from and approaches
all the points on the periphery of the outer shell. Tangential forces and squeezing forces crush
the material. The particles rub against each other- fines too are produced.
There are three types of Gyratory crushers-

a. Suspended spindle type

b. Supported (fixed) spindle type (It is obsolete) and
c. Parallel pinch crushers.

They are the HIGHEST CAPACITY MACHINES.

SUSPENDED SPINDLE GYRATORY CRUSHER - It has

1) An outer frame. The crusher has two vertical, truncated
conical shells.
2) The frame has a wearing surface (concave).
3) The inner crushing head is mounted on a spindle.
5) The spindle gyrates from a fixed fulcrum at the point of
suspension.
6) This movement is effected by an eccentric sleeve.
7) The sleeve is attached to a gear and is rotated by a horizontal
shaft.

When the crusher is unloaded, the spindle is free to rotate.

When the feed is given, it is seized between the head and the
concave. Now rotation stops. Gyration is the ONLY motion that
causes the head to approach to and recede from the concave
surface. The pressure exerted on the material in the gap. The

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 11

feed is crushed and it passes through the crusher. The differential dilation in the cross section of
the machine. They work smoothly and continuously. Larger pieces (~ 2 m) can be crushed to
finer sizes (~ 30 cm). Capacity ~ 5000 T / hr.

PARALLEL PINCH CRUSHER - It is different from the suspended spindle gyratory Crusher.
It does not make an acute cone with the apex during the gyratory motion of the crushing head. It
makes a cylindrical motion. The extent of the force exerted on the feed material is same at all
points along the faces of the crushing head.

 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GYRATORY CRUSHER:

 Gyratory crushers are available for the coarsest crushing.
 Capacity is much higher
 It crushes continuously.

 CHARACTERISTICS OF JAW & GYRATORY CRUSHER:

 Example Question - Which of the two following crushers we should choose for small
capacity? Jaw Crusher or Gyratory crusher. And, Why?

Ans: Jaw crusher is the better choice because of:

1-Jaw crusher can take larger size than gyratory & is better adopted to handle clayey & spongy
rocks.

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 12

2-Gyartory crusher consumes more power for the same feed as produces more new surfaces than
jaw crusher.
3-Installation and housing costs will be more compared to jaw crushers.

Secondary crushers – They are of two types namely; Cone crusher and Roll crusher.
Secondary Crushing is done to reduce the ore size suitable for (wet) grinding. The feed size will
be less than 150 mm avg. diameter & product size – 12 mm av.dia. The crushing machine does
not have wider GAPE and very sturdy construction. Secondary crushers are arranged in series
with the primary crushers. Equipments- CONE CRUSHER, ROLL CRUSHER, GRAVITY
STAMPS etc.

Fig. Secondary crushers are arranged in series with the primary crushers.

Cone crushers - Cone crusher is

secondary crusher. The product of
cone crusher is the feed of grinding
mill. It works in closed circuit with
double deck screen. Product is more
uniform in size.

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 13

 Merits of cone crusher over gyratory -
1. Cone crusher moves faster than gyratory.
2. Rapid discharge of crushed material due to increase space from top to bottom.
3. Higher capacity and reduction ratio than gyratory crushers.
4. Work in closed circuit.

SYMON CONE CRUSHER (1920) – It is Similar in operation to a gyratory crusher. The parts
are – SPINDLE, INNER CONE (CRUSHING HEAD), INVERTED, TRUNCATED CONE
(HOPPER- BOWL).

It breaks rock by squeezing the rock between an

eccentrically gyrating spindle and the hopper. The
spindle is covered by a wear resistant mantle. It is
supported in a universal bearing below the crushing
head (and not suspended). , The enclosing concave
hopper is covered by a manganese bowl liner. Rock
enters the top of the cone crusher. It becomes wedged
and squeezed between the crushing head and the
hopper. Large pieces of ore are broken once. They fall
to a lower position (because they are now smaller)
where they are broken again. This process continues
until the pieces are small enough to fall through the
narrow opening at the bottom of the crusher.

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 14

Advantages-
 A cone crusher is suitable for crushing a variety of mid-hard and above mid-hard ores and
rocks.
 It has the advantage of reliable construction, high productivity, easy adjustment and lower
operational costs.
 Operated in OPEN CIRCUIT- Can be fitted with fine, medium, coarse or extra coarse
crushing cavities.

 Speedier crushing (450-700 rpm). Reduction ratio – 3:1- 7:1.

Roll crusher –
It is used for crushing relatively soft materials like
coal & salt. Capacity is high and reduction ratio is
moderate. It cannot produce fine product owing to the
spacing between adjacent teeth.

Angle of nip –

Where; C, D - Rolls, E - sphere of rocks and N – Angle of nip

ROLL CRUSHERS (1806) - It has two heavy cylinders. They are

mounted horizontally. They revolve in opposite directions. The rolls
are driven independently. The feed is NIPPED and PULLED through
the rolls by FRICTION. Steel liners are provided on the rolls to avoid
their damage wear. Reduction ratio is small – 3:1 – 4:1 (since very
large diameter rolls cannot be made). Only small proportions of fines
are produced. Better size uniformity is achieved.

SET-distance between rolls

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 15

The rolls draw the ore lumps into the gap and crush between the roller faces by NIPPING
(snatching up hastily). For a given dia. of the rolls and SET (distance between rolls), there is a
maximum size of ore lump that can be drawn in. In selecting the rolls, the sizes of the feed and
product should be known. This can be computed based on the friction between the material
crushed and the rolls.

ROLL CRUSHERS- ANGLE OF NIP - A spherical particle of dia‘d’ is positioned for

crushing between two rolls of dia ‘D’. Gravity is not considered. Forces acting on the particle –
at the point of contact with rolls 1) normal force Fn, 2) tangential force Ft - Resultant of the two
– Fr.

If Fr is negative w.r.t the horizontal (directed downward)- particle is nipped & crushed.
If Fr is positive, particle will ride in the trough formed by the rolls & will not be crushed.
Angle of Nip (‘a’) – below this the particle is seized. Above this the particle skids.
Set (‘S’) – distance apart of the roll faces at the point of their nearest approach.

Coefficient of friction; µ = Ft/Fn.

Vertical component of Ft = Ft cos (a/2).
Vertical component of Fn= Fn sin (a/2).

Under limiting conditions,

Fn sin (a/2) = Ft cos (a/2). i.e., tan a /2 = Ft/Fn.
Where, a= angle of nip.

Ft/Fn- Coeff. of friction φ .

CONDITION TO ENSURE NIP = tan (a/2) </= φ.

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 16

ROLL CRUSHERS- METHOD OF FEEDING - The feed should be spread evenly. Rolls can
be fed “Free” or “Choked”. Choke feeding is more efficient – higher crushing capacity. Reduced
wear of rolls (ore -on-ore grinding occurs).

CAPACITY OF ROLL CRUSHER:

C (tonnes / hr) = 60 V L S ρ
Where, V = Peripheral speed (m/min).
L = Width of the rolls (m).
S = Distance between rolls (m).
ρ = Sp. Gravity of ore.
C ~ 10-35%.

Theoretically when S=0, C=0. Actually, C will be larger as choked feeding occurs and roll faces
are held apart.

Another secondary crusher is toothed roll crusher. Other crushing machines are:
 Impact crusher.
 Gyra-disc crusher.
 Hammer mill.
 Gravity stamps.
 Squirrel cage disintegrator
 Disk crusher.

Comparison between roll & cone crushers:

1- Roll crusher production smaller of fines than cone crushers and smaller reduction ratio.
2- Rolls, because of their inability to yield high reduction ratio, have not been installed in
recent years.
3- Reduction ratio for rolls should not exceed similar to cone crushers.
4- Rolls remain to be the best device for intermediate crushing.

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 17

K.P.Ajit, Astt. Professor, Deptt. of MME,IIT( ISM), Dhanbad | 18
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