Review Resource

Types of Tissues
1. A tissue is a group of cells, usually with similar embryological origin, specialized for a particular function.
2. The tissues of the body are classified into four basic types: epithelial, connective, muscular, and nervous.
Cell Junctions
1. Cell junctions are points of contact between adjacent plasma membranes.
2. Tight junctions form fluid-tight seals between cells;
3. adherens junctions, desmosomes, and hemidesmosomes anchor cells to one another or to the basement
membrane; and
4. gap junctions permit electrical and chemical signals to pass between cells.
Comparison between Epithelial and Connective Tissues
1. Epithelial tissue has many cells tightly packed together and is avascular.
2. Connective tissue has relatively few cells with lots of extracellular material.
Epithelial Tissue
1. The subtypes of epithelial tissue include covering and lining epithelium and glandular epithelium.
2. Epithelial tissue consists mostly of cells with little extracellular material between adjacent plasma membranes.
The apical, lateral, and basal surfaces of epithelial cells are modified in various ways to carry out specific
functions. Epithelial tissue is arranged in sheets and attached to a basement membrane. Although epithelial tissue
is avascular, it has a nerve supply. The high rate of cell division gives epithelial tissue a high capacity for
renewal.
3. Epithelial layers can be simple, pseudostratified, or stratified. The cell shapes may be squamous (flat), cuboidal
(cubelike), columnar (rectangular), or transitional (variable). The subtypes of epithelial tissue include covering
and lining epithelium and glandular epithelium.
4. Simple squamous epithelium, a single layer of flat cells, is found in parts of the body where filtration or diffusion
is a priority process. Endothelium lines the heart and blood vessels. Mesothelium forms the serous membranes
that line the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and covers the organs within them.
5. Simple cuboidal epithelium, a single layer of cube-shaped cells that function in secretion and absorption , is
found covering the ovaries, in the kidneys and eyes, and lining some glandular ducts.
6. Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium, a single layer of nonciliated rectangular cells lines most of the
gastrointestinal tract and contains specialized cells that perform absorption and secrete mucus. Ciliated simple
columnar epithelium, a single layer of ciliated rectangular cells, is found in a few portions of the upper
respiratory tract, where it moves foreign particles trapped in mucus out of the respiratory tract. A ciliated variety
of pseudostratified columnar epithelium contains goblet cells and lines most of the upper respiratory tract; a
nonciliated variety has no goblet cells and lines ducts of many glands, the epididymis, and part of the male
urethra. The ciliated variety moves jmucus in the respiratory tract. The nonciliated variety functions in absorption
and protection.
7. Stratified epithelium consists of several layers of cells: Cells of the apical layer of stratified squamous epithelium
and several layers deep to it are flat (Table 4.1F); a nonkeratinized variety lines the mouth, and a keratinized
variety forms the epidermis. Cells at the apical layer of stratified cuboidal epithelium are cube-shaped found in
adult sweat glands and in a portion of the male urethra, stratified cuboidal epithelium protects and provides
limited secretion and absorption. Cells of the apical layer of stratified columnar epithelium have a columnar
shape; this type is found in a portion of the male urethra and in large excretory ducts of some glands, and
functions in protection and secretion.
8. Transitional epithelium consists of several layers of cells whose appearance varies with the degree of stretching.
It lines the urinary bladder.
 9. A gland is a single cell or a group of epithelial cells adapted for secretion. There are two types: endocrine and
exocrine. Endocrine glands secrete hormones into interstitial fluid and then into the blood.
Exocrine glands secrete into ducts or directly onto a free surface.
10. The structural classification of exocrine glands includes unicellular and multicellular glands. The functional
classification of exocrine glands includes merocrine, apocrine, and holocrine glands.
Connective Tissue
1. Connective tissue, one of the most abundant body tissues, consists of relatively few cells and an
abundant extracellular matrix of ground substance and protein fibers. It does not usually occur on free
surfaces; it usually has a nerve supply and it is usually highly vascular.
2. Cells in connective tissue are derived primarily from mesenchymal cells. Cell types include fibroblasts
(secrete extracellular matrix), macrophages (perform phagocytosis), plasma cells (secrete antibodies),
mast cells (produce histamine), adipocytes (store fat), and white blood cells (respond to infections).
3. The ground substance and fibers make up the extracellular matrix. The ground substance supports and
binds cells together, provides a medium for the exchange of materials, stores water, and actively influences cell functions.
Substances found in the ground substance include water and polysaccharides. Also
present are proteoglycans and adhesion proteins.
4. The fibers in the extracellular matrix provide strength and support and are of three types: (a) Collagen
fibers are found in large amounts in bone, tendons, and ligaments. (b) Elastic fibers are found in skin,
blood vessel walls, and lungs. (c) Reticular fibers are found around fat cells, nerve fibers, and skeletal
and smooth muscle cells.
5. Two major subclasses of connective tissue are embryonic (found in embryo and fetus) and mature
(present in the newborn). Embryonic connective tissues (see Table 4.3) are mesenchyme, which
forms almost all other connective tissues, and mucous connective tissue, found in the umbilical cord
of the fetus, where it gives support. Mature connective tissue differentiates from mesenchyme and
is subdivided into several types: loose or dense connective tissue, cartilage, bone tissue, and liquid
connective tissue.
6. Loose connective tissue includes areolar connective tissue, adipose tissue, and reticular connective tissue.
Areolar connective tissue consists of the three types of fibers (collagen, elastic, and reticular), several types
of cells, and a semifluid ground substance (Table 4.4A); it is found in the subcutaneous layer, in mucous
membranes, and around blood vessels, nerves, and body organs. Adipose tissue consists of adipocytes,
which store triglycerides (Table 4.4B); it is found in the subcutaneous layer, around organs, and in yellow
bone marrow. Brown adipose tissue (BAT) generates heat. Reticular connective tissue consists of reticular
fibers and reticular cells and is found in the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes (Table 4.4C).
7. Dense connective tissue includes dense regular, dense irregular, and elastic. Dense regular connective
tissue consists of parallel bundles of collagen fibers and fibroblasts (Table 4.5A); it forms tendons, most
ligaments, and aponeuroses. Dense irregular connective tissue usually consists of collagen fibers and a
few fibroblasts (Table 4.5B); it is found in fasciae, the dermis of skin, and membrane capsules around
organs. Elastic connective tissue consists of branching elastic fibers and fibroblasts (Table 4.5C) and is
found in the walls of large arteries, lungs, trachea, and bronchial tubes.
8. Cartilage contains chondrocytes and has a rubbery extracellular matrix (chondroitin sulfate) containing
collagen and elastic fibers. Hyaline cartilage, which consists of a gel-like ground substance and appears
bluish white in the body, is found in the embryonic skeleton, at the ends of bones, in the nose, and in
respiratory structures (Table 4.6A); it is flexible, allows movement, provides support, and is usually surrounded by a
perichondrium. Fibrocartilage is found in the pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, and
menisci (cartilage pads) of the knee joint (Table 4.6B); it contains chondrocytes scattered among clearly
visible bundles of collagen fibers. Elastic cartilage maintains the shape of organs such as the epiglottis
of the larynx, auditory (eustachian) tubes, and external ear (Table 4.6C); its chondrocytes are located
within a threadlike network of elastic fibers, and it has a perichondrium.
9. Bone or osseous tissue consists of an extracellular matrix of mineral salts and collagen fibers that contribute to the
hardness of bone, and osteocytes that are located in lacunae (Table 4.7). It supports and
protects the body, provides a surface area for muscle attachment, helps the body move, stores minerals,
and houses blood-forming tissue.
10. There are two types of liquid connective tissue: blood and lymph. Blood consists of blood plasma and
formed elements—red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets (Table 4.8); its cells transport oxygen
and carbon dioxide, carry on phagocytosis, participate in allergic reactions, provide immunity, and bring
about blood clotting. Lymph, the extracellular fluid that flows in lymphatic vessels, is a clear fluid similar
to blood plasma but with less protein.

Membranes
1. An epithelial membrane consists of an epithelial layer overlying a connective tissue layer. Types include
mucous, serous, and cutaneous membranes.
2. Mucous membranes line cavities that open to the exterior, such as the gastrointestinal tract.
3. Serous membranes line closed cavities (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum) and cover the organs in the
cavities. These membranes consist of parietal and visceral layers.
4. The cutaneous membrane is the skin. It covers the entire body and consists of a superficial epidermis
(epithelium) and a deep dermis (connective tissue).
5. Synovial membranes line joint cavities and consist of areolar connective tissue; they do not have an
epithelial layer.
Muscular Tissue
1. Muscular tissue consists of cells called muscle fibers or myocytes that are specialized for contraction.
It provides motion, maintenance of posture, heat production, and protection.
2. Skeletal muscle tissue is attached to bones and is striated and voluntary
3. The action of cardiac muscle tissue, which forms most of the heart wall and is striated, is involuntary
4. Smooth muscle tissue is found in the walls of hollow internal structures (blood vessels and viscera) and
is nonstriated and involuntary.

Nervous Tissue
1. The nervous system is composed of neurons (nerve cells) and neuroglia (protective and supporting cells)
2. Neurons respond to stimuli by converting the stimuli into electrical signals called nerve action potentials
(nerve impulses), and conducting nerve impulses to other cells.
3. Most neurons consist of a cell body and two types of processes: dendrites and axons.

Excitable Cells
1. Electrical excitability is the ability to respond to certain stimuli by producing electrical signals such as action
potentials.
Because neurons and muscle fibers exhibit electrical excitability, they are considered excitable cells.

Tissue Repair: Restoring Homeostasis

1. Tissue repair is the replacement of worn-out, damaged, or dead cells by healthy ones.
2. Stem cells may divide to replace lost or damaged cells.
3. If the injury is superficial, tissue repair involves parenchymal regeneration; if damage is extensive,
granulation tissue is involved.
4. Good nutrition and blood circulation are vital to tissue repair.

Aging and Tissues

1. Tissues heal faster and leave less obvious scars in the young than in the aged; surgery performed on
fetuses leaves no scars.
2. The extracellular components of tissues, such as collagen and elastic fibers, also change with age