HMH Science Dimensions - Biolog)

Biology
CONSULTING AUTHOR
Stephen Nowicki, Ph.D.
Dean and Vice Provost for Undergraduate Education

Bass Fellow and Professor
Departments of Biology, Psychology, and Neurobiology
Duke University
Durham, North Carolina
Steve Nowicki has taught at Duke since 1989, where he directed a complete
redesign of the introductory biology program. His research explores animal
communication and sexual selection from an integrative perspective that
includes a wide range of behavioral, ecological, developmental, genetic, and
evolutionary approaches. Nowicki’s research has been published in more than 95
articles in scientific journals, including Science, Nature, and the Proceedings of the
National Academy of Science. He also coauthored the book The Evolution of Animal
Communication: Reliability and Deception in Signaling Systems. In 2010 he was
elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
Acknowledgments
Cover Credits
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Pat/Shutterstock
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ii
REVIEWERS
ENGINEERING CONSULTANT
Cary I. Sneider, Ph.D.
Associate Research Professor
Portland State University
Portland, Oregon
PROGRAM ADVISORS
Elizabeth A. DeStasio, Ph.D. F. Daniel Vogt, Ph.D.
Raymond H. Herzog Professor Professor
of Science Department of Biological Sciences
Department of Biology State University of New York at
Lawrence University Plattsburgh
Appleton, Wisconsin Plattsburgh, New York
Paul S. Manos, Ph.D. Kim Withers, Ph.D.
Professor Assistant Professor
Department of Biology Department of Life Sciences
Duke University Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi
Durham, North Carolina Corpus Christi, Texas
CLASSROOM REVIEWERS
Scot F. Abel, PhD Bridget Gardea Steve J. Harrison
Science Curriculum Coordinator Science Teacher Specialist Continuous School Improvement
DC Everest School District Pomona Unified School District Director - Math, Science, Health &
Weston, Wisconsin Pomona, California Human Performance
Appleton Area School District
Stacey Balbach Anna George, PhD
Appleton, Wisconsin
Lead STEM Teacher Chemical Educator
Cuba City High School Vermillion, South Dakota Rebecca L Mackin
Cuba City, Wisconsin Science Teacher
Ryan Hainey
Encina Preparatory High School
Katie Clous High School Biological Science Teacher
Sacramento, California
Science Teacher La Canada High School
Lake City High School La Canada Flintridge, California Steve Markley
Lake City, Michigan Biology and Environmental Science
Teacher
El Camino Fundamental High School
Sacramento, California
iii
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WILL SPARK YOUR CURIOSITY
Where do you see yourself in
10 YEARS?
and prepare you for next year, college, a career, and life!
Biology
v
vi
Explore
Be a Scientist.
DO SCIENCE.
Have fun with biology and approach it as a real scientist would!
Gather
Evidence
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Design
Refine
Solutions
Test
Be an Engineer.
Strong problem solving skills will help you succeed.
SOLVE PROBLEMS.
vii
viii
Think
Critically
Be Inquisitive.
Overcome
Challenges
ASK QUESTIONS.
The solution starts with a question. What is your question?
Investigate
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Your Answer.
YOUR EVIDENCE.
HMH Science Dimensions puts you in charge of your own learning.
Work in
Teams
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Develop
Explanations
biosphere
biome
ecosystem
community
population
individual Defend Your

Answer
ix
YOUR Program
Tools to help you be successful

YOUR BOOK as you learn science:
• A brand-new and
innovative textbook SCIENCE AND
that will guide you ENGINEERING PRACTICES
Online Handbook
through your next
generation biology
CROSS-CUTTING
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curriculum, including CONCEPTS
your lab program Online Handbook
ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS

Online Handbook
THING EXPLAINER features that
Biology
MATH
explain complex science using Online Handbook
drawings and simple language.
INTERACTIVE ONLINE
STUDENT EDITION
• A complete online version
of your textbook enriched
with videos, interactivities,
animations, simulations,
and room to enter data,
draw, and store your work
x
Contents in Brief
UNIT 1 UNIT 6
Living Systems 2 The Structure and
1.1 Life in the Earth System 4 Function of DNA 256
1.2 Organisms: Cells to Body Systems 16 6.1 DNA Structure and Replication 258
1.3 Mechanisms of Homeostasis 32 6.2 Protein Synthesis 272
1.4 Bioengineering 48 6.3 Gene Expression and Regulation 286
UNIT 2 UNIT 7
Chemistry in Living Systems 70 Genetics and Heredity 302
2.1 Chemical Bonds and Reactions 72 7.1 Meiosis 304
2.2 Carbon-Based Molecules 90 7.2 Mendel and Heredity 316
7.3 Traits and Probability 328
UNIT 3
7.4 Mutations and Genetic Diversity 342
Matter and Energy 7.5 Genetic Engineering 356
in Living Systems 114
3.1 Photosynthesis 116 UNIT 8
3.2 Cellular Respiration 128 Evidence for Evolution 380

3.3 Modeling Matter and Energy 8.1 Lines of Evidence for Evolution 382
in Ecosystems 140 8.2 Theory of Natural Selection 396
3.4 Cycling of Matter and Energy
in Ecosystems 158 UNIT 9
Patterns of Evolution 416
UNIT 4
9.1 Evolution of Populations 418
Ecosystems: Stability
9.2 Changes in Species 434
and Change 180
9.3 Adaptive Value of Behavior 448
4.1 Population Dynamics 182
4.2 Ecosystem Dynamics 196 UNIT 10
Human Impacts
UNIT 5
on the Environment 468
Cells: Stability and Change 220
10.1 Human Population Growth
5.1 The Cell Cycle 222 and the Environment 470
5.2 Mitosis and Differentiation 234 10.2 Human Impacts on Biodiversity 486
10.3 Engineering Solutions to
Environmental Impacts 498
Contents xi
UNIT 1
Living Systems 2
1.1 Life in the Earth System 4
EXPLORATION 1 Systems and System Models 5
EXPLORATION 2 The Earth System 10
ENGINEERING Modeling a System 13
EVALUATE 14
1.2 Organisms: Cells to Body Systems 16

EXPLORATION 1 Interacting Systems in Organisms 17
EXPLORATION 2 The Cell System 24
GUIDED RESEARCH Modeling Interacting Body Systems 29
EVALUATE 30
The human heart is one
component in a larger 1.3 Mechanisms of Homeostasis 32
living system.
EXPLORATION 1 Control Systems in Organisms 33
EXPLORATION 2 Homeostasis in the Human Body 37
EXPLORATION 3 Homeostasis in Other Organisms 42
HANDS-ON LAB Investigating Homeostasis and Exercise 45
EVALUATE 46
1.4 Bioengineering 48
EXPLORATION 1 Technology and Living Systems 49
EXPLORATION 2 Engineering in Life Science 52
CAREERS IN SCIENCE Careers in Bioengineering 58
EVALUATE 60
BAGS OF STUFF INSIDE YOU 62
UNIT REVIEW 66
UNIT PERFORMANCE TASK 69
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xii HMH Science Dimensions Biology

UNIT 2
Chemistry in
Living Systems 70
2.1 Chemical Bonds and Reactions 72
EXPLORATION 1 Atoms, Elements, and Compounds 73
EXPLORATION 2 Properties of Water 76
EXPLORATION 3 Chemical Reactions and Enzymes 79
HANDS-ON LAB Experimenting with Catalase 85
EVALUATE 87
2.2 Carbon-Based Molecules 90

EXPLORATION 1 Properties of Carbon 91 The decomposition of food
EXPLORATION 2 Structure and Function of Carbon-Based Molecules 94 involves chemical reactions.
EXPLORATION 3 Chemical Energy 100
EXPLORATION 4 The Cell Membrane 102
DATA ANALYSIS Food and Energy 106
EVALUATE 108
UNIT REVIEW 110

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Contents xiii
UNIT 3
Matter and Energy

in Living Systems 114
3.1 Photosynthesis 116
EXPLORATION 1 Matter and Energy in Photosynthesis 117
EXPLORATION 2 Transforming Light Energy into Chemical Energy 121
GUIDED RESEARCH Variation in Photosynthesis 124
EVALUATE 126
3.2 Cellular Respiration 128

EXPLORATION 1 Matter and Energy in Cellular Respiration 129
Kelp forests are important EXPLORATION 2 Using Chemical Energy 133
aquatic ecosystems. HANDS ON LAB Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes in Yeast 137
EVALUATE 138
3.3 Modeling Matter and Energy in Ecosystems 140

EXPLORATION 1 Introduction to Ecosystems 141
EXPLORATION 2 Energy and Matter Flow in Ecosystems 145
EXPLORATION 3 Energy and Matter Distribution in Ecosystems 149
HANDS-ON ACTIVITY Biomagnification 154
EVALUATE 155
3.4 Cycling of Matter and Energy in Ecosystems 158

EXPLORATION 1 Matter Cycles Through Ecosystems 159
EXPLORATION 2 Human Impact on Earth’s Cycles 166
GUIDED RESEARCH Evaluating Solutions to Human Impacts 168
EVALUATE 169
TREE 172
UNIT REVIEW 176

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xiv HMH Science Dimensions Biology

UNIT 4
and Change 180
4.1 Population Dynamics 182
EXPLORATION 1 Population Density and Dispersion 183
EXPLORATION 2 Population Growth Patterns 186
EXPLORATION 3 Factors that Limit Population Growth 189
CAREERS IN SCIENCE Biogeographer 192
EVALUATE 193
4.2 Ecosystem Dynamics 196

EXPLORATION 1 Interactions in Ecosystems 197 Populations are sensitive
EXPLORATION 2 Biodiversity in Ecosystems 200 to changes in their
EXPLORATION 3 Disturbances in Ecosystems 203 environments.
EXPLORATION 4 Ecological Succession 206
LANGUAGE ARTS CONNECTION Should Forest Fires Be Suppressed? 208
EVALUATE 210
HOW FORESTS COME BACK 212
UNIT REVIEW 216

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Contents xv
UNIT 5
Cells: Stability
and Change 220
5.1 The Cell Cycle 222
EXPLORATION 1 Overview of the Cell Cycle 223
EXPLORATION 2 Factors Affecting Cell Growth 225
EXPLORATION 3 A Brief History of Cell Theory 228
HANDS-ON LAB Modeling Cell Surface-Area-to-Volume Ratio 230
EVALUATE 232
5.2 Mitosis and Differentiation 234

These living cells are in various EXPLORATION 1 Chromosomes 235
stages of growth and division. EXPLORATION 2 Mitosis and Cytokinesis 237
EXPLORATION 3 Cell Differentiation 241
GUIDED RESEARCH Studying Limb Regeneration 244
EVALUATE 245
TINY BAGS OF WATER YOU’RE MADE OF 248
UNIT REVIEW 252

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xvi HMH Science Dimensions Biology

DO NOT EDIT--Changes must be made through “File info”
LONumber=000000; CorrectionKey=NL-B
UNIT 6
The Structure and

Function of DNA 256
6.1 DNA Structure and Replication 258
EXPLORATION 1 The Function of DNA 259
EXPLORATION 2 The Structure of DNA 263
EXPLORATION 3 DNA Replication 266
HANDS-ON LAB Extracting DNA 269
EVALUATE 270
6.2 Protein Synthesis 272

EXPLORATION 1 Introduction to Protein Synthesis 273 DNA is an essential molecule
EXPLORATION 2 Transcription 277 for all living things.
EXPLORATION 3 Translation 279
LANGUAGE ARTS CONNECTION Making Synthetic Cells 283
EVALUATE 284
6.3 Gene Expression and Regulation 286

EXPLORATION 1 Regulating Gene Expression 287
EXPLORATION 2 Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes 290
EXPLORATION 3 Factors that Influence Gene Expression 293
CAREERS IN SCIENCE Geneticist 295
EVALUATE 296
UNIT REVIEW 298

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Contents xvii
BI_CNLESE861787_FMTOC.indd 17 6/6/2017 9:30:12 AM

UNIT 7
Genetics
and Heredity 302
7.1 Meiosis 304
EXPLORATION 1 Chromosomes and Meiosis 305
EXPLORATION 2 The Process of Meiosis 307
EXPLORATION 3 Meiosis and Genetic Variation 311
GUIDED RESEARCH Gene Duplication and Genetic Variation 313
EVALUATE 314
7.2 Mendel and Heredity 316

EXPLORATION 1 Mendel’s Groundwork for Genetics 317
Proteins like Cas9 can be used
EXPLORATION 2 Traits, Genes, and Alleles 320
to edit DNA.
EXPLORATION 3 Extending Mendelian Genetics 322
CAREERS IN SCIENCE Genomics: Studying Genomes 325
EVALUATE 326
7.3 Traits and Probability 328

EXPLORATION 1 Predicting Generations 329
EXPLORATION 2 Determining Types of Crosses 332
EXPLORATION 3 Sex-Linked Inheritance 336
DATA ANALYSIS Pedigrees 338
EVALUATE 339
7.4 Mutations and Genetic Diversity 342

EXPLORATION 1 Gene Mutations 343
EXPLORATION 2 Chromosomal Mutations 347
EXPLORATION 3 Effects of Mutations 349
ENGINEERING Testing UV-Protective Fabrics 352
EVALUATE 353
7 .5 Genetic Engineering 356

EXPLORATION 1 Isolating Genes 357
EXPLORATION 2 Cloning and Engineering 360
EXPLORATION 3 Genetically Engineering Salmon 365
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EXPLORATION 4 Further Applications of Genetic Engineering 366

LANGUAGE ARTS CONNECTION Knockout Mice 369
EVALUATE 370
BOOKS INSIDE US 372
UNIT REVIEW 376

xviii HMH Science Dimensions Biology

UNIT 8
Evidence
for Evolution 380
8.1 Lines of Evidence for Evolution 382
EXPLORATION 1 Molecular and Genetic Evidence 383
EXPLORATION 2 Developmental and Anatomical Evidence 386
EXPLORATION 3 Geological and Fossil Evidence 389
DATA ANALYSIS Radiometric Dating 392
EVALUATE 393
8.2 Theory of Natural Selection 396

EXPLORATION 1 HANDS-ON LAB Modeling Natural Selection: Many species develop
Owls and Field Mice 397 unique features that help
EXPLORATION 2 Developing the Theory of Natural Selection 399 them survive.
EXPLORATION 3 Principles of Natural Selection 404
GUIDED RESEARCH Natural Selection Today 409
EVALUATE 410
UNIT REVIEW 412

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Contents xix
UNIT 9
Patterns
of Evolution 416
9.1 Evolution of Populations 418
EXPLORATION 1 Genetic Variation 419
EXPLORATION 2 Selection on Populations 423
EXPLORATION 3 Effects of Gene Flow 426
DATA ANALYSIS Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria 430
EVALUATE 431
9.2 Changes in Species 434

Lemurs are primates that EXPLORATION 1 Mechanisms of Speciation 435
live only on the island of EXPLORATION 2 Expansion of Species 439
Madagascar. EXPLORATION 3 Extinction of Species 441
LANGUAGE ARTS CONNECTION Patterns in Evolution and Speciation 444
EVALUATE 446
9.3 Adaptive Value of Behavior 448

EXPLORATION 1 Evolution of Behavior 449
EXPLORATION 2 Social Interactions 452
EXPLORATION 3 Learned Behaviors 455
LANGUAGE ARTS CONNECTION The Evolution of Play Behavior 456
EVALUATE 457
TREE OF LIFE 460
UNIT REVIEW 464

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xx HMH Science Dimensions Biology

UNIT 10
Human Impacts on
the Environment 468
10.1 1 Human Population Growth and the Environment 470
EXPLORATION 1 Population Growth and Natural Resources 471
EXPLORATION 2 Human Impacts on Air and Climate 475
EXPLORATION 3 Human Impacts on Water and Land 478
HANDS-ON LAB The Effects of Acid Rain 482
EVALUATE 484
10.2 Human Impacts on Biodiversity 486

EXPLORATION 1 Habitat Loss 487 Transportation networks cover
EXPLORATION 2 Introduced Species 490 Earth, representing the extent
EXPLORATION 3 Overharvesting Species 492 of human development.
LANGUAGE ARTS CONNECTION Rethinking the Value
of Non-native Species 494
EVALUATE 495
10.3 Engineering Solutions to Environmental Impacts 498

EXPLORATION 1 Converting Energy 499
EXPLORATION 2 Engineering and Conservation 502
EXPLORATION 3 Decreasing Water Pollution 506
CAREERS IN SCIENCE Environmental Engineer 509
EVALUATE 510
UNIT REVIEW 512

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Contents xxi
Lab Safety
Before you work in the laboratory, read these safety rules. Ask your teacher to explain
any rules that you do not completely understand. Refer to these rules later on if you
have questions about safety in the science classroom.
Directions Heating and Fire Safety

• Know where the fire extinguisher, fire blanket, shower,
and eyewash station are located in your classroom.
• Read all directions and make sure that you understand them
before starting an investigation or lab activity. If you
do not understand how to do a procedure or how to use
a piece of equipment, ask your teacher.
• Do not begin any investigation or touch any equipment

until your teacher has told you to start.
• Never experiment on your own. If you want to try a

procedure that the directions do not call for, ask your
teacher for permission first.
• If you are hurt or injured in any way, tell your teacher

immediately.
Dress Code
• Keep your work area neat, clean, and free of extra materials.
• Use only borosilicate glass for heating substances.
• Never reach over a flame or heat source.
• Point objects being heated away from you and others.
• Never heat a substance or an object in a closed container.
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• Use oven mitts, clamps, tongs, or a test tube holder to hold
heated items.
• Never touch an object that has been heated. If you are

unsure whether something is hot, treat it as though it is.
• Wear goggles when using glassware, sharp objects, or
chemicals; heating an object; or working with anything that
can easily fly up into the air and hurt someone’s eye.
• After heating test tubes, place them in a test tube rack.
• Do not throw hot substances into the trash. Wait for them
• Tie back long hair or hair that hangs in front of your eyes. to cool and dispose of them in the container provided by
your teacher.
• Remove any article of clothing—such as a loose sweater or
a scarf—that hangs down and may touch a flame, chemical,
or piece of equipment.
• Observe all safety icons calling for the wearing of eye

protection, gloves, and aprons.
xxii HMH Science Dimensions Biology

Chemical Safety Electrical Safety
• Always wear goggles when working with any type of • Never use lamps or other electrical equipment with
chemical, even household items such as baking soda. frayed cords.
• Stand when you are working with chemicals. Pour them • Make sure no cord is lying on the floor where someone
over a sink or your work area, not over the floor. If you spill a can trip over it.
chemical or get it on your skin, tell your teacher right away.
• Do not let a cord hang over the side of a counter or table
• If you get a chemical in your eye, use the eyewash station so that the equipment can easily be pulled or knocked
immediately. to the floor.
• Never touch, taste, or sniff any chemicals in the lab. If you • Never let cords hang into sinks or other places where water
need to determine odor, waft. To waft, hold the chemical can be found.
in its container 15 cm (6 in.) away from your nose, and use
your fingers to bring fumes from the container to your nose. • Turn off all power switches before plugging an appliance
into an outlet.
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• Keep lids on all chemicals you are not using. • Never touch electrical equipment with wet hands.
• Use materials only from properly labeled containers. • Never try to fix electrical problems. Immediately inform
• Never use more chemicals than the procedure calls for. your teacher of any problems.
• When diluting acid with water, always add acid to water. • Unplug an electrical cord by pulling on the plug, not
the cord.
• Never put unused chemicals back into the original
containers. Dispose of extra chemicals in the container
provided by your teacher.
• Always wash your hands after handling chemicals.
Lab Safety xxiii

Glassware and Sharp-Object Safety Animal Safety
• Use only clean glassware that is free of chips and cracks. • Never hurt an animal.
• If you break glassware, tell your teacher right away. • Touch animals only when necessary. Follow your teacher’s
instructions for handling animals.
• If you use a microscope that has a mirror, do not aim the
mirror directly at the sun, as you can damage your eyes. • Wear gloves when handling animals or preserved
specimens.
• Use knives and other cutting instruments carefully. Always
wear eye protection and cut away from yourself. • Specimens for dissection should be properly mounted
and supported.
• Clean glassware according to your teacher’s instructions
after you use it. • Do not cut a specimen while holding it in your hands.
• Use an appropriately sized test tube for the quantity • Do not open containers of live microorganisms unless you
of chemicals you are using, and store test tubes in a test are directed to do so.
tube rack.
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• Dispose of preserved specimens as directed by your
teacher.
• Always wash your hands with soap and water after working
with animals or specimens.
Cleanup
• Follow your teacher’s instructions for the disposal or storage
of supplies.
• Clean your work area and pick up anything that has

dropped to the floor.
• Wash your hands.
xxiv HMH Science Dimensions Biology

Safety Symbols
Safety is the priority in the science classroom. In all of the activities in this textbook,
safety symbols are used to alert you to materials, procedures, or situations that could
be potentially hazardous if the safety guidelines are not followed. Learn what you
need to do when you see these icons, and read all lab procedures before coming to
the lab so you are prepared. Always ask your teacher if you have questions.
ANIMAL SAFETY Never injure an animal. Follow HEATING SAFETY Wear goggles and never
your teacher’s instructions for handling specific leave any substance while it is being heated.
animals or preserved specimens. Wash your hands Use tongs, hot pads, or test tube holders to hold
with soap and water when finished handling hot objects. Point any materials being heated
animals or preserved specimens. away from you and others. Place hot objects
such as test tubes in test tube racks while cooling.
APRON Wear an apron when using any substance Always wear gloves such as oven mitts when
that could cause harm if spilled on you. Stand handling larger hot materials.
whenever possible to avoid spilling in your lap.
PLANT SAFETY Do not eat any part of a plant.
BREAKAGE Use caution when handling items that Do not pick any wild plants unless your teacher
may break, such as glassware and thermometers. instructs you to do so. Wash your hands after
Always store test tubes in a test tube rack. handling any plant.
CHEMICAL SAFETY Always wear goggles when POISON Never touch, taste, or inhale chemicals.
working with chemicals. Stand whenever possible Most chemicals are toxic in high concentrations.
when working with chemicals to avoid spilling on Wear goggles and wash your hands.
your lap. Tell your teacher immediately if you spill
chemicals on yourself, the table, or floor. Never SAFETY GOGGLES Always wear safety goggles
taste any substance or chemical in the lab. Always when working with chemicals, heating any
wash your hands after working with chemicals. substance, or using a sharp object or any material
that could fly up and injure you or others.
DISPOSAL Follow your teacher’s instructions
for disposing of all waste materials, including SHARP OBJECTS Use scissors, knives, or razor
chemicals, specimens, or broken glass. tools with care. Wear goggles when cutting
something with scalpels, knives, or razor tools.
ELECTRICAL SAFETY Keep electrical cords away Always cut away from yourself.
from water to avoid shock. Do not use cords with
frayed edges. Unplug all equipment when done.
FIRE SAFETY Put on safety goggles before

lighting flames. Remove loose clothing and tie
back hair. Never leave a lit object unattended.
Extinguish flames as soon as you finish heating.
FUMES Always work in a well-ventilated area.

Bring fumes up to your nose by wafting with your
fingers instead of sniffing.
GLOVES Always wear gloves to protect your

Image Credit: ©Hello Lovely/Corbis
skin from possible injury when working with

substances that may be harmful or when working
with animals.
HAND WASHING Wash your hands with soap and

water after working with soil, chemicals, animals,
or preserved specimens.
Lab Safety xxv

Using Your
Evidence Notebook
Throughout the units and lessons of HMH ScienceDimensions Biology, you The following pages from the first
will see notebook icons that highlight important places for you to stop and lesson in the book will familiarize
reflect. These Evidence Notebook prompts signal opportunities for you to record you with the main types of Evidence
observations and evidence, analyze data, and make explanations for phenomena. Notebook prompts you will see
throughout the course.
The Evidence Notebook is your location to gather evidence and record your
thinking as you make your way through each lesson. Your teacher may determine
a specific format for you to use, such as a digital or paper notebook. Whatever
the format, you will record here the evidence you gather throughout the lesson to
support your response to the Can You Explain It? challenge. You will also record
significant information from the lesson to use as a study tool and to build your
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own study guide at the end of the lesson.
xxvi HMH Science Dimensions Biology

Gather Evidence Record observations or other evidence you’ve
collected throughout the lesson. A Gather Evidence prompt on
the first page of each lesson reminds you to record evidence you Model Draw or create another model
can use to support the claim you will make about the Can You to help you interpret and understand
Explain It? challenge. DO NOT EDIT--Changes must be made through “File info”
information.
DO NOT EDIT--Changes must be made through “File info” DO NOT EDIT--Changes must be made through “File info” DO NOT EDIT--Change
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EXPLORATION 1
1.1 System Models

Systems and System Models
Life in the Earth System Suppose that an engineering team is designing a new airplane. If they were to build
a full-sized airplane for a performance test of each different design, the cost and the
time would be impractical. A more practical option would be to use a smaller scale
Throughout history, humans have strived to understand the world around us. To Model Develop a short model of the airplane to study and analyze the various components of the system. A
help make sense of the observed phenomena, we organize information and identify list of systems that you model is a pattern, plan, representation, or description designed to show the structure
patterns. One approach to understanding natural phenomena is called systems think biologists would want to or workings of an object, system, or concept. You might think of a model simply as
thinking. This way of thinking examines links and interactions between components, model. Choose one system from a smaller scale physical representation of a larger system. However, models are not
or parts of a system, to understand how the overall system works. your list and develop a plan for how limited to physical objects. Other types of models include computer simulations,
you would model it. conceptual diagrams, and mathematical equations, as shown in Figure 6.
Properties of Systems FIGURE 6: Types of Models
A system is a set of interacting components considered to be a distinct entity for the

purpose of study or understanding. The robot and human at the beginning of the
lesson are both systems.
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT? Protein Synthesis y = a(1 + r)x
camera FIGURE 2: To Collaborate Discuss
y = final population
send a text this question with a DNA → RNA → Proteins a = initial population
FIGURE 1: Although the robot in this image is conceptual, robots can be programmed to message, a cellular partner: What systems could you r = growth rate
Certain conditions make life carry out very complex tasks, such as playing a game of chess. phone requires define in the world around you? x = number of time
sustainable on Earth. components, such
as a signal receiver intervals passed
and transmitter, a
microphone battery, a circuit
board, and a
screen a Physical Model b Conceptual Model c Mathematical Model d Simulation
screen.
circuit battery A smaller or larger copy of A diagram or flow chart An equation or set of Often in the form of a
Image Credits: (l) ©alice-photo/Shutterstock; (r) Image of PDB entry 3L4V created with Chimera (http://www.rbvi.ucsf.edu/chimera/)
board an object. Physical models that shows how parts of a equations that generate computer model. Can be
also can be built to scale. system are related or how a data related to how a used to test variables and
Scale is the proportional process works. system or process works. observe outcomes.
relationship between a Mathematical models
model’s measurements play a significant role in
and the real object’s computer models.
measurements.
connector
Image Credits: (t) ©GJLP/Science Source; (r, b) ©Wesley Peng; (l) ©iStock/Getty Images Plus/Svisio
and
antenna
Systems Biology
Image Credits: (t) ©StockTrek/Photodisc/Getty Images; (b) ©Blutgruppe/Corbis
Gather Evidence Humans have used technology since early times. Today we may be quick to name We can apply systems thinking to biology. Systems biology studies biological systems
As you explore the lesson, cellular phones and computers as examples. However, technology includes even Boundaries and Components
Analyze What is the as a whole. This approach allows scientists to consider biological phenomena at
gather evidence to make a claim simple things, such as a fork or a pen, basically any tool, process, or system that is Boundaries define the space of the system to separate that system from the rest of the different scales and examine how the components of a biological system interact.
designed to solve a problem.
boundary of the human
about what defines a living system. universe. A cellular phone is a system of electronics contained in a protective covering. By considering the larger picture, biologists are better able to identify emergent
body? What is the boundary of a
Robotic technology has advanced to human-like form. Robots can perform The components are all the parts of the system that interact to help the system carry properties of the system. An emergent property is a property that a system has but
out specific functions. For example, a cellular phone needs the parts described in robot? Compare the inputs and
work, including tasks that are difficult or dangerous, but they also can provide that its component parts do not have. For example, cells are self-contained systems
Figure 2 to function properly. Together, the components send and receive radio outputs of humans and robots in that can function independently. However, when combined, similar cells form tissue,
companionship and health care. Consider the players in this chess game. The robot
signals and transform them into useful communication, such as text messages. terms of matter and energy. which can perform unique functions that the individual cells could not.
and the human have parts that perform similar functions and have a control center to
guide their actions. They are both systems that can perform many of the same tasks. Inputs and Outputs Language is a more recognizable example of a system with emergent properties.
Its basic components are the sounds that combine to form words. The emergent
Predict Imagine a company that sells robots like the one shown in Figure 1. The The inputs and outputs of different types of systems include energy, matter, and
properties are the meanings of the words made from these sounds when placed into
information. Outputs are generated when the inputs are processed in some way. In the
company makes the claim: “This living machine is the perfect companion.” Make a case sentences. The sentences and paragraphs convey meaning the words and sounds
case of a cellular phone, a radio signal (an input) is converted to vibrations (an output)
to either support or refute this claim. How similar are living and nonliving systems? making up the words cannot individually.
that you detect as sound.
Lesson 1 Life in the Earth System 5

4 Unit 1 Living Systems 8 Unit 1 Living Systems
BI_CNLESE861787_U01L01EXP1.indd 5 4/7/2017 1:31:51 PM

BI_CNLESE861787_U01L01O.indd 4 4/7/2017 1:31:25 PM BI_CNLESE861787_U01L01EXP1.indd 8 4/7/2017 1:31:58 PM
Predict Make a prediction or record Analyze Interpret data or observations

your initial thinking about a question you you have made about the text or visuals.
will return to later in the lesson.
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NOTEDIT--Changes
EDIT--Changesmust
mustbe
bemade
madethrough
through“File
“Fileinfo”
info”
LONumber=9B1_0010; CorrectionKey=NL-B LONumber=9B1_0010; CorrectionKey=NL-B LONumber=9B1_0010;CorrectionKey=NL-B
LONumber=9B1_0010; CorrectionKey=NL-B
EVALUATE
Similarly, DNA is a molecule that carries the genetic code of all organisms. The code
consists of just four bases represented with the letters A, T, G, and C. The sequence
of these bases in DNA provides coded instructions for making thousands of different
Lesson Self-Check CHECKPOINTS
proteins. Each protein is made of a specific arrangement of amino acids coded for by
Check Your Understanding 6. What is an emergent property?
DNA. The emergent property of DNA is the information that codes for proteins.
Use the diagram to answer Questions 1–5. a. a property that a system has but that its individual
FIGURE 7: A systems approach in scientific research of diseases, Explore Online component parts do not have
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
such as Parkinson’s disease, requires collaboration among many different areas of science. FIGURE 15: This conceptual model shows the basics of how a b. a new property exhibited by a component of a system
dryer works. c. a property of an individual component but not the
FIGURE 14: Both robots and humans are complex systems.
system as a whole
electrical
Neurochemistry Medicine energy d. a property that is not always exhibited by a system
desired
time heat
heating actual 7. Pick two of Earth’s spheres (biosphere, atmosphere,
timer clothes
elements dryness
geosphere, hydrosphere), and draw a model showing
(Input) error (Output) (Process) how these two systems interact. Your model should show
sensor components of these systems, at least one way these
Genomics Bioinformatics
feedback loop components interact, and inputs and outputs that move
from one system to another.
SYSTEMS 8. Is movement a characteristic of living things? Explain why

BIOLOGY 1. How does the sensor interact with the other components
this characteristic should or should not be considered a
of this system?
characteristic of living things, giving specific examples to
a. The sensor detects the heat of the clothes and makes support your claim.
Environmental Biophysics the timer generate more heat.
Science
b. The sensor detects the dryness of the clothes and then 9. Explain what a feedback loop is using the terms input,
sends information to the timer. output, and homeostasis.
c. The sensor detects whether the heating element is

functioning properly and then sends input to the
Molecular
Biology
Proteomics Robots have many of the capabilities of humans, including taking in and processing
timer.
information and completing many of the same tasks as humans. Robots can be used to MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE
complete tasks that are too dangerous or difficult for humans to complete. d. The sensor detects how much time is left and sends
input to the heating element to increase or decrease
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is an aging-related degeneration of nerve cells in the brain Language Arts Some robots are built to perform a specific task and do not resemble any sort of the heat. In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
organism. Other robots, though, may have human-like forms and could be used
that causes progressive slowness of movement. Many factors can contribute to PD. For Connection Work with supports the main idea from this lesson:
example, PD often involves proteins that become misfolded, which interferes with the a group to research one of these to provide companionship or health care. When promoting one of their humanoid 2. Which of these is not a direct input for the timer in
protein performing its normal function within the cell. The build up of these misfolded robots, similar to the one in Figure 14, an imaginary robotics company claims, “This Models can be used to illustrate the relationships between
fields and its contribution to PD this system?
proteins causes additional damage. living machine is the perfect companion.” components of living and nonliving systems.
research. Share your research with a. time manually entered by the user
Many different scientific and mathematical disciplines contribute to PD research other groups in your class. b. electrical signals from the sensor Remember to include the following information in your
with the goal of coming to a complete understanding of the disease. For example, Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook to explain whether or not a study guide:
c. dryness of the clothes
biophysics applies laws of physics to biological phenomena. Some biophysicists study robot fits the criteria of a living system. Consider the following questions when • Use examples that model main ideas.
d. heat from the heating element
the structural changes of a brain protein called alpha-synuclein and its influence developing your explanation: • Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
on PD. Typically, alpha-synuclein is unfolded, but in certain conditions it becomes e. electricity from the wall outlet
1. Which properties of systems does the robot have, and which does it not? • Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
highly folded, contributing to PD. Understanding why a protein misfolds may involve
2. Which properties of living things does the robot have, and which does it not? include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions, and
investigating how the DNA transmitted the code when building that protein. Was 3. Given the model, would you say this system is a closed
3. What potential emergent properties could this robot have? other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
there a mistake in the code? Or does something happen to the protein after coding system or an open system? Explain your answer.
occurs? Genomics research helps to answer these kinds of questions. Consider the properties of systems and system models and how
Image Credits: ©Blutgruppe/Corbis
For each of the above questions, include specific examples and evidence to support 4. Explain how the feedback loop works in this model. systems can be used to model the levels of organization within
your claims. living organisms.
Explain Describe how different types of models could be used to research a disease. 5. Would a small load of laundry take longer to dry than a
Make a list of questions you would ask. Categorize your questions into different fields of larger load? Use the diagram to explain your answer.
science that might be involved in the research.

14 Unit 1 Living Systems Lesson 1 Life in the Earth System 15

BI_CNLESE861787_U01L01A.indd 14 4/7/2017 1:31:20 PM BI_CNLESE861787_U01L01A.indd 15 4/19/2017 10:46:35 PM
Explain Synthesize information from At the end of each lesson, you will also be prompted to use the notes from your
evidence, analysis, models, and other Evidence Notebook to construct an explanation and to make your own study guide for
information gathered over the course of the main ideas from the lesson.
an exploration.
Evidence Notebook xxvii

UNIT 1
Living Systems
Lesson 1: Life in the Earth System . . . . 4
Lesson 2: Organisms: Cells

to Body Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Lesson 3: Mechanisms
of Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Lesson 4: Bioengineering . . . . . . . . . .48
Thing Explainer: Bags of

Stuff Inside You . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .62
Unit Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
Unit Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Unit Performance Task . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Image Credits: ©Living Art Enterprises/Science Source
The human heart is one component

in a larger living system.
2 Unit 1 Living Systems

FIGURE 1: Each bat is a living system.
Living and nonliving systems are all around you. Nonliving systems help you complete
many tasks, such as cars and buses to travel to school or cell phones to make a call.
Organisms, such as bats, are examples of living systems. Cells in bats work together to
perform all of the functions necessary for life. For example, structures in bats’ wings
help them maintain water balance in their bodies. Bats and other living and nonliving
things are part of larger systems on Earth.
Predict How do you think living systems such as bats carry out life functions and
respond to changes in the environment?
DRIVING QUESTIONS
As you move through the unit, gather evidence to help you answer the following
questions. In your Evidence Notebook, record what you already know about these
topics and any questions you have about them.
1. What are the levels of organization within the Earth system?
2. How do systems in living things interact to maintain the organism?
3. How does the structure of cells relate to different functions and specialization?
4. How have advances in technology influenced human health and society?
Image Credits: ©Visionary Earth/Shutterstock
UNIT PROJECT
Go online to download
Investigating Plant Systems the Unit Project
Worksheet to help
plan your project.
A seedling is a living system made up of different components. Grow seedlings and
investigate how they interact with other systems to survive and grow in changing
conditions. Can you explain the levels of organization within your seedlings and the
environment, from cells to ecosystem?
Unit 1 Living Systems 3

1.1
Life in the Earth System
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 1: Although the robot in this image is conceptual, robots can be programmed to
Certain conditions make life carry out very complex tasks, such as playing a game of chess.
sustainable on Earth.
Image Credits: (t) ©StockTrek/Photodisc/Getty Images; (b) ©Blutgruppe/Corbis

Gather Evidence Humans have used technology since early times. Today we may be quick to name
As you explore the lesson, cellular phones and computers as examples. However, technology includes even
gather evidence to make a claim simple things, such as a fork or a pen, basically any tool, process, or system that is
about what defines a living system. designed to solve a problem.
Robotic technology has advanced to human-like form. Robots can perform
work, including tasks that are difficult or dangerous, but they also can provide
companionship and health care. Consider the players in this chess game. The robot
and the human have parts that perform similar functions and have a control center to
guide their actions. They are both systems that can perform many of the same tasks.
Predict Imagine a company that sells robots like the one shown in Figure 1. The
company makes the claim: “This living machine is the perfect companion.” Make a case
to either support or refute this claim. How similar are living and nonliving systems?

EXPLORATION 1
Throughout history, humans have strived to understand the world around us. To
help make sense of the observed phenomena, we organize information and identify
patterns. One approach to understanding natural phenomena is called systems
thinking. This way of thinking examines links and interactions between components,
or parts of a system, to understand how the overall system works.
Properties of Systems
A system is a set of interacting components considered to be a distinct entity for the
purpose of study or understanding. The robot and human at the beginning of the
lesson are both systems.
camera FIGURE 2: To Collaborate Discuss

send a text this question with a
message, a cellular partner: What systems could you
phone requires define in the world around you?
components, such
as a signal receiver
and transmitter, a
microphone battery, a circuit
board, and a
screen
screen.
circuit battery
board
connector
and
antenna
Boundaries and Components

Analyze What is the
Boundaries define the space of the system to separate that system from the rest of the
boundary of the human
universe. A cellular phone is a system of electronics contained in a protective covering.
body? What is the boundary of a
The components are all the parts of the system that interact to help the system carry
out specific functions. For example, a cellular phone needs the parts described in robot? Compare the inputs and
Figure 2 to function properly. Together, the components send and receive radio outputs of humans and robots in
signals and transform them into useful communication, such as text messages. terms of matter and energy.
Inputs and Outputs

The inputs and outputs of different types of systems include energy, matter, and
information. Outputs are generated when the inputs are processed in some way. In the
case of a cellular phone, a radio signal (an input) is converted to vibrations (an output)
that you detect as sound.

Open and Closed Systems
Systems can be categorized according to the flow of inputs and outputs. In an open
system, the inputs and outputs flow into and out of the system. In a closed system, the
flow of one or more inputs and outputs is limited in some way. An isolated system is a
system in which all of the inputs and outputs are contained within the system.
Analyze Is the human body an open, closed, or isolated system? What about a
robot? Explain your answer.
Controls
The components of a system include the controls that help keep the system working
properly by monitoring and managing the inputs and outputs. Controls can be
automatic, manually set, or a combination of both. An important system control is
feedback. Feedback is information from one step of a cycle that acts to change the
behavior of a previous step of a cycle. So, feedback is output that becomes input. A
feedback loop is formed when an output returns to become an input in the same
system that generated the output.
Model Draw a simple

FIGURE 3: A thermostat can be used to control the heating and cooling systems
diagram showing how a
in a home.
thermostat would respond
when the temperature in a
room rises above the set point.
Some air conditioners and heaters have a control system called a thermostat, such
as the one shown in Figure 3. A thermometer inside the thermostat continually
measures the temperature in the room. If the air temperature in the room rises
above a preset temperature, the thermostat signals the air conditioner to turn on. If
the air temperature in the room falls below the preset temperature, the thermostat
Image Credits: ©iStock/Getty Images Plus/koinseb
signals the air conditioner to turn off.

System Organization
Systems can range in size and in complexity. For example, a thermostat is a small,
relatively simple system. The chess-playing robot is a larger, very complex system. The
Earth system is larger still and is itself a part of the solar system, the Milky Way galaxy,
and the universe.
More complex systems generally have more levels of organization than simpler
systems. For example, organisms, or living things, are systems made up of smaller
systems, such as organs, tissues, and cells. Two organisms that interact also can
make up a system, such as a bird that pollinates a plant. On a larger scale, you are a
system that is part of an ecosystem, or community of organisms, and their physical
environment. You also are part of the larger Earth system.
FIGURE 4: Both the hummingbird and the thistle plant are systems that interact with one
another. They are part of an ecosystem, such as a city park.
Image Credits: (tl) ©Don Mammoser/Shutterstock; (tr) ©Ben Blankenburg/Fotolia; (b) ©Photographer’s Choice RF/Georgette Douwma/Getty Images
As mentioned earlier, an output of a system can feed back into the system, changing Gather Evidence
how the system may respond. Similarly, an output of one system can act as an input How do your interactions
to a completely different, perhaps even unrelated, system. Think about walking into with nonliving systems affect your
an air-conditioned building on a hot day. The cool air becomes an input to your body environment?
system as receptors in your skin detect the change in air temperature. You may even
begin to shiver slightly: the body’s response when it senses cold temperatures.
FIGURE 5: A scuba diver and the scuba gear she wears are two systems interacting.
Explain The scuba diver is a living system. The scuba gear, or self-contained
underwater breathing apparatus, is a system of air exchange. How are these two
systems interacting?

System Models
Suppose that an engineering team is designing a new airplane. If they were to build
a full-sized airplane for a performance test of each different design, the cost and the
time would be impractical. A more practical option would be to use a smaller scale
Model Develop a short model of the airplane to study and analyze the various components of the system. A
list of systems that you model is a pattern, plan, representation, or description designed to show the structure
think biologists would want to or workings of an object, system, or concept. You might think of a model simply as
model. Choose one system from a smaller scale physical representation of a larger system. However, models are not
your list and develop a plan for how limited to physical objects. Other types of models include computer simulations,
you would model it. conceptual diagrams, and mathematical equations, as shown in Figure 6.
FIGURE 6: Types of Models
Protein Synthesis y = a(1 + r)x

y = final population
DNA → RNA → Proteins a = initial population
r = growth rate
x = number of time
intervals passed
a Physical Model b Conceptual Model c Mathematical Model d Simulation

A smaller or larger copy of A diagram or flow chart An equation or set of Often in the form of a
an object. Physical models that shows how parts of a equations that generate computer model. Can be
also can be built to scale. system are related or how a data related to how a used to test variables and
Scale is the proportional process works. system or process works. observe outcomes.
relationship between a Mathematical models
model’s measurements play a significant role in
and the real object’s computer models.
measurements.
Systems Biology
We can apply systems thinking to biology. Systems biology studies biological systems
as a whole. This approach allows scientists to consider biological phenomena at
different scales and examine how the components of a biological system interact.
By considering the larger picture, biologists are better able to identify emergent
properties of the system. An emergent property is a property that a system has but
that its component parts do not have. For example, cells are self-contained systems
that can function independently. However, when combined, similar cells form tissue,
which can perform unique functions that the individual cells could not.
Language is a more recognizable example of a system with emergent properties.
Its basic components are the sounds that combine to form words. The emergent
properties are the meanings of the words made from these sounds when placed into
sentences. The sentences and paragraphs convey meaning the words and sounds
making up the words cannot individually.

Similarly, DNA is a molecule that carries the genetic code of all organisms. The code
consists of just four bases represented with the letters A, T, G, and C. The sequence
of these bases in DNA provides coded instructions for making thousands of different
proteins. Each protein is made of a specific arrangement of amino acids coded for by
DNA. The emergent property of DNA is the information that codes for proteins.
FIGURE 7: A systems approach in scientific research of diseases, Explore Online

such as Parkinson’s disease, requires collaboration among many different areas of science.
Neurochemistry Medicine
Genomics Bioinformatics
SYSTEMS
BIOLOGY
Environmental Biophysics
Science
Molecular
Proteomics
Biology
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is an aging-related degeneration of nerve cells in the brain Language Arts
that causes progressive slowness of movement. Many factors can contribute to PD. For Connection Work with
example, PD often involves proteins that become misfolded, which interferes with the a group to research one of these
protein performing its normal function within the cell. The build up of these misfolded fields and its contribution to PD
proteins causes additional damage.
research. Share your research with
Many different scientific and mathematical disciplines contribute to PD research other groups in your class.
with the goal of coming to a complete understanding of the disease. For example,
biophysics applies laws of physics to biological phenomena. Some biophysicists study
the structural changes of a brain protein called alpha-synuclein and its influence
on PD. Typically, alpha-synuclein is unfolded, but in certain conditions it becomes
highly folded, contributing to PD. Understanding why a protein misfolds may involve
investigating how the DNA transmitted the code when building that protein. Was
there a mistake in the code? Or does something happen to the protein after coding
occurs? Genomics research helps to answer these kinds of questions.
Explain Describe how different types of models could be used to research a disease.
Make a list of questions you would ask. Categorize your questions into different fields of
science that might be involved in the research.

EXPLORATION 2
The Earth System
To understand living things better, we can study the systems in which they exist. One
System Models
of these systems is our home planet—Earth. The Earth system is all of the matter,
energy, and processes within Earth’s boundary. Earth is made up of smaller systems,
FIGURE 8: Model of the Earth such as the biosphere, where all living things exist and interact. The biosphere in
system. turn includes many smaller subsystems of living things in both aquatic and land
environments. Earth itself exists within larger systems, such as the solar system and the
Milky Way galaxy.
As Figure 8 shows, matter stays within the Earth system, but energy enters the system
in the form of sunlight and exits in the form of heat. Within the system itself, light
energy is converted into other forms of energy that drive transformations of matter
from one form to another as it cycles through the system.
Organization of the Earth System

Explain Is Earth an open,
closed, or isolated system? Scientists use a system model to better understand interactions within the Earth
Explain. system. The system model, shown in Figure 9, organizes the Earth system into
four interconnected systems, or spheres: geosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and
atmosphere.
The geosphere is all the solid features of Earth’s surface, such as mountains, continents,
and the sea floor, as well as everything below Earth’s surface. The hydrosphere is all
of Earth’s water, including water in the form of liquid water, ice, and water vapor. The
biosphere is the area of Earth where life exists. The atmosphere is all of the air that
envelops Earth’s solid and liquid surface.
FIGURE 9: Scientists
organize the Earth atmosphere
system into four
spheres.
biosphere
hydrosphere geosphere
Explain This model shows the biosphere in the middle of the diagram with arrows
connecting it to the other spheres. Why is the biosphere depicted this way?

Organization of the Biosphere
Earth’s biosphere is made up of ecosystems. An ecosystem includes all of the nonliving
and living things, or organisms, in a given area. Nonliving things include the climate,
soil, water, and rocks that organisms rely on for survival. The relationships among
organisms can be further categorized. Organisms of the same species that live in the
same area make up a population. The collection of the different populations in an area
make up a community. Communities exist within larger systems called biomes. Biomes
are major regional or global areas characterized by their climate and vegetation.
Examples of biomes include deserts, tropical rain forests, tundra, and grasslands.
FIGURE 10: The Florida Everglades is an example of an aquatic ecosystem.

Model Place these terms
in order to illustrate the
levels of scale from an organism to
biosphere
the solar system: population,
biosphere, solar system, ecosystem,
biome
organism, biome, Earth, community.
ecosystem
Explore Online
community
Hands-On Lab
Life Under a Microscope

Observe pond water under a
microscope and determine whether
population items are living or nonliving based
on their observable characteristics.
individual
The living components in an ecosystem are called biotic factors. The nonliving
components of ecosystems are abiotic factors. The biotic and abiotic components in
an ecosystem interact and are interdependent.
FIGURE 11: Taiga is a biome characterized by long, cold winters and short, mild, and
rainy summers.
Model Identify the biotic

Image Credits: (b) ©age fotostock/Frank Pali/Getty Images
and abiotic factors in

Figure 11. Make a model to
illustrate how these factors interact
in this ecosystem.

Characteristics of Living Things
Scientists use a set of characteristics to define living things. In general, all living things
are made up of one or more cells, require an energy source, grow and change over
time, reproduce by making copies of themselves or by having offspring, and respond
to changes in their environment. Homeostasis is the maintenance of constant internal
conditions in an organism. Although temperature and other environmental conditions
are always changing, the conditions inside organisms usually stay quite stable.
Maintaining stable internal conditions is critical to an organism’s survival.
Explore Online
FIGURE 12: Most plants get nitrogen from the soil.
Venus flytraps grow in nitrogen-poor soil and must rely on the insects they catch
as their source of nitrogen.
Analyze Describe at least

two biological systems.
Explain how these systems are
independent from and
interconnected with each other.
The Venus flytrap in Figure 12 is a living thing. It is a plant made up of individual

cells that work together to perform the functions it needs to survive. It gets its
energy from the sun and the nutrients it needs from the insects it digests. A Venus
flytrap reproduces both sexually through pollination and asexually by spreading its
rhizomes—rootlike stems—underground in the soil.
Explore Online How scientists think about the characteristics of living things has undergone revision
as new evidence comes to light. For example, there is disagreement about whether
Hands-On Lab
or not viruses are alive. Viruses do not maintain homeostasis and cannot reproduce
The Study of Life Plan and without a host organism.
conduct an investigation to Another way to think about life is as an emergent property of a collection of certain
determine how different factors nonliving things. As an example, proteins are chemical building blocks in all organisms,
affect the number of living things but proteins by themselves are nonliving things. However, proteins in combination
Image Credit: ©Francesco Tomasinelli/Science Source
found in a soil sample. with other molecules and a complex set of reactions make up living things. This
argument applies to viruses, which are made only of a strand of genetic material
surrounded by a protein coat. As a result, some scientists claim viruses are not living
things, because they are not made of cells. However, there are some membrane-bound
viruses. Are viruses living things or not? The debate continues.
Explain Record evidence for whether the robot at the beginning of this lesson meets
the criteria for a living system. Which criteria does it meet, and which does it not? Does a
robot have emergent properties? Explain your answer.

CONTINUE YOUR EXPLORATION
Engineering
Modeling a System
FIGURE 13: Your school cafeteria can be modeled as a system.

Identify the System
Whether you think about it or not, you interact with
systems every day. A school, a classroom, or an
athletic team could be modeled as a system. In this
activity, you will model a system that you are familiar
with, and then use your model to suggest improvements
to that system. You can choose one of the following
school-related systems or come up with one of your own:
• getting food in the cafeteria
• visitors checking in at the front office
• students getting on buses to go home
• cars leaving the parking lot when school is over
You may work on your system model on your own or in
collaboration with one or more students.
Make a Model
Make a model of the system you have chosen. Your
Consider Tradeoffs
model should illustrate the following:
• the components of the system Choose one of the solutions you suggested, and answer this
• how the components interact question: How would this proposed solution affect the other
• the inputs and outputs of the system parts of the system?
• the system boundaries Are there any social, cultural, or environmental impacts of
• system controls and feedback loops your solution? Explain your answer.
Identify a Problem Revise the Model

Identify a problem with this system for which you could Revise your original model to show how the solution you
suggest solutions. For example, is there congestion in suggested would be integrated into the system.
this system when too many people try to get to a location
at the same time?
Language Arts Connection Prepare a multimedia
Suggest a Solution presentation to persuade people to implement your
Image Credits: ©Monkey Business Images/Getty Images Plus
solution. A multimedia presentation should use graphics, text,

Brainstorm some solutions to this problem. How
music, video, and sound. Include your final model, an explanation
could the efficiency of this system be improved in terms
of the following items?
of the solution you are proposing, and a discussion of tradeoffs
you considered.
• time
• costs
• materials
• inputs and outputs
Go online to choose one of

VIRUSES: ARE THEY ALIVE? LIFE UNDER A MICROSCOPE
these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 14: Both robots and humans are complex systems.
Robots have many of the capabilities of humans, including taking in and processing
information and completing many of the same tasks as humans. Robots can be used to
complete tasks that are too dangerous or difficult for humans to complete.
Some robots are built to perform a specific task and do not resemble any sort of
organism. Other robots, though, may have human-like forms and could be used
to provide companionship or health care. When promoting one of their humanoid
robots, similar to the one in Figure 14, an imaginary robotics company claims, “This
living machine is the perfect companion.”
Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook to explain whether or not a
robot fits the criteria of a living system. Consider the following questions when
developing your explanation:
1. Which properties of systems does the robot have, and which does it not?
2. Which properties of living things does the robot have, and which does it not?
3. What potential emergent properties could this robot have?
For each of the above questions, include specific examples and evidence to support
your claims.

CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 6. What is an emergent property?

Use the diagram to answer Questions 1–5. a. a property that a system has but that its individual
component parts do not have
FIGURE 15: This conceptual model shows the basics of how a b. a new property exhibited by a component of a system
dryer works. c. a property of an individual component but not the
system as a whole
electrical
energy d. a property that is not always exhibited by a system
desired
time heat
heating actual 7. Pick two of Earth’s spheres (biosphere, atmosphere,
timer clothes
elements dryness
geosphere, hydrosphere), and draw a model showing
(Input) error (Output) (Process) how these two systems interact. Your model should show
sensor components of these systems, at least one way these
feedback loop components interact, and inputs and outputs that move
from one system to another.
8. Is movement a characteristic of living things? Explain why

1. How does the sensor interact with the other components
this characteristic should or should not be considered a
of this system?
characteristic of living things, giving specific examples to
a. The sensor detects the heat of the clothes and makes support your claim.
the timer generate more heat.
b. The sensor detects the dryness of the clothes and then 9. Explain what a feedback loop is using the terms input,
sends information to the timer. output, and homeostasis.
c. The sensor detects whether the heating element is
functioning properly and then sends input to the
timer.
MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE
d. The sensor detects how much time is left and sends
input to the heating element to increase or decrease
the heat. In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
supports the main idea from this lesson:
2. Which of these is not a direct input for the timer in
Models can be used to illustrate the relationships between
this system?
components of living and nonliving systems.
a. time manually entered by the user
b. electrical signals from the sensor Remember to include the following information in your
c. dryness of the clothes study guide:
d. heat from the heating element • Use examples that model main ideas.
• Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
e. electricity from the wall outlet
• Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions, and
3. Given the model, would you say this system is a closed
other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
system or an open system? Explain your answer.
Consider the properties of systems and system models and how
4. Explain how the feedback loop works in this model. systems can be used to model the levels of organization within
living organisms.
5. Would a small load of laundry take longer to dry than a
larger load? Use the diagram to explain your answer.

1.2
Organisms: Cells
to Body Systems
Muscle cells have a CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?

specialized structure that
allows them to contract.
FIGURE 1: A ballerina awaits her cue backstage.
Image Credits: (t) ©Biophoto Associates/Science Source; (b) ©MUJAHID SAFODIEN/AFP PHOTO/Getty Images
Gather Evidence
As you explore this lesson,
gather evidence to explain how
systems within your body interact
to regulate overall body functions.
If you have ever performed in front of an audience, you may have experienced
the feeling of having “butterflies” in your stomach. When you have a feeling about
something going a certain way, you might describe it as a “gut feeling.” Where do
these sensations come from? Do they come from your stomach, your brain, or both?
Systems within your body interact to help you take in information, make decisions, and
carry out tasks. Sometimes these systems carry out tasks without your even knowing it,
such as pumping your blood, helping you breathe, and breaking down your food.
Predict How do you think systems within your body interact to produce sensations
like “butterflies” in your stomach?

EXPLORATION 1
Interacting Systems in Organisms
Over the course of a day, you complete many different tasks. Whether you are eating,
sleeping, or talking to a friend, systems within your body are interacting at different
levels. Scientists organize multicelluar organisms into five basic levels beginning with
Collaborate Describe a
cells and moving to increasingly complex structures. These five levels of organization
are shown in the human respiratory system in Figure 2. task you perform each day
that requires different systems
A tissue is a group of similar cells that work together to carry out a specific function. within your body to interact.
For example, cells in the epithelial tissue of your lungs have tiny hair-like extensions
called cilia. Together, these ciliated cells act like a conveyer belt to sweep foreign
particles and pathogens out of the lungs. Groups of tissues form organs such as the
lungs, sinuses, and nose. Each of these organs has a specialized function in the body.
Multiple organs interact to carry out whole-body functions. In the respiratory system,
the nose and sinuses filter, moisten, and warm the air before it enters the lungs.
FIGURE 2: Multicellular organisms have a hierarchical structural organization. Each

system, such as the respiratory system, is made up of interacting components.
CELL
the basic unit of life
TISSUE
similar cells that work
together to perform
a specialized function
ORGAN
a group of tissues that
carry out a specialized
function of the body Analyze How do
structures in the respiratory
system interact to protect the
lungs? How might a sinus infection
affect the rest of the respiratory
system?
ORGAN SYSTEMS
two or more organs
that work together
to perform body
functions
ORGANISM
Together, the organ systems make
up the entire organism.
Lesson 2 Organisms: Cells to Body Systems 17

Organ Systems
An organ system is two or more organs that work together to perform body
functions. Organ systems interact to help the organism maintain internal stability, or
homeostasis. For example, the muscular system interacts with the circulatory system
to help pump your blood and deliver oxygen and nutrients to cells. Some of the
components and functions of organ systems in the human body are shown in Figure 3.
FIGURE 3: Organ Systems in the Human Body
System Organs and Other Components Primary Functions

Circulatory heart, blood vessels, blood, lymph transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and wastes; helps regulate
nodes, lymphatic vessels body temperature; collects fluid lost from blood vessels and returns it
to the circulatory system
Digestive mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, breaks down and absorbs nutrients, salts, and water; transfers digested
small and large intestines, pancreas, materials to the blood; eliminates some wastes
gall bladder, liver
Endocrine hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, produces hormones that act on target tissues in other organs to
parathyroids, adrenal glands, pancreas, influence growth, development, and metabolism; helps maintain
ovaries, testes homeostasis
Excretory skin, kidneys, bladder filters blood and eliminates waste products; helps maintain
homeostasis
Immune white blood cells, thymus, spleen protects against disease; stores and generates white blood cells
Integumentary skin, hair, nails, sweat and oil glands protects against infection, UV radiation; regulates body temperature
Muscular skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles produces voluntary and involuntary movements; helps to circulate
blood and move food through the digestive system
Nervous brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves regulates body’s response to changes in internal and external
environment; processes information
Reproductive male: testes, penis, associated ducts produces and transports reproductive cells; provides the environment
and glands for embryonic development in females
female: ovaries, fallopian tubes,
uterus, vagina
Respiratory nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, brings in oxygen for cells, expels carbon dioxide and water vapor
lungs
Skeletal bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendons supports and protects vital organs; allows movement; stores minerals;
bone marrow is site of red blood cell production
Analyze Many organ systems interact with the circulatory system. If a person’s
circulatory system did not function properly, how might other systems, such as the
respiratory and digestive systems, be affected? How would homeostasis, or internal
stabilty, be affected by these system imbalances?

Organs
Organ systems can carry out complex functions, because they are made up of organs
that work together within the system. An organ is a group of tissues that carry out a
specialized function of the body. Figure 4 shows the organs in the digestive system.
Explore Online
FIGURE 4: Organs are components that make up a body system, such as the digestive
system. In general, an organ system is made up of organs specific to the function of Hands-On Lab
that system.
Connecting Form to
Function Examine a slice of the
roots, stems, and leaves of a plant
to explain how their structures
relate to their functions.
mouth
esophagus
liver
stomach
gall bladder pancreas
large intestine small intestine
rectum/anus
The digestive system is a collection of organs that breaks down food into nutrients Predict How might the
and energy that can be used by cells. When you eat, the mouth breaks down food digestive system and the
mechanically by chewing, and proteins called enzymes in your saliva break down immune system interact to help
food chemically. Muscles in the esophagus contract to move the chewed food to the protect the body?
stomach. The stomach then uses both mechanical and chemical digestion to break
down food into nutrient components that the body absorbs and uses. As muscles
in the stomach churn food, it continues to be broken down by gastric juice, which
consists of mucus, enzymes, and acid.
The partly digested food passes into the small intestine, where additional digestion
takes place. Organs such as the liver and pancreas secrete chemicals into the upper
small intestine. These chemicals break food particles into individual nutrients, which
are absorbed through the walls of the small intestine and pass into the blood. Any
food that remains undigested passes into the large intestine where excess water is
absorbed before the solid waste is excreted from the body.
Systems and System Models Make a simple flow chart to illustrate how the
organs of the digestive system interact to help you digest food.

Tissues
For an organ such as the stomach to carry out its function of breaking down food,
different tissues must work together. A tissue is a group of similar cells that work
together to perform a specialized function, usually as part of an organ. In the human
body, organs are made up of four general types of tissues—epithelial, connective,
muscle, and nervous tissue.
FIGURE 5: Organs such as the stomach are made up of four main types of tissues.
epithelial tissue
provides protective
lining; allows for
transport, secretion,
and absorption
connective tissue
Gather Evidence A supports, binds
together, and
tendon is a band of tissue protects other
that attaches a muscle to another tissues and organs
body part such as a bone. Which

type of tissue would tendons most muscle tissue
likely contain? contracts to allow
for movement,
support, and
heat production
nervous tissue
receives and
transmits impulses;
processes
information
Tissues in the stomach help it carry out its function in the body. Signals from nervous
tissue stimulate muscle tissue in the stomach to contract. The walls of the stomach
contain three layers of muscle tissue that contract about every 20 seconds. The muscle
tissue in the stomach contracts involuntarily, without you having to think about it.
The epithelial lining of the stomach is made up of cells that secrete stomach acid and
absorb nutrients. The type of epithelial tissue that lines the stomach has column-
shaped cells. This type of tissue provides a large amount of surface area for absorption
and secretion.
Connective tissue provides support and protection for structures in the body. Some
types of connective tissue are fibrous and tough. Other types, such as loose connective
tissue, provide support to internal organs and the surrounding blood vessels. The
connective tissue that surrounds blood vessels has the property of elasticity. This is
important, because as blood pumps through the circulatory system, the vessels within
this system must stretch to accommodate blood flow.
Analyze How does nervous tissue interact with muscular tissue in the stomach to
break down food? Why is it important for the nervous and digestive systems to work
together?

Cells and Cell Differentiation
Humans, like other multicellular organisms, are collections of specialized cells
that work together. A cell is the most basic unit of life. The cells that make up an
organism arise from a single cell that goes through successive divisions to make
new cells. Cell differentiation is the process by which cells become specialized in
structure and function.
FIGURE 6: All cells in a multicellular organism arise from a single cell. As the organism Engineering
develops, cells take on unique structures that help them carry out specialized functions.
Nanobots are microscopic robots
built on the scale of a nanometer.
smooth epithelial cells
muscle cells in trachea
Engineers are designing nanobots
Image Credits: (tl) ©Biophoto Associates/Science Source; (tr) ©Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images; (cr) ©Science Photo Library/Alamy; (b) ©Manfred P. Kage/Science Source; (cl) ©Sebastian Kaulitzki/Alamy
that can help deliver medicine,

move through the bloodstream
to hard-to-reach areas, and even
destory cancer cells. Research a
type of nanobot currently under
development. How did the purpose
of the nanobot affect its design?
List some structural features
the design has or could have to
complete its purpose.
neurons red blood

cells
sperm cells
The specialization enabled by differentiation is what allows different types of cells to

have different functions. For example, sperm cells have a long tail called a flagellum
that allows for movement. Some epithelial cells in the trachea have hair-like extensions
called cilia. These structures provide a sweeping motion that helps clear small particles
out of the trachea. Neurons have extensions that allow the cell to communicate with
many other cells. This allows for the formation of complex, interconnected networks of
neurons, such as those in the human brain. Your brain contains billions of neurons with
trillions of connections. This allows for communication between the cells of your body,
as well as higher functions such as memory and learning.
Language Arts Connection Red blood cells carry oxygen and nutrients to cells.
To carry out their function, these cells must bind oxygen and travel through small blood
vessels in the circulatory system called capillaries. Capillaries are so narrow that red
blood cells must move through them “single file.” Write an explanation for how the
structure of red blood cells allows them to carry out their function.

FIGURE 7: The nervous system Neurons
is made up of the brain, spinal
cord, and nerves. The nervous system is a network of nerves and sensory organs that work together to
process information and respond to the environment. The basic unit of the nervous
system is the neuron. Neurons are specialized cells that are able to send electrical and
chemical signals to help the organism sense information, coordinate a response, and
carry out that response.
Humans and other organisms have three types of neurons: sensory neurons,
interneurons, and motor neurons. Sensory neurons detect stimuli and send signals to
the brain and the spinal cord. Interneurons in the brain and spinal cord receive and
process the information from the sensory neurons and send response signals to motor
neurons. Motor neurons act on the signal by stimulating muscles to contract.
Systems and System Models Draw a flow chart illustrating how the three types
of neurons would interact to help a person pick up an object.
Most neurons have three main parts: the cell body, one or more dendrites, and an
axon, shown in Figure 8. The short, branchlike extensions that extend from the cell
body are called dendrites. Dendrites receive electrochemical messages from other
cells. The axon is a long extension of the cell that carries electrochemical signals away
from the cell body and passes them to other cells. The branched endings of the axon
are specialized to transmit electrochemical signals to other cells.
FIGURE 8: The neuron is a specialized cell within the nervous system.
axon
cell body
myelin sheath
axon terminals
dendrites
Just as most electric wires are wrapped in an insulating material, many axons are
wrapped in a protective covering called a myelin sheath. This covering is formed from
a collection of cells that are wrapped around the axon. The myelin sheath protects the
axon and helps speed transmission of nerve impulses.
Analyze Diseases such as multiple sclerosis cause the myelin sheath to break down.
How would the breakdown of myelin affect the functioning of a neuron?
The nervous system interacts with all the other systems in the body. For example,
when you eat, your brain signals your digestive system to start making chemicals and
churning your food. Neurons also stimulate muscle tissue in the digestive system to
contract, which helps the digestive system move and break down food.

Muscle Cells FIGURE 9: Skeletal Muscles
Muscles consist of bundles of muscle cells that contract when they are stimulated by
the nervous system. A contraction shortens the muscle, causing the bone or tissue to
which the muscle is attached to move. Some muscles, such as those in Figure 9, are
under voluntary control, so you can choose to move this type of muscle tissue. This
type of muscle is called skeletal muscle. Some muscles are under involuntary control,
meaning they move in response to nerve signals or hormones, but you do not choose
to move them. Smooth muscle in internal organs and cardiac muscle in the heart are
under involuntary control.
Collaborate With a partner, describe an activity that would require muscles that
are under voluntary control and another activity that would require muscles that are
under involuntary control.
The specialized structure of muscle cells allows them to contract. Skeletal muscles
are made up of long cylindrical bundles that contain muscle fibers. Muscle fibers
are bundles of single, thin muscle cells called myofibrils. Each myofibril is made
up of several sarcomeres. A sarcomere is the contractile unit of the muscle cell.
Sarcomeres contain thin filaments made of actin and thick filaments made of myosin.
When a muscle cell is relaxed, actin and myosin are not connected to each other. In
contraction, the myosin attaches to the actin and pulls the actin toward the center of
the sarcomere. This in turn shortens the sarcomere, and the muscle cell contracts. The
contraction of many muscle cells at once shortens the entire muscle.
FIGURE 10: Actin and myosin work together to help a muscle Explore Online
move. During contraction, myosin filaments pull actin filaments toward the center
of the sarcomere.
relaxation Explain How does the

structure of the muscle cell
actin myosin
help it carry out its function?
contraction
muscle
sarcomere
myofibril muscle fiber
Model Construct a model to illustrate how the nervous and digestive systems might
interact to produce the sensation of “butterflies in your stomach.” Which organs are most
likely involved, and how do they interact when you have this feeling?

EXPLORATION 2
The Cell System
Gather Evidence The most basic level of organization in living things is the cell. Organisms may be
Make a table to record the made up of just one cell, or they may be multicellular. Cells in multicellular organisms
name of each organelle or cell are specialized to perform different functions. Your body is made of trillions of cells
structure, its role in the cell system, of many different shapes, sizes, and functions, including long, thin, nerve cells that
and a simple visual or analogy transmit information as well as short, blocky, skin cells that cover and protect the body.
Despite this variety, the cells in your body share many characteristics with one another
representing that organelle. As
and with the cells that make up other organisms.
you read each section, complete
the table.
Cell Structure
All cells are enclosed by a cell membrane that controls the movement of materials into
and out of the cell. Inside the membrane, a cell is filled with cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is
a jelly-like substance that contains dissolved materials such as proteins and sugars.
These building blocks are used to make cell structures and can be broken down to
release energy used by the cell to do work. Some types of cells also have organelles,
which are specialized structures that perform distinct processes within a cell. Most
organelles are surrounded by a membrane. In many cells, the largest and most visible
organelle is the nucleus, which stores genetic information.
Analyze What is the FIGURE 11: Basic Cell Structure
boundary that separates
the cell system from the
surrounding environment? Explain cell membrane
the function of this boundary.
cytoplasm
nucleus
Image Credits: (l) ©Dr. Kari Lounatmaa/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (r) ©LSHTM/Photo Researchers, Inc.
a b
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Scientists classify cells into two broad categories based on their internal structures:
prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus or
other membrane-bound organelles. Instead, the cell’s DNA is suspended in the
cytoplasm. Most prokaryotes are microscopic, single-celled organisms. Eukaryotic
cells have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotes may be
multicellular or single-celled organisms.
Explain Which of the cells in Figure 11 is a prokaryotic cell, and which is a eukaryotic
cell? Cite evidence to support your claim.

Animal Cell Structure
Like your body, eukaryotic cells are highly organized structures. They are surrounded
by a protective membrane that receives messages from other cells. They have
membrane-bound organelles that perform specific cellular processes, divide certain
molecules into compartments, and help regulate the timing of key events.
FIGURE 12: Organelles in the animal cell interact to help the cell carry out functions.
nucleus rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
ribosome cytoskeleton
Analyze Describe how the
endoplasmic reticulum,
lysosome smooth mitochondrion, and Golgi apparatus
endoplasmic are structurally similar.
reticulum
vacuole
mitochondria Golgi apparatus
cytoplasm
cell membrane
vesicle
The cell is not a random jumble of suspended organelles and molecules. Rather,
certain organelles and molecules are anchored to specific sites, depending on the cell
type. If the membrane were removed from the cell, the contents would not collapse
and ooze out in a puddle. The cytoskeleton gives a cell its shape while at the same time
maintaining its flexibility. It is made of small subunits that form long threads, or fibers,
that crisscross the entire cell.
Cytoplasm is itself an important contributor to cell structure. In eukaryotes, it fills the
space between the nucleus and the cell membrane. The fluid portion, excluding the
organelles, consists mostly of water. Water helps maintain the structure of the cell and
provides a medium in which chemical reactions can occur.
Nucleus
The nucleus is the storehouse for most of the genetic information, or DNA, in your
FIGURE 13: The nucleus has
Image Credits: (b) ©DR ELENA KISELEVA/Science Source
cells. DNA is like a blueprint with instructions for making proteins, which carry out
openings called pores.
most of the work in the cell. DNA must be carefully protected, but DNA also must be
available for use at the proper times. Molecules that would damage DNA need to be
kept out of the nucleus. But many molecules are involved in making proteins from
the DNA code, and they need to access the DNA at certain times. The membrane,
or nuclear envelope, that surrounds the nucleus has pores that allow only certain
molecules to pass between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
pores
Structure and Function What purpose is served by controlled openings in the
nuclear membrane?

FIGURE 14: Rough ER is
Endoplasmic Reticulum and Ribosomes
so named because it has A large part of the cytoplasm of most eukaryotic cells is filled by the endoplasmic
ribosomes on the surface. reticulum. The endoplasmic reticulum, or ER, is an interconnected network of thin,
endoplasmic reticulum
folded membranes. Numerous processes, including the production of proteins, occur
both on the surface of the ER and inside the ER. In some regions, the ER is studded with
ribosomes, tiny organelles that help make proteins.
Surfaces of the ER that are covered with ribosomes are called rough ER, because they
look bumpy when viewed with an electron microscope. Not all ribosomes are bound
to the ER; some are suspended in the cytoplasm. In general, proteins made on the ER
ribosomes are either incorporated into the cell membrane or secreted. In contrast, proteins made
on suspended ribosomes are typically used in chemical reactions occurring within
the cytoplasm. ER that does not have ribosomes on the surface is called smooth ER.
Smooth ER performs a variety of specialized functions, such as breaking down drugs
and alcohol.
Explain Neurons have special proteins in their cell membranes that allow them to
generate electrical current. Are these proteins most likely produced by ribosomes on
the rough ER or ribosomes suspended in the cytoplasm? Explain your answer.
FIGURE 15: The Golgi apparatus Golgi Apparatus

processes and delivers proteins. After a protein has been made, part of the ER pinches off to form a vesicle surrounding
the protein. Protected by the vesicle, the protein can be safely transported to the Golgi
Image Credits: (t) ©MedImage/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (c) ©SPL/Science Source/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©Bill Longcore/Photo Researchers, Inc.
apparatus. The Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of membrane-enclosed spaces that
process, sort, and deliver proteins. Its membranes contain structures called enzymes
that make additional changes to proteins. The Golgi apparatus also packages proteins.
Some of the packaged proteins are stored within the Golgi apparatus for later use.
Some are transported to other organelles within the cell. Still others are carried to the
membrane and secreted outside the cell.
Collaborate Discuss this question with a partner: If the cell were compared to a
nonliving system, such as a warehouse that ships products to customers, what would
be an appropriate analogy for the Golgi apparatus?
Mitochondria
FIGURE 16: Mitochondria Mitochondria supply energy to the cell. Mitochondria are bean shaped and have a
provide energy to the cell. double membrane, similar to nuclei. Within the inner membrane, a series of chemical
reactions converts molecules from the food you eat into usable energy. Unlike most
organelles, mitochondria have their own ribosomes and DNA. This fact suggests that
mitochondria were originally free-living prokaryotes that were taken in by larger cells.
Predict Which would you predict would have more mitochondria–a muscle cell or a
skin cell? Explain your answer.
Other structures in the animal cell include lysosomes and centrioles. Lysosomes are
membrane-bound organelles that contain special proteins called enzymes. These
enzymes break down and recycle old, worn-out cell parts. Centrioles are involved in
cell division, and they will be discussed in further detail in another lesson.

Plant Cell Structure
Plant cells have many of the same organelles as animal cells, but they also have some Explore Online
distinct differences. Two important differences are structures that enable plant cells to
Hands-On Lab
capture light energy from the sun and to have a more rigid support structure.
Comparing Cells Use a
FIGURE 17: Plant cells have specialized structures that carry out specific functions, such microscope to investigate the
as protecting the cell and capturing energy.
similarities and differences
between plant and animal cells.
Golgi apparatus nucleus
rough
endoplasmic
vesicle reticulum
central
vacuole
cytoskeleton
chloroplast ribosome
smooth
endoplasmic
vacuole reticulum
mitochondria
cell wall
cell membrane
Explain What organelles do plant cells have that animal cells do not have? What do
you think is the function of each of these organelles?
Cell Wall FIGURE 18: The cell wall

Plants, algae, fungi, and most bacteria have a cell wall that surrounds the cell provides protection and
membrane. The cell wall is a rigid layer that gives protection, support, and shape to the support for the cell.
cell. The cell walls of multiple cells can adhere to each other to help support an entire
Image Credits: (b) ©Ed Reschke/Peter Arnold/Getty Images
cell wall
organism. For instance, much of the wood in a tree trunk consists of dead cells whose
cell walls continue to support the entire tree.
Analyze The cell walls of plant cells have openings, or channels. How is this
structure most likely related to the proper functioning of the plant system?

FIGURE 19: Chloroplasts carry
Chloroplast
out photosynthesis. Chloroplasts are organelles that carry out photosynthesis, a series of complex chemical
reactions that convert light energy from the sun into energy-rich molecules the cell
can use. Like mitochondria, chloroplasts are highly compartmentalized. They have
both an outer membrane and an inner membrane. Also like mitochondria, chloroplasts
have their own ribosomes and DNA. Scientists have hypothesized that they, too, were
originally free-living prokaryotes that were taken in by larger cells.
Collaborate Where do you think the most chloroplasts are found in the plant
system–in leaves, the stem, or the root? Use evidence to support your answer.
Vacuole
A vacuole is a fluid-filled sac used for the storage of materials needed by a cell. These
FIGURE 20: The vacuole stores materials may include water, nutrients, and salts. Most animal cells have many small
materials needed by the cell. vacuoles. The central vacuole, shown in Figure 20, is a structure unique to plant cells.
It is filled with a watery fluid that strengthens the cell and helps to support the entire
plant. The central vacuole also may contain other substances, including toxins that
would harm predators, waste products that would harm the cell itself, and pigments
that give color to cells, such as those in the petal of a flower.
vacuole
Analyze When a plant wilts, its leaves shrivel. How is this phenomenon related to
Image Credits: (t) ©Biophoto Associates/Colorization by Mary Martin/Science Source; (b) ©Biophoto Associates/Colorization by Jessica Wilson/Science Source
the function of the vacuole in the plant system?
Explaining the Cell System Boundary

The cell membrane is an important structure for cell function. The cell membrane,
or plasma membrane, forms a boundary that separates the organelles within the
cell from the environment outside of the cell. The cell membrane also controls the
Predict How do you passage of materials into and out of a cell. The complex, double-layer structure of
think the structure of the the membrane makes it possible for the cell to selectively pass materials, such as
cell membrane allows for some nutrients, water, and waste, in and out of the cell. In this way, the cell membrane
materials to move into the cell, maintains stable conditions within the cell, even when conditions in the surrounding
while other materials are kept out? environment change.
In addition, the structure of the cell membrane allows the cell to communicate with
other cells. For example, a neuron has specialized structures in its cell membrane that
help it send and receive chemical and electrical signals. The membrane’s structure
helps the cell carry out its function within the nervous system, and the nervous
system helps the organism interpret information from their environment and
respond accordingly.
Explain Make a claim for how the organization in eukaryotic cells allows these cells
to perform specialized functions within an organism. How do the components of the cell
system interact to help it carry out specific tasks and interact with other systems in the
body? Use evidence and examples to support your claim.

Engineering
Modeling Interacting Body Systems
In this lesson, you have learned about body systems and Conduct Research
how they interact in organisms. Now it is your turn to model
Research to learn more about how the body systems
interacting body systems within an organism. In this activity,
interact to carry out the task that you chose. As you search
you will create a model to show how systems within an
for information, keep track of your sources to submit with
organism interact to carry out a task of your choice.
your final model. Be sure to use sources that are reliable. For
FIGURE 21: Body systems interact to help keep you healthy. example, government and educational institutions are more
reliable than personal websites. With your final model, submit a
list of resources in the format specified by your teacher.
Make a Model
Your model should include text and media that illustrate how
systems interact at different levels to help an organism carry
out a task. Consider the levels of organization involved, such
as cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems. The model should
also demonstrate how energy, materials, and information flow
within and between systems in the organism.
Language Arts Connection Present your model to

Define the Systems
your peers. Explain how it illustrates interactions between
Decide on a task that interests you, such as running, playing systems required to carry out the task you chose. Consider
video games, or talking to a friend. Think about the body using illustrations, simulations, or demonstrations to
systems that are likely involved in completing that task. For explain the processes involved clearly.
example, the man in Figure 21 is drinking water to rehydrate
after being in the sun. His integumentary system, or skin, A multimedia presentation combines text, sounds, and
sweats to keep him from overheating. As he loses water images. A successful multimedia presentation includes:
through sweat, his nervous system processes information • a clear and consistent focus;
from the body and sends signals that make the man feel
thirsty. To quench his thirst, the man drinks water, which
• ideas that are presented clearly and logically;
eventually reaches his digestive system. Water passes • graphics, text, music, video, and sounds that support key
across cell membranes and eventually into his blood, which points; and
transports it to his cells. • an organization that is appropriate to its purpose and
Image Credits: ©Dennis Walsh/UpperCut Images/Getty Images
audience.
Select an Appropriate Model
Select the type of model you would like to use to illustrate the
interactions among your systems. Types of models include
conceptual models, physical models, mathematical models, and
computer models. Your model should use media and materials
effectively. It should show that you understand the concepts
that you are illustrating and capture the audience’s interest.
COMPARING PROKARYOTES Go online to choose one of

PLANT TISSUES AND CELLS
AND EUKARYOTES these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 22: A ballerina awaits her cue backstage.
Recent research has shown that the nervous system and digestive system are very
closely connected. Nerves not only send signals to the digestive system to function
when needed, but the digestive system sends signals to the nervous system. In fact,
scientists refer to the portion of the nervous system associated with the gut as our
“second brain,” because it can operate without any input from the brain to continue
the digestive process. The second brain contains around 100 million neurons, more
than the spinal cord or the peripheral nervous system. Thus, part of our emotions may
be tied to the nerves in our digestive system.
Explain Use your model of the nervous and digestive systems and the evidence you
have gathered in your Evidence Notebook to construct an explanation of how
sensations, such as “butterflies” in the stomach, might arise. Which organs do you
think are communicating, how are they communicating, and what is the function of Image Credits: ©MUJAHID SAFODIEN/AFP PHOTO/Getty Images
this communication?
1. State your claim.
2. Summarize the evidence you have gathered to support your claim, and explain
your reasoning.
3. Use your model to illustrate your claim. Revise the model as needed based on new
evidence you gathered.

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding

FIGURE 23: Organs such as the stomach are made up of four
main types of tissues.
1. Which of the following correctly describes the
relationship between tissues and organs? epithelial tissue
epithelial
a. Several organs interact to help a tissue carry out a provides protective
tissue
lining; allows for
transport, secretion,
specialized function. and absorption
b. One type of specialized tissue is found in each organ.

connective tissue
c. Organs are made up of different types of tissue that connective
supports, binds
together, and
work together. tissue
protects other
tissues and organs
d. Tissues compete with each other to carry out the main
function of the organ. muscle tissue
muscle
contracts to allow
for movement,
tissue
support, and
2. Which of the following organ systems must work heat production
together to bring oxygen to the body’s cells? Select all

nervous tissue
correct answers. nervous
receives and
transmits impulses;
a. digestive system tissue
processes
information
b. skeletal system
c. immune system
d. respiratory system 8. How do the four types of tissue shown in Figure 23
interact to help the stomach carry out its function of
e. circulatory system
breaking down food?
3. The word organ comes from the Latin word organum,

meaning “instrument” or “implement.” Describe how this
meaning relates to the definition of a living organ.
4. Draw a diagram to show the relationship between cells, In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
organs, tissues, organ systems, and organisms. Include supports the main idea from this lesson:
media and text in your diagram.
Systems in organisms interact at different levels to carry out
functions necessary for life.
5. Explain how the structure of a plant cell helps the plant
system maintain its shape. Remember to include the following information in your
study guide:
6. Which organelles are found in plant cells but not animal • Use examples that model main ideas.
cells? How are these structures related to functions at the • Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
organism level? • Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
7. List the main organ systems that would interact to help a other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
person play the violin, and explain how they would work
together to help the person complete this task. Consider how the information in this lesson can help you model
interactions within and between systems at different levels.

1.3
Mechanisms of Homeostasis
Your circulatory system

responds to an increase CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
in cellular metabolism
by increasing the flow of
The complex tissues, organs, and organ systems in your body must respond to a
oxygen-carrying red blood
cells to your tissues. wide variety of conditions. For example, you might walk out of a warm building
into the cold outside and feel the drastic change of temperature. Your body
temperature must remain the same in both conditions for you to survive.
FIGURE 1: Your body has control systems that keep its internal environment stable.
Gather Evidence
As you explore this lesson,
gather evidence about the ways
your body responds to changing
environmental conditions.
Image Credits: (t) ©Science Picture Co./Science Source; (b) ©Hero Images/Alamy
When it is cold outside, you likely wear warm clothing and you might drink a hot
beverage to stay warm. However, if you become too cold, your body’s temperature
control center jumps into action. Receptors in your skin send signals to the brain,
which sets into motion warming tactics, such as shivering. When you shiver, your
muscles contract and expand in quick bursts, which releases energy and helps you
to warm back up.
Predict Many people shiver when they have a fever, even though their body
temperature is higher than normal. Why would your body respond to the increased
internal temperature as though you were cold?

EXPLORATION 1
Control Systems in Organisms
External and internal factors such as temperature changes, infection, stress, and
pollution challenge the stability of an organism. In the same way that a cell must
maintain stable conditions, an organism must maintain stability despite changes
in its internal state or within the environment in which it lives.
Control Systems
Fortunately, the body has many control systems that keep its internal environment
stable. Together, these control systems are responsible for maintaining homeostasis.
Homeostasis is the regulation and maintenance of the internal environment within the
narrow ranges that are necessary to support life at the cellular level.
FIGURE 2: Control systems maintain homeostasis.
Control
3 4
Center
Receptor Effector
5
Imb
alan
ce
2
Balance
Imb
alan
ce
As shown in Figure 2, homeostasis is maintained through the following steps:

1. A stimulus is anything from the internal or external environment that causes an
imbalance in the internal conditions of a cell, organ, organ system, or organism.
Gather Evidence
2. Stimuli are detected by receptors. There are thousands of internal receptors, as well
Identify a change in your
as specialized receptors that detect information about changes in the organism’s
environment that might affect
external environment.
homeostasis. Explain using the
3. The receptor sends information to a control center, often in the central nervous
terms stimulus, control center, set
system. The control center compares the information to set points. Set points are
point, receptors, effectors, and
ideal values for the conditions at which the body functions best.
imbalance in your answer.
4. If the control center detects movement away from the set point, it responds
by sending messages through one of the organism’s communication systems.
Messages sent by the control center are carried to effectors that carry out the
response.
5. The response restores balance by returning internal conditions to their set points.
Lesson 3 Mechanisms of Homeostasis 33

Homeostasis depends on communication between the receptors, the control center,
and the effectors. In the human body, communication is the joint responsibility of the
nervous system and the endocrine system.
The nervous system sends messages along a direct route between the receptor and
Model Use the
the control center, or between the control center and the effector. The control center
homeostatic control
in the human body is the central nervous system, which consists of the brain and the
systems diagram in Figure 2 to spinal cord. Some responses, such as shivering, are generated by the spinal cord and
explain how shivering can help are called reflex responses. Information that requires more interpretation, such as
body temperature return to normal. visual and auditory input, is routed through the brain.
Unlike the nervous system, the endocrine system uses a more indirect—but still
rapid—method of communication. Hormones are chemicals secreted into the
bloodstream by ductless endocrine glands. The hormones then travel throughout the
body, acting only on cells that have receptors for those particular hormones.
In order to maintain homeostasis, receptors throughout the organism must constantly

compare current conditions to the appropriate set points. Set points are actually
narrow ranges of acceptable conditions in a cell or organism. If receptors detect a
change in an internal condition causing it to stray outside the set point, the control
center communicates instructions to the effector. The effector acts to restore the
internal environment to its set point. This interaction between the receptor, the
control center, and the effector is known as a feedback loop.
Hands-On Activity
Modeling Feedback
Have you ever lost and recovered your balance? If so, you’ve experienced a
FIGURE 3: Feedback will
feedback loop between your center of balance and your skeletal muscles. In this
help you balance a book
activity, you will balance a book on your head while walking.
on your head.
Predict How would you need to adjust your balance to keep a book balanced
on your head?
PROCEDURE
1. Balance the hardcover book on your head.
2. Walk 3 meters forward and backward—once with your eyes open,
then with your eyes closed.
MATERIALS 3. Always walk with a partner when your eyes are closed and clear any objects
• Hardcover book, from your path.
at least 6" × 8"
Image Credits: ©Rob Lewine/Getty Images
ANALYZE
1. What type of receptors provided information about the position of the book
while you walked?
2. How did you respond whenever the book changed position? Did you find
it more or less difficult to maintain balance with your eyes closed? Explain
your answer.

Negative Feedback Loops
Consider what happened in the book-balancing activity. You responded to a change

in the book’s position by changing your speed or moving your body in the opposite
direction until the book returned to balance. You continued to make adjustments to
maintain that balance until you removed the book from your head.
What you experienced was the result of a negative feedback loop. In a negative
feedback loop, a stimulus causes an imbalance in one direction. This imbalance is
detected by receptors that send information to the control center. The control center
evaluates the information and sends a signal to the effectors to make an adjustment
that is in the opposite direction from the stimulus, returning the system to balance.
Why is this process called a loop? The receptors also check the new conditions that
result from the actions of the effector and then update the control center. The control
center then signals any additional actions that the effector needs to take. These small
changes cause conditions to hover around the set point and maintain homeostasis.
FIGURE 4: Negative Feedback Loop Flow Chart
Stimulus causes Receptor monitors

deviation from set point. conditions.
Control center compares

information from receptors Imbalance is conteracted.
to set point.
Effector carries out response

Body is at homeostasis. NO Is there an imbalance? YES
from control center.
The thermostat of a furnace is a nonliving example of a negative feedback loop. The

thermostat contains a receptor (thermometer), a control center (microprocessor),
and an effector (switch). The set point is the programmed temperature. When the
thermometer detects that the air temperature is lower than the set point, it signals the
thermostat’s microprocessor, which responds by turning on the switch of the furnace. Analyze Based on
Figure 4, explain how the
While the heating system is running, the thermometer continues to measure air body uses a negative feedback loop
temperature and send updates to the microprocessor, which compares it to the
to regulate body temperature. Use
desired temperature. Once the air temperature reaches the set point or just slightly
the terms control center, stimulus,
above it, the control center turns off the furnace until the room temperature once
set point, receptors, effectors, and
again drops below the set point. As a result, the room temperature remains within a
couple of degrees of the set point. imbalance in your answer.
Your body has its own internal thermostat. Humans need to maintain a body
temperature between 36.7 °C and 37.1 °C (98.2 °F and 98.8 °F). This narrow range is
maintained by several mechanisms. Two of these mechanisms are sweating to cool
down when the temperature exceeds 37.1 °C and shivering to warm up when it drops
below 36.7 °C.

Positive Feedback Loops
Just as there are negative feedback loops in living systems, there are also positive
feedback loops. A negative feedback loop makes adjustments in the opposite direction
of a stimulus, but a positive feedback loop makes adjustments in the same direction
as the stimulus. Scientists sometimes refer to positive feedback loops as reinforcing
loops, because they amplify the stimulus instead of counteracting it.
Have you ever experienced a loud screech coming from a loudspeaker in an
auditorium or at a show? This is an example of a positive feedback loop. The sound
from the microphone is amplified and sent through the loudspeaker. Sometimes, the
microphone will pick up that sound again, it is amplified, and sent through the speaker
again. This loop continues again and again. Eventually, you hear the high-pitched
screech from the loudspeaker.
FIGURE 5: Positive Feedback Loop Flow Chart
Stimulus causes Receptor monitors

deviation from set point. conditions.
YES Is the task complete? NO
Control center compares

information from receptors Imbalance is conteracted.
to set point.
Effector carries out response

Body is at homeostasis. NO Is there an imbalance? YES
from control center.
Collaborate Oxytocin is Positive feedback is important when rapid change is needed, such as when you cut
a pituitary hormone that your finger. Your body depends on maintaining blood volume and blood pressure. A
stimulates the muscles in the uterus cut results in blood loss, so the body depends on a positive feedback loop to quickly
generate a clot to stop the bleeding. This occurs as platelets and clotting factors
to contract during birth. It also
stimulate the activation of more platelets and clotting factors at the wound. Once the
stimulates the release of
cut has healed, a clot is no longer needed (and could be dangerous if it gets into the
prostaglandins from the placenta,
bloodstream). The body then uses another positive feedback loop to dissolve the clot.
causing more uterine contractions.
With a partner, explain how this Positive feedback loops are not as common in the body as negative feedback loops,
process is a positive feedback loop. but they are important for maintaining homeostasis. For example, some hormones
are regulated by positive feedback loops. The release of one hormone may stimulate
the release or production of other hormones or substances, which stimulate further
release of the initial hormone.
Explain The body relies on positive and negative feedback loops to maintain
homeostasis. One such feedback loop is used to maintain water balance in the body. What
type of feedback loop returns the body to homeostasis when it becomes dehydrated? Use
evidence from this lesson to support your answer.

EXPLORATION 2
Homeostasis in the Human Body
Homeostasis regulates many different things in organisms, such as temperature, Explore Online
water balance, salt levels, pH, nutrients, and gases. Because all of these things have
Hands-On Lab
set points, the body requires feedback loops for each one in order to maintain
homeostasis. Remember that at its most basic level, the body is composed of many Negative and Positive Feedback
groups of specialized cells. These cells are further organized into organs, which in Analyze data and generate graphs
turn are organized into systems. Whatever affects one organ system affects the body to determine whether a process is
as a whole. This means that whenever an imbalance occurs in one organ system, the an example of a negative or positive
imbalance affects the entire organism.
feedback loop.
Interacting Organ Systems

All of your body systems interact to maintain homeostasis, much like a group of
dancers interact to perform a highly choreographed ballet. If one dancer misses a
cue, it throws the rest of the dancers out of step and time. Consider the importance
of a healthy blood pressure to the body. Blood pressure is the force with which blood
pushes against the walls of blood vessels. Receptors in the blood vessels and heart
detect changes in blood pressure, then signal the brain. The brain stimulates the heart
to beat faster or slower to help restore the blood pressure to its correct level.
Arteries are a type of blood vessel in the circulatory system that carry oxygen-rich
blood throughout the body. If blood pressure is too low, the brain tells the heart
to beat faster to increase the amount of blood in the arteries, which increases the
pressure exerted by the blood on the walls of the arteries. If the pressure is too high,
the heart beats slower, reducing the amount of blood in the arteries and so lowering
the blood pressure. In this case, the systems working together to maintain blood
pressure homeostasis are the nervous system and the circulatory system.
Cause and Effect
Blood pressure depends on how elastic and unblocked the arteries are and on
FIGURE 6: Blocked Artery
the strength of the heart contraction. The less elastic the arteries and the more
blockages that reduce blood flow, the harder the heart must pump. As a result,
blood pressure rises. Blood pressure also rises naturally with activity, stress, and
strong emotions, but it should drop again with rest. If the pressure remains high,
Image Credits: ©Colorization by: Mary Martin/Science Source
there could be a problem in the circulatory system.
Predict If a person’s blood pressure is too high or too low, how might the other
organ systems in their body be affected?

Maintaining Glucose Concentrations
The cells in the human body rely heavily on glucose to supply the energy needed to
survive and grow. However, glucose concentrations in the blood must be maintained
within a very narrow range for good health. Glucose needs can vary widely depending
on what activities the body is performing. A person’s activity levels are always
changing, so the body must work constantly to maintain homeostasis.
FIGURE 7: Glucose levels are regulated by a negative feedback loop.
Receptors Blood glucose Blood glucose Receptors

detect change level drops level rises detect change
Pancreas releases Pancreas releases

glucagon Homeostasis insulin
Body cells take

up glucose
Liver breaks down Blood glucose Blood glucose
glycogen and level rises level drops
Liver stores glucose
releases glucose
as glycogen
Blood glucose levels are controlled by two feedback loops, shown in Figure 7. Each
loop relies on the endocrine system to respond to changing levels. When blood
glucose levels rise, such as when you eat a meal, the increase is detected by beta cells
in the pancreas. The beta cells respond by releasing insulin, which stimulates cells to
absorb glucose from the blood stream. It also causes the liver to store excess glucose
in the form of glycogen. Once levels return to the set point, insulin secretion subsides.
This feedback keeps blood glucose levels from exceeding the maximum set point.
The body has a second feedback loop that maintains a minimum blood glucose
Analyze Why are the level. Blood glucose levels can drop after a long time passes without eating or during
insulin and glucagon prolonged exercise. When the brain detects levels below the minimum set point, it
signals pancreatic alpha cells to produce glucagon. Glucagon stimulates the liver to
feedback loops examples of
convert glycogen to glucose and release it into the blood stream. If the liver is unable
negative feedback loops?
to release glucose rapidly enough, the brain signals a feeling of hunger in order to
obtain additional glucose.
Explore Online Maintaining Carbon Dioxide Concentrations

Hands-On Lab
Every time you exercise, lie down to rest, or simply stand up, your needs for oxygen
Investigating Homeostasis and nutrients change. Your heart speeds up or slows down and you breathe faster
and Exercise Investigate how or slower, depending on your level of activity. The respiratory system interacts with
the circulatory system, respiratory the nervous system to maintain homeostasis. Control centers in the brain monitor
system, and perspiration levels are dissolved gases in the blood, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2)
affected by exercise. concentrations.

As you become more active, CO2 levels increase and the blood becomes more acidic.
FIGURE 8: Circulatory System
Sensors signal this change to the brain. The brain sends messages through the nervous
and endocrine systems that stimulate the diaphragm and rib cage muscles to work
more rapidly. This allows you to take in more O2 and release CO2, returning levels in
your body to homeostasis.
In humans, gas exchange is a cooperative effort of the circulatory and respiratory
systems. The circulatory system distributes blood and other materials throughout the
body, supplying cells with nutrients and oxygen, and carrying away wastes. Blood
vessels are organized so that oxygen-poor blood and oxygen-rich blood do not mix.
The circulatory system has three types of blood vessels: arteries, veins, and capillaries.
Arteries carry oxygen-rich, or oxygenated, blood away from the heart. Veins are blood
vessels that carry oxygen-poor, or deoxygenated, blood back to the heart. Capillaries
are responsible for delivering O2 directly to cells and removing CO2 and waste. With
a wall only one cell thick, it is easy for materials to diffuse easily into and out of
capillaries. The capillary system serves as a connection between arteries and veins,
ensuring a continuous path for blood flow throughout the body.
Once the veins deliver deoxygenated blood to the heart, it is immediately transported
to the lungs, where gases can be exchanged with the air. As shown in Figure 8, when
you inhale, the air flows from your nose or mouth through the trachea to the bronchi
(sing. bronchus). The air continues into smaller branches called bronchioles and finally
into small, thin-walled air sacs called alveoli. A network of capillaries surrounds each
alveolus, taking in O2 and releasing CO2. When you exhale, the CO2 exits through your
nose or mouth.
FIGURE 9: Diffusion of gases into and out of the alveoli maintains oxygen and carbon dioxide homeostasis.
bronchiole alveoli
nose
bronchus capillary
mouth
CO2
trachea
alveolus
O2
alveoli capillaries
lungs
Gas homeostasis in the blood is maintained through diffusion. When you inhale, the Model Create a flow
air has a higher concentration of O2 than the blood in the capillaries surrounding Make a flow chart
the alveoli. This allows O2 to diffuse down a concentration gradient into the blood. explaining how homeostasis is
From there, the blood is taken to the heart and pumped through the body. The maintained when you become more
concentration of O2 in the blood is higher than in the cells, so it diffuses out of the active. How do the respiratory and
blood. Carbon dioxide diffuses in the opposite direction—from the cells into the
nervous systems interact to
blood. The concentration of CO2 is higher in the cells than in the blood because cells
maintain appropriate CO2 and O2
produce CO2 as a waste product. Once in the blood, it travels back to the heart and
levels and prevent the blood from
then into the lungs, where it diffuses into the alveoli and is exhaled out of the lungs.
becoming too acidic?

Disrupting Homeostasis
Homeostatic mechanisms usually work quickly, but sometimes a change in the
environment can occur too rapidly or be of too great a magnitude to be controlled
through feedback mechanisms. When this happens, homeostasis is disrupted.
Disruptions can happen for several reasons including the failure of sensors to detect
a change in the internal or external environment, sending or receiving the wrong
message, serious injury, or disease-causing agents, such as bacteria or viruses.
A rhinovirus, shown in Figure 10, can change the body’s internal chemistry to cause
the common cold. This results in disruption of one or more homeostatic mechanisms.
One commonly disrupted mechanism is body temperature, resulting in fever. A fever
occurs when the hypothalamus raises the set point for internal temperature. This
makes you feel cold, because your internal temperature is below the set point. Your
body may shiver to raise your internal temperature closer to the new set point.
FIGURE 10: The common cold is caused by a rhinovirus.
Short-Term Effects
Collaborate With a Many disruptions in homeostasis are temporary. A cold is an excellent example of a
partner, discuss whether short-term disruption in homeostasis. When the virus first enters your body, it may
multiply too rapidly for your immune system to destroy it. When that happens, you
your body’s response to the
may experience cold symptoms, such as a sore throat or runny nose. In only a few
common cold is an example of
days, however, your immune system develops antibodies that can mark the virus
negative or positive feedback. Use
for destruction, restoring homeostasis. Lasting damage from the common cold is
evidence to support your claim. very rare.
Recall that shivering is the body’s response to decreased body temperature. Shivering
occurs when you are sick not because you are experiencing cold environmental
temperatures, but because your body is trying to adjust to a new—higher—set point
for body temperature. In other words, your body is shivering to produce a fever.
Long-Term Effects
Image Credits: ©James Cavallini/Science Source
Long-term disruptions of homeostasis can cause more damage than short-term

disruptions. One form of long-term disruption is Cushing’s syndrome. This disorder
is caused by a long-term elevation of the hormone cortisol. Cushing’s can result from
tumors of the adrenal or pituitary gland, or from long-term cortisone treatment.
Cortisol is one of the body’s stress hormones. When it remains elevated for long
periods of time, it disrupts glucose and fat metabolism, immune response, and sleep,
and causes blood pressure to increase. Each of these disruptions can lead to other
disorders, such as hypertension, diabetes, strokes, and heart attacks.

Data Analysis
Understanding Diabetes
Recall that the regulation of blood glucose levels occurs through negative feedback
loops. The insulin loop is stimulated by elevated blood glucose levels, and the
glucagon loop is stimulated by lowered blood glucose levels.
Diabetes mellitus is a long-term disruption of the insulin feedback loop. Type 1
occurs when the body’s immune system destroys the ability of beta cells in the
pancreas to produce insulin. Type 2 is caused when pancreatic insulin production
decreases or when insulin cannot move glucose from the blood into cells.
Insulin and Glucagon Levels after MealsInsulin and Glucagon Levels after Meals Insulin and Glucagon Levels after Meals
FIGURE 11: Blood glucose, insulin, and glucagon responses to a high-carbohydrate meal.
120 120 120

glucose insulin glucagon
80 110
µU/mL
pg/mL
mg/dL
100
40 100
80 0 90
–60 0 60 120 180 240 –60 0 60 120 180 240 –60 0 60 120 180 240
Minutes Minutes Minutes
High carbohydrate meal High carbohydrate meal High carbohydrate meal
Two variables are inversely related if an increase in the value of one variable is
associated with a decrease in the value of the other variable. For example, the
levels of insulin and glucose increase and glucagon decreases when a person eats.
Therefore, insulin and glucose levels have an inverse relationship to glucagon. This
relationship can be seen in Figure 11.
Analyze Answer the following questions in your Evidence Notebook:
1. What is the relationship between blood glucose levels, insulin levels, and glucagon
levels in the blood stream?
2. Type 1 Diabetes occurs when the body’s immune system destroys the ability of the
pancreas to produce insulin. How would these graphs look different in a person
with Type 1 diabetes?
Homeostasis is critical for the health of any organism and requires various systems to
interact. To maintain some homeostasis some organisms may use methods similar
to those in humans, and others may require different methods specific to their
environment.
bi_cnlese539273_73a bi_cnlese539273_322a
8-1-16 Explain Choose an example of8-1-16
a homeostatic variable from this lesson. Explain the
Leslie Kell Leslie Kell homeostasis for this variable. Then describe
feedback loop responsible for maintaining
how homeostasis for this variable can be disrupted.

EXPLORATION 3
Homeostasis in Other Organisms
Many of the homeostatic processes you have learned about in humans are the same
in other organisms as well. However, some organisms use different mechanisms to
maintain homeostasis. For example, not all mammals have sweat glands all over
their skin and so are unable to rely on sweating to cool off. As sweat evaporates, heat
is removed with it, cooling the skin. Dogs make up for the lack of sweat glands by
panting. When they pant, the short, shallow breaths direct air flow over the moist
linings of their upper respiratory tract. This has the same evaporative cooling effect as
a breeze passing over your sweaty skin.
Predict What other organisms do you think would have different homeostasis
mechanisms from humans? Why would this be an advantage in their environment?
Gas Exchange in Plants

Plants take in carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and give off oxygen as a waste
product. In plants, like in humans, homeostatic mechanisms regulate gas exchange.
Gases are exchanged through structures called stomata (singular, stoma). Stomata are
small openings, or pores, on the underside of leaves that are surrounded by cells called
guard cells. Stomata can be open or closed, depending on the needs of the plant.
When the sun is out, certain wavelengths of light are absorbed
FIGURE 12: Stomata help a plant maintain homeostasis.
by a protein called phototropin, stimulating a series of
reactions that causes the guard cells to fill with water. The
guard cells become more rigid, causing the stomata to open.
While the stomata are open for photosynthesis, water vapor is
given off. Giving off water vapor is not necessarily bad for the
plant. In fact, it helps draw water into the plant at the roots. It
also allows the plant to eliminate the oxygen produced during
photosynthesis.
Water vapor loss is not a problem for plants in moist
environments. However, plants in dry or drought
environments may struggle to maintain water balance
because they lose water faster than they can replace it. This
causes the plant to wilt and disrupts other homeostatic
mechanisms that rely on nutrients that are drawn into the
roots with water. To counteract this, many types of plants
Image Credits: ©Power and Syred/Science Source
release a hormone called abscisic acid, or ABA, from the roots

in response to decreased soil water levels. The accumulation
of ABA in leaves triggers the transport of water out of the
guard cells. This causes the cells to relax, closing the stomata.
Analyze Determine the stimulus, receptor, control center response, and effector for
gas exchange for plants.

Stability and Change
Plant Response to Drought FIGURE 13: The root growth of the plant on the right has
been affected by drought.
How does a plant cope with long-term or recurring water
stress? Again, the homeostatic mechanism begins with
the roots. One of the effects of drought is to alter the way
roots grow in various plants. For example, when the plant
maidenstears (Silene vulgaris) experiences moderate drought-
stress, its roots grow deeper into the soil in search of water. A
larger percentage of the roots are thin, allowing them to reach
into tiny pores in the soil in search of every drop of water. In
other plant species, such as myrtle (Myrtus communis), the
percentage of thicker roots is greater in drought conditions.
Scientists also discovered that roots in drought-stressed
maidenstears have more branches than those grown under
normal conditions.
Normal roots are relatively white and flexible. Drought stress
tends to make roots become harder and turn brown. This
is due to the presence of a waxy substance called suberin,
the main component of cork. This forms a protective cap on
the root tip as it enters a resting phase while soil moisture
remains low.
Another change observed in drought-stressed plants is an
increase in the thickness of the root cortex—the outer layer of
root tissue. This helps protect the root from dehydration.
Model Create a model demonstrating how this feedback

mechanism helps a plant maintain homeostasis during a
drought.
Thermoregulation
Not all feedback loops involve nerve impulses or hormones. Thermoregulation Explain
maintains a stable body temperature under a variety of conditions. Sometimes, Is thermoregulation an
the response to a temperature imbalance is a change in behavior. This type of example of negative or positive
feedback response is how cold-blooded animals, or ectotherms, manage their feedback? Use evidence to support
Image Credits: ©marinagluxova 30/Fotolia
body temperature. Unlike warm-blooded animals, or endotherms, that use your answer.
metabolic processes to manage internal body temperature, ectotherms do not have
physiological mechanisms to maintain a constant body temperature. Instead, their
body temperature is determined by their surrounding environment. When ectotherms
become too cold, they move to a warmer environment. When they become too hot,
they move to a cooler environment. This behavior helps them maintain homeostasis.

Osmoregulation
When you live in a watery environment, you must have a strategy to maintain water
and salt balances. If you live in salt water, your environment is constantly trying to
dehydrate you. If you live in fresh water, your body acts like a permanently thirsty
sponge. Saltwater and freshwater fish have developed strategies to cope with
these problems. As part of those prevention strategies, both types of fish undergo a
homeostatic process called osmoregulation, which balances fluid and salt levels.
FIGURE 14: The type of water environment determines the osmoregulation strategy of fish.
Water and salt Water and some Water and salt

obtained through gills salt gained in food excreted through gills
Small amounts of salt and Large amounts of salt and Water and salt gained
large amounts of water small amounts of water through food and
excreted by kidneys excreted by kidneys drinking seawater
a Freshwater fish b Saltwater (marine) fish
Fish in freshwater environments (Figure 14a) must retain as much salt as possible in
Collaborate order to maintain osmotic balance. Their kidneys reabsorb salt and excrete very dilute
urine to rid themselves of as much excess water as they can. At the same time, they
A saltwater fish swims into
take in salt through the gills and in food, and drink very little water.
a river delta, where the salt
concentration is lower than in In contrast, when marine fish ingest salt water (Figure 14b), their bodies attempt to
normal saltwater. This would excrete, or get rid of, as much of the salt as possible in order to maintain osmotic
disrupt its osmotic balance. With a balance. The kidneys help extract salt from the body and concentrate it into very salty
partner, explain how the fish’s body urine, which is then excreted from the body. The fish’s gills actively excrete salt as well.
will restore homeostasis. Land animals, on the other hand, must maintain osmotic balance in a dry environment.
Their primary goal for osmotic regulation is water conservation. The kidneys of
land animals work more like those of a saltwater fish. That is, the necessary water
Image Credits: (l) ©Life on White/Alamy Images; (r) ©Martin Harvey/Alamy

is reabsorbed and excess salt ions are excreted. The drier the climate and the more
difficult it is to obtain water, the more concentrated the urine will be.
The type of nitrogenous waste that land animals excrete also affects their ability to
maintain osmotic balance. Fish excrete this waste as urea, which is water-soluble. Most
mammals also excrete urea. This means they must take in enough water to maintain
osmotic balance while excreting enough to flush the urea from their bodies. Reptiles,
amphibians, birds, and insects excrete these wastes as insoluble uric acid. This allows
them to conserve water by producing highly concentrated urine.
Explain Make a flow chart modeling a homeostatic mechanism in an animal and how it
can be disrupted. In your flow chart, note the stimulus, receptor, control center response,
and effector for the feedback loop.

Hands-On Lab
Investigating Homeostasis and Exercise
Your body’s temperature, heart rate, and blood pressure need to remain within
FIGURE 15: Increased activity
certain set ranges. An increase in activity level will shift these values, and your
can affect homeostasis.
body will use feedback loops to bring levels back to the target set points. Exercise
particularly affects the circulatory and respiratory systems as well as perspiration
levels. In this lab, you will develop an experiment to test the effect of exercise on
homeostasis and then create graphs to analyze your results.
Predict How will the circulatory and respiratory systems and perspiration levels
change in response to exercise? How will the body return to homeostasis?
PROCEDURE
Develop a procedure to test how the circulatory and respiratory systems and SAFETY
perspiration levels change in response to exercise and how the body returns to ideal If the person exercising feels
conditions after exercise. Consider the following questions for your procedure: discomfort at any time, stop the
experiment and inform your
• What will be the role of each team member? Not everyone will exercise. teacher immediately.
• What materials will you need for the experiment?

• How will you measure the response to increased activity?
• How will you you know whether the body systems are in a stable state?
• How many experimental trials will you need? How long will each trial last?
• Which variable will you change, and which variables will be kept constant?
• How will you record your data?
Your teacher must approve your materials list and procedure before you begin.
ANALYZE
1. Graph the measurements you took of changes in the circulatory and respiratory
systems and perspiration levels as a function of how long a person has exercised.
2. Using your data and graphs, determine the effects of exercise over time on the
circulatory and respiratory systems and on perspiration levels.
3. How would you improve your procedure to better collect data for the question
asked in this activity? Did you make any errors that affected your results? What
other measurements could you collect to learn about the effect of exercise?
Image Credits: ©Tom Carter/PhotoEdit
4. How are perspiration levels related to body temperature and homeostasis?

5. Develop a feedback loop to model the relationship between exercise and either
the circulatory system or respiratory system.

DISORDERS OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM EXPLAINING HOMEOSTASIS
these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 16: Control systems in the skin help conserve body heat.
In the winter, you take steps to help your body maintain its internal temperature by
wearing warm clothes and drinking hot beverages or eating hot soup. Your body also
has its own ways of maintaining its internal temperature in cold weather. When your
body temperature drops below a set point, your brain signals your muscles to contract
and expand rapidly. These contractions, or shivering, generate heat, which helps
increase your body temperature.
Many viruses and bacteria that cause illnesses reproduce best around 37 °C, which is
normal body temperature. To fight off these agents, the body increases its internal
temperature above the normal range. This makes it harder for the virus or bacteria to
reproduce and your immune system can fight it off more quickly. By shivering, your
body is trying to raise its internal temperature to meet the new set point. When the
infection is cleared, your body returns to the set point, and the fever breaks.
Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook to explain each of the
following questions. Use evidence from the lesson to support your claims.
1. Why do you shiver when you have a fever?
Image Credits: ©Hero Images/Alamy
2. Is this response an example of positive or negative feedback? Why?

3. How does a fever disrupt homeostasis? Use the terms stimulus, control center,
set point, receptors, effectors, and imbalance in your answer.

CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 6. People who experience severe blood loss go into a
condition known as hemorrhagic shock. Shock occurs
1. How do stomata function in most plants relative to gas when the blood volume returning to the heart is reduced.
exchange? The heart responds by trying to increase output, which
a. Stomata close to prevent nitrogen from escaping. can result in the patient bleeding to death if they are not
b. Stomata close to allow photosynthesis to occur. treated in time. Is this an example of negative feedback
or positive feedback? Explain your answer.
c. Stomata open to allow carbon dioxide in and oxygen
and water out.
7. Many desert animals are nocturnal, waiting to forage
d. Stomata open to allow water to build up in the plant.
when temperatures are cooler and humidity is greater.
How does this behavior help these animals regulate
2. The circulatory and respiratory systems work together
water balance?
to provide cells with oxygen and nutrients and remove
waste products such as carbon dioxide. When you need
8. What would happen to glucose homeostasis if the
more oxygen, how does the circulatory system respond?
pancreas could no longer produce glucagon?
a. More blood is sent to the lungs and less to the rest of
the body.
9. Exercise increases carbon dioxide levels in the blood. This
b. The blood vessels to the arms and legs constrict to affects homeostasis by decreasing blood pH, which is
conserve oxygen. detected by receptors in the brain stem. The brain stem
c. The heart beats at a faster rate to match the rise in is the control center for gas exchange. Based on this
breathing rate. information, what message would the brain stem send
d. Blood moves more slowly through the organs to carry to the muscles of the diaphragm and rib cage to restore
away more wastes. blood pH homeostasis?
3. What would happen on a hot day if your brain did not

receive input that your body was starting to heat up?
a. You would start to sweat.
b. You would start to overheat.
c. You would start to shiver.
d. You would not feel any effect at all. In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
4. Flatworms are invertebrates with soft bodies, and
Homeostasis is the regulation and maintenance of the internal
some live in freshwater environments. Based on
environment within a set range that is necessary to support
this information, what can you predict about how a
life at the cellular level.
freshwater flatworm’s body handles osmoregulation?
Select all correct answers. Remember to include the following information in your
a. Excretes dilute urine study guide:
b. Excretes concentrated urine • Use examples that model main ideas.
c. Absorbs as much salt as possible from surroundings • Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
d. Excretes as much salt as possible from its body • Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
5. When a newborn baby nurses, the mother’s body is other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
stimulated to produce milk. What would happen to the
Consider the role positive and negative feedback loops play in
milk supply if the mother chose to bottle-feed rather than
maintaining homeostasis in an organism.
breastfeed? Why?

1.4
Bioengineering
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 1: Technologies, such as pacemakers, can be used to solve health problems.

Prosthetics are an example
of bioengineering.
Gather Evidence
As you explore the lesson,
gather evidence to explain how a
nonliving system can be designed
to work together with a living
pacemaker
system.
electrode
Image Credits: (t) ©MichaelSvoboda/E+/Getty Images; (br) ©Photographer’s Choice/Peter Dazeley/Getty Images
In a healthy heart, the rhythmic beating is the result of carefully timed nerve signals
that spread throughout the cardiac muscle. These signals cause the muscle to
contract in a specific sequence that forces blood to travel through the atria and
ventricles of the heart. When these signals fail to fire correctly, the heart may beat
slowly or erratically, or one or more chambers may not contract properly. If this
occurs, a medical professional may fit a patient with a pacemaker.
Pacemakers are designed to take over or assist the nerve signals that occur naturally
in the heart. The first battery-operated, portable pacemakers were developed in the
1950s. A modern pacemaker, shown in Figure 1, consists of a battery and computer
in the casing with electrodes entering the heart. The electrodes and computer work
together to monitor the heart’s activity and send electric impulses when the heart’s
rhythm is abnormal. The battery provides the power for the electrodes to stimulate
the cardiac muscle.
Predict The batteries in pacemakers do not last forever and eventually need to be
recharged or replaced. What types of features would you need to consider when
designing a better battery for a pacemaker?

EXPLORATION 1
Technology and Living Systems
When you think about the term technology, you probably think of a cell phone or a Collaborate Discuss
tablet computer. Technology is the application of scientific knowledge for practical with a partner three
purposes. Technology does include advanced machines, such as computers and technologies that you used as you
robotic equipment. It also includes simpler items you may not have thought of, such prepared for school today.
as sunglasses, scissors, and pencils.
Technology and the Human Body

Over the course of human history, advancements in science and technology
arose through the process of engineering. Bioengineering applies the concepts of
engineering to living things. Through bioengineering and scientific advancements,
biotechnology has developed that allows people to live longer, healthier lives.
Analyzing Benefits, Risks, and Costs

Every new technology has benefits, risks, and costs. Bioengineers must analyze
these tradeoffs when considering how new or improved technologies can impact
living systems. Decisions must be made about whether a new technology’s benefits
outweigh the associated costs and risks. Benefits are the favorable effects of the
solution, while the costs and risks are the unfavorable effects. A cost might include
the impact on the environment. A risk could be the side effects from using a medical
device. Engineers must balance the benefits, risks, and costs of each design solution.
FIGURE 2: A cochlear implant sends audio signals to the brain.
cochlea
pinna
eardrum
Image Credits: (l) ©iStock/ELizabethHoffmann/Getty Images Plus
For example, cochlear implants increase the hearing ability for people with damaged
inner ears. In a normal ear, the pinna (the ear’s outer portion) funnels sound waves into
the auditory canal. The sound waves then hit the eardrum, causing it to vibrate. These
vibrations are then applified by the middle ear. Hair cells in the cochlea convert the Analyze How does a
waves into impulses that are transmitted to the brain by the auditory nerve. cochlear implant’s process
A cochlear implant, shown in Figure 2, has a microphone and speech processor, which of transmitting sound to the brain
pick up sounds from the environment. A transmitter and stimulator convert signals mimic the process used by the ear?
from the processor into electrical signals. An electrode array implanted into the
cochlea collects the electrical signals and sends them to the auditory nerve.
Lesson 4 Bioengineering 49
Scientists and engineers continue to modify technology to meet the needs and
demands of society. This often involves increasing the benefits of technology while
reducing the costs and risks. For the cochlear implant, engineers could increase
the benefits by improving the speech recognition ability. They also may work with
scientists to decrease the likelihood of infection, reducing the risk. Engineers may
find new materials that reduce the cost on the environment and reduce the cost
of the implant. A replacement for precious metals in computers could reduce the
environmental impact from mining and make an implant less expensive.
Research and Development

Scientists ask questions to learn more about a phenomenon, and engineers design
solutions to problems related to that phenomenon. This back-and-forth between
scientists and engineers is part of a process known as research and development. The
studies and testing performed during this process often lead to the development and
improvement of technologies.
Explain How are In the case of the cochlear implant, scientists asked questions to learn more about
technology and life the phenomena of hearing. Scientists might have asked, “How do the ear and brain
sciences related in the field interact to detect sound?” or “Which structures are affected in patients with hearing
of bioengineering? loss?” Engineers designed the cochlear implant using information on the mechanics of
hearing that arose from scientific research.
Technology and Society

Technology has greatly influenced society, and society has influenced progress in
technology. New technologies change our lifestyles, diets, and living spaces. Likewise,
as social trends, economic forces, and cultural values change, new technologies
emerge that support these changes. These new technologies also may propel society
toward new changes in culture, health, and the environment.
Consider the advances in emergency medical treatment and technology. Prior to
the 1950s, many ambulances were simply a way to deliver a patient to the hospital.
Image Credits: (r) ©A. Y. Owen/Time Life Pictures/Getty Images; (l) ©Zero Creatives/Cultura/Getty Images
Ambulances only had enough room for a patient in the back, so no medical care
could be given during transport. Changes in societal expectations led to vehicles
with enough room for emergency responders to work on patients, as well as new
technologies to save lives. Modern ambulances continue to undergo design changes
as new medical needs arise.
FIGURE 3: With technological improvements, emergency response time is faster.
Science as a Human Endeavor How have improvements in emergency medical

technology changed our society?

All new technologies come with risks and costs to people and society, no matter how
great the benefits. For example, many vaccines are refrigerated, allowing them to
remain effective for longer periods of time. Refrigeration is rare in some parts of the
world, though, making it difficult for people to access these vaccines. Refrigerants
also add to the greenhouse gas effect. In response, some researchers are turning their
attention to producing vaccines that do not require refrigeration.
Engineering
Clean Drinking Water
FIGURE 4: Societies around the world gain access to clean drinking water through new engineering
designs, such as improved devices to transport water and new wells.

Many people in the world do not have access to clean drinking water. They must Collaborate If you
walk miles to and from wells to bring water to their homes. Once they carry the were asked to design a
water home, it often needs to be filtered to avoid water-borne diseases, such as device to transport water, such
cholera. In response, bioengineers developed better water filtration systems in as the rollers shown in Figure 4,
wells, making the water cleaner and safer. Engineers also developed devices to what societal, cultural, and
make it easier to transport water over long distances, as shown in the left image
environmental impacts would
Image Credits: (l) ©Hippo Water Roller Project; (r) ©ADEK BERRY/AFP PHOTO/Getty Images
in Figure 4. Getting water can be a full day’s work and is often the job of women
you need to consider?
and young girls. By decreasing the time spent focusing on water, women and
girls have more time to devote to other tasks, such as education.
In some cases, by solving one problem, advances in technology can cause new social
and economic problems. Medical technology has enabled many humans to live longer
lives. In some countries, longer life spans mean that the proportion of older individuals
continues to grow, and more resources are needed to support these people.
The environment also is a concern when it comes to new technologies. Disposable
medical supplies make it possible to use sterile equipment on each new patient. Once
used, though, the material needs to be disposed of properly to prevent biohazardous
waste from potentially affecting others.
Explain During the next 50 years, what biotechnology would you like to see developed
or improved? Describe the potential benefits, risks, and costs of the technology and how it
would impact society.
EXPLORATION 2
Engineering in Life Science
Engineering and scientific inquiry both involve a set of principles and a general
sequence of events. Scientific investigations often include steps such as asking
questions, making predictions, and investigating the effects of changing variables.
The engineering design process includes steps, such as defining a problem,
developing possible solutions, and optimizing a solution.
The Engineering Design Process

The engineering design process is a method used to develop or improve technology.
The process is iterative, meaning it uses repeating steps. Engineers do not always
apply these steps in the same order. They may skip some on occasion or perform other
steps more than once.
FIGURE 5: The engineering design process is a set of steps that lead to designing or improving a solution to a problem.
DEFINING AND DELIMITING THE PROBLEM DESIGNING SOLUTIONS
Identify the problem/need. Brainstorm solutions.
Conduct research on the Evaluate solutions with respect

problem and previous solutions to the constraints and most
to similar problems. important criteria.
Define and delimit the problem Choose one or two

in terms of criteria and constraints. solutions for testing.
NO Is the problem well-defined? YES Develop and test a model.
YES Does the solution meet the NO

criteria and constraints?
Redefine the problem, if needed, to
clarify the most important criteria.
Consider tradeoffs. Implement the solution and

communicate the results.
Build and test a prototype.

YES
Refine the solution based Is this the best solution in the
on the results of tests. budget or time available?
NO
OPTIMIZING DESIGN SOLUTIONS

Following a well-defined set of steps ensures that engineers take a thoughtful and Explore Online
complete approach when designing a solution to a problem. In this process, engineers
Hands-On Lab
must first identify and define the problem or need. In doing so, they may need to
perform research or analyze data to learn more about the problem. They must identify Modeling Joint Movement
aspects that are desired in a final solution as well as the limits on the solution. Next, Use the engineering design process
engineers will begin to design solutions. During this stage, they will evaluate several to develop models of the joints in
different solutions and choose only one or two options to begin testing. In the testing, the skeletal system and test their
or optimizing, stage, designs are tested using computer simulations and prototypes.
ranges of motion.
Based on the results of these tests, the designs may be accepted or refined. The
engineers may even decide to choose a different solution and start the process over.
Imagine that bioengineers are designing a new type of artificial hip. They will need
to research how a normal hip functions and what types of materials are safe to use.
The client that hired the engineers may ask the team to consider using 3D printing to
custom fit the product to each patient. They may also say the design can cost no more
than $10,000. The engineers will come up with many different design solutions, but
only those that cost less than $10,000 will be considered. The final design may not be
3D printed, but it may have other aspects that make it better. Engineers must consider
these types of tradeoffs before presenting their final design.
Collaborate With a partner, discuss why it is necessary for scientific and

engineering processes to be iterative, instead of following a fixed sequence of steps.
Defining and Delimiting the Problem

The first step in the engineering design process is to ask questions that help
specifically define the problem. These questions help an engineer understand the
criteria for the design. Criteria make clear what a successful solution must accomplish
and how efficient and economical that solution should be. These are the “wants” for
the solution. Criteria can include many different aspects of a design, but often cost,
safety, reliability, and aesthetics are considered.
Then, engineers delimit the problem. Delimiting is the process of defining the
limitations, or constraints, of the solution. Constraints are the limitations of a design
and are usually given by the client. These constraints can include things like cost,
weight, dimensions, available resources, and time. Any solution that does not meet the
constraints of the design is not considered.
Engineers often must balance criteria and constraints. They may accept some risks in
tradeoffs, or compromises, for greater benefits. Engineers also may give up one benefit
in favor of another to avoid a potential risk. Consider the artificial hip example again.
Any design that exceeds the $10,000 constraint is not approved. The manufacturer
may consider a design using more typical materials if that reduces a risk or increases
a benefit over using different materials. The benefit of the tradeoff will depend on the
problem defined by the engineer.
Analyze A company is designing an electric wheelchair and hires you as the

engineer. They tell you the wheelchair must not cost more than $5,000. The design
must be usable by people with limited hand movement and should not require a
battery replacement very often. In your Evidence Notebook, define the problem and
then list criteria and constraints for possible solutions.
Engineering
Vision Correction Technology
Vision correction has undergone many changes since

FIGURE 6: PRK and LASIK both correct a person’s vision
using a laser, but the technique used will depend on the glasses were first developed in Italy in the 13th century. In
needs of the patient. addition to modern glasses, people with impaired vision
also can buy contact lenses or undergo surgery to fix their
eyesight. LASIK and PRK are two of the more recognizable
PRK LASIK
technologies developed to address vision problems. In
flap LASIK surgery, a blade or laser forms a flap on the outer
surface of the cornea. Then, another laser reshapes the
cornea. In PRK, the surface layer of the cornea is removed
laser laser
beam beam and the corneal bed is reshaped. Doctors and patients
must weigh the criteria and constraints before choosing
a solution. Figure 7 lists several of the criteria for each of
flap these vision correction technologies.
replaced
Analyze Analyze the tradeoffs between each of the
engineering solutions for vision correction technologies in
Figure 7. How would a doctor explain the tradeoffs of each
choice to a patient? What questions might a doctor ask to
help a patient pick the technology that best addresses their
needs and wants?
FIGURE 7: Vision correction technologies have tradeoffs including safety, reliability, cost, and aesthetics.
Technology Eyeglasses Contact Lenses LASIK PRK

Safety Provides sun protection Provides sun protection Cannot provide sun or Cannot provide sun or
and physical protection but not physical protection. physical protection. Procedure physical protection.
for the eyes. Infections are possible if is generally safe. Relatively Procedure is generally safe.
lenses are not cleaned often. short recovery time. Longer recovery time.
Reliability Can be lost or broken. Can be lost or torn. Results are relatively Results are relatively
Lenses or frames can be Can be replaced as needed. permanent. Glasses may permanent. Glasses may
replaced as needed. become necessary. become necessary.
Cost Prices range from tens Prices range from tens Prices are typically in the Prices are typically in the
to hundreds of dollars. to hundreds of dollars. thousands of dollars. thousands of dollars.
Aesthetics Come in many colors and Come in many colors. Do not Does not obscure facial Does not obscure facial
shapes. May obscure some obscure facial features. features. Eye color cannot be features. Eye color cannot
facial features. altered. be altered.
Engineers prioritize criteria by deciding which ones are most important for a given
problem. They make tradeoffs between them to begin brainstorming solutions to
the problem. Engineers may even redefine the problem to clarify the most important
criteria before beginning to design and test a solution. Remember, if a proposed
solution does not meet the constraints of the problem, it will not move forward in the
engineering design process.

Designing Solutions
After engineers have identified the constraints and criteria for solving a problem, the
next step is to brainstorm design ideas for a solution. Usually, engineers and other
specialists work in teams when brainstorming. The group leader presents the problem
to be solved and encourages all ideas to be suggested, even if they seem outrageous.
Once the team has brainstormed several ideas, they may use a decision matrix, or
Pugh chart, to evaluate each solution against the criteria of the problem. In a decision
matrix, each criteria is given a number, or weight, based on how important that criteria
is. The more important the criteria, the greater the weight assigned to it. Then, each
design is rated based on how well it meets those criteria. The scores for each design
are multiplied by their respective weights, and the products are totaled so engineers
can determine how well the design is meeting the criteria. They may choose to take
the design with the highest score to the next phase, or they may choose to brainstorm
new ideas if no designs meet the requirements.
FIGURE 8: An example decision matrix for three water filtration system designs, weighted
on a scale from 0 to 5
Design Criteria Weight Design 1 Design 2 Design 3

Safety 5 4 1 5
Reliability 4 2 3 4 FIGURE 9: Examples of different
Cost 2 1 2 1 CPAP designs
Aesthetics 1 1 1 0
Total Points 31 22 43
Figure 8 shows how a decision matrix can be filled out for three designs. In this
example, each column represents a different design for a new water filtration
system people can use in their homes. Safety is weighted a 5, meaning it is extremely
important. Aesthetics, though, are weighted very low, meaning they are not as
important. To determine how to weight each design, engineers may choose to make
Image Credits: (t) ©Brian Chase/Shutterstock; (c) ©JPC-PROD/Shutterstock; (b) ©Phanie/Phanie/Superstock
a model or run computer simulations to see how each design would work in a typical
situation.
A bioengineer may use a decision matrix to evaluate a technology, such as a new
design for a Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) machine. These machines are
worn by people who suffer from sleep apnea, a condition where breathing starts and
stops during sleep. CPAP machines are worn while a person is sleeping and supply a
constant source of pressure to help keep their airways open. The criteria for a machine
like this would likely include safety and reliability but also may include comfort, ease of
use, and noise level.
Engineering Make a decision matrix for the three CPAP machines shown in
Figure 9. What criteria do you think are important for this machine? How would
you weight them?
Once a number of solutions are proposed, they are evaluated against the criteria and
constraints set out for the desired solution. Solutions that do not meet the constraints
must be redesigned if they are to be considered. In general, one or two ideas that
best meet the criteria and all constraints are selected, and these ideas enter the
optimization phase of the design process.
Optimizing Design Solutions
When one or two solutions have been chosen, engineers may build a prototype of the
technology to further test the capabilities and effectiveness of the design. A prototype
is the first build of a design and may not be built to scale or with the final materials.
Since the results from testing the prototype may result in design changes, prototypes
are often built with cheaper materials than the final version. This way, engineers can
run many tests and build many versions of their designs. As the design becomes more
refined and finalized, engineers may begin to use the final materials to ensure the
solution will work as expected.
Analyze What types of information can be gained from building a prototype that is
not an exact model of the final product?
Engineering
Optimizing Prosthetics
One of the biggest challenges often facing designers is the need to think creatively
and to seriously consider new designs. While not traditional, these new designs
may be what are required to solve a problem or improve an existing product. Van
Phillips engineered the “blade” prosthetic leg/foot now preferred by runners. His
design abandoned the traditional clunky prosthetic, favoring lightweight materials
tailored to athletes, as shown in Figure 10.
FIGURE 10: Prosthetic leg designs have changed over time. As new materials are
developed, new ideas are generated.
Collaborate
Discuss this question
with a partner: How have
advances in the different fields
of science and engineering
influenced prosthetic limb
technology?

Testing is an important part of the engineering design process, allowing engineers to
get feedback on the design. Data collected from tests will tell engineers if their design
is working as expected. The data also may show design problems that were not seen
in early stages of the process. Engineers will review these issues and determine which
ones need to be fixed. Considering tradeoffs is an important part of the optimization
process. Issues that do not seriously impact important criteria or constraints may not
be corrected if the tradeoff is undesirable, such as increasing the cost of the design.
However, if the problem is important enough, engineers may need to change the
design or brainstorm new designs to address the concern.
FIGURE 11: Engineers may return to a design or a prototype during the optimization
process.
Language Arts
Life cycle analyses are another way to evaluate a design. A life cycle analysis attempts to
Connection
evaluate the real cost of a new technology or design. It takes into account the materials
and energy used to manufacture, transport, use, and dispose of a product. Perhaps
Research the life cycle of different
one design has several benefits over another. If the design is much more expensive to cell phones. How long are they built
produce, manufacturers might abandon it in favor of another, less expensive design. If to last? What are the energy
it wears out quickly and needs to be replaced often, the design might be abandoned in requirements to manufacture a
favor of a more durable alternative. phone? Develop your own life cycle
Life cycle analysis also considers the environmental impact of the materials and wastes
analysis of a phone to determine
from producing the design. Engineers might consider an alternative if manufacturing the true cost of the technology.
a design produces pollution. If the product cannot be thrown away safely, a
biodegradable or recyclable option may be considered.
Engineers may also run a cost-benefit analysis to further evaluate their design solution.
A cost-benefit analysis is a method of identifying the strengths and weakness of a
design. The cost could be the monetary cost to produce the design. If the device
costs too much to make and the benefits are not great enough, the design solution
may be disregarded in favor of a less expensive design. A cost also could be related to
environmental factors. If a design uses a very rare metal and will result in large-scale
mining, the environmental impact may outweigh the benefits, especially if a different
material could be used.
Image Credits: ©Tim Pannell/Corbis/Getty Images
When a final design has been chosen and fully tested, engineers will communicate their
results. This may just involve presenting the final solution to the client to begin production.
If the design is new or groundbreaking or has important implications, the engineering
team may publish a journal article detailing the design to the scientific community.
Explain How do you think the engineering design process differs for biotechnologies,
like pacemakers, used in the medical field compared with that used in other fields of
technology, like in developing a cell phone?
Careers in Science
Careers in Bioengineering
Bioengineering includes a variety of fields, such as biomedical First, the engineering team must define and delimit the
engineering, cellular engineering, molecular engineering, and problem. The constraints were given by the company: The
others. Bioengineers use engineering methods and biological design must cost less than $30,000; it needs to be completed
science to design and manufacture equipment, computer in half a year; and all components need to last at least five
systems, and new materials used in the field of biology. years. The criteria for this problem may include weight,
hydrodynamics in the water, and safety of use.
Biomedical Engineering Once the problem is defined, engineers will begin
Devices made by biomedical engineers include artificial brainstorming possible designs. Each proposed design will
joints and organs, prosthetics, corrective lenses, and dental be evaluated, and the solutions that meet all constraints
implants. Biomedical engineers still use the engineering and the most important criteria will be chosen for testing.
design process to help them develop and optimize medical When developing prosthetics, engineers may run computer
technologies. In this field, engineers must always consider simulations and use other types of models to help evaluate
how a design will interact with the different systems of the each solution. The team may realize that traditional prosthetic
human body. materials are too heavy to be used for an aquatic prosthetic.
Instead, they may research more lightweight materials.
FIGURE 12: Biomedical engineers design devices, such as
prosthetic limbs. This prosthetic limb is designed to interpret The engineering team will then begin testing and optimizing
messages from the user’s nervous system. their designs. They will build prototypes and may even fit
their prototype to swimmers to get feedback and data on
the design. At this stage, engineers may realize their design
generates too much drag in the water and needs to be
redesigned to be more streamlined.
Even when the client approves a solution, engineering teams
may continue to review designs and make improvements.
As technology changes, there are new opportunities for
improved design concepts.
Working with a team, develop your own design of an aquatic
prosthetic leg. Imagine you are working with the same
Image Credits: ©Laura Lean/PA Wire URN:23312103 (Press Association via AP Images)
constraints outlined in this example. With your group:
Define and delimit the problem In your group, outline the
A bionic hand, as shown in Figure 12, might interact with criteria and constraints and then clearly define the problem.
the nervous system to interpret signals to grasp an item.
Design a solution Each individual in your group should
However, implanting such a device could cause a stress on
propose a potential solution. Assign weights to the criteria
the immune system, causing the body to reject the device.
your group outlined, and make a decision matrix to evaluate
Biomedical engineers must consider all potential health risks
each design. Choose the highest-rated design, or brainstorm
when designing solutions.
additional ideas until you find a solution that solves the
Imagine that a company wants to develop prosthetics for problem your group outlined. Remember, you may need to
competitive swimmers who have had one of their legs redefine the problem if the design solutions do not meet
amputated at the knee. The company needs a working design the criteria or constraints. When your final design has been
within six months and wants each prosthetic to cost less than chosen, make a model, such as a drawing, of that design and
$30,000. The prosthetic must last a swimmer at least five have your teacher approve it before moving to the next stage
years before any parts need to be replaced. How would an of the process.
engineering team solve this problem?

Develop a prototype Using common household and
FIGURE 13: Bioengineers develop technologies, like MRI
classroom items, develop a prototype of your approved
machines, to help scientists learn more about living systems.
design. You may use items such as paper towel rolls, PVC
tubing, cardboard, tape, and any other items you may need.
Remember, a prototype does not need to be a replica of the
final product. Your prototype may not be made to scale or
it may not be waterproof. The prototype should be able to
demonstrate how the design will work, but it does not need
to function completely.
Optimize the design After building your prototype, review
your design and identify areas where the design could be
improved. Review the criteria and constraints again to ensure
your design is solving the problem. If you feel your design
did not work, brainstorm new designs or ways to change
aspects of your designs. You may wish to build an additional
prototype to test your modifications.
Language Arts Connection With your group,

research other designs for prosthetics that help people
swim. Then, make a presentation to share with the class.
In your presentation:
Molecular Engineering
• Include a summary of your research and the
prosthetic designs you discovered. Molecular engineering is a highly integrated field of study
• Present a diagram of your final design to the class. combining knowledge from biology, chemistry, mechanics,
• Explain the most important criteria considered in and materials science. Molecular engineers study ways to
designing your solution. build better materials and systems by studying the molecular
properties of those materials.
• Finally, present your prototype and explain how your
design will solve the problem. In the field of biology, molecular engineers are studying
immunotherapy. Immunotherapy is the treatment of disease
by amplifying or minimizing the body’s immune response.
Cellular Engineering Molecular engineers are developing vaccines to increase
Cellular engineering is a field of bioengineering that patients’ immune responses.
combines an understanding of cellular functions, biological
Molecular engineers also are researching ways to edit and
systems, and engineering practices to develop technologies
manipulate an organism’s genetic material. This may allow
that help improve people’s lives. For example, cellular
them to treat or cure genetic disorders, modify metabolic
engineers may study ways that stem cells can be used to
rates, and modify the structure of proteins to make new
improve the lives of people with medical conditions, such as
functions. To make changes to the genetic material of
Parkinson’s disease or diabetes.
an organism, molecular engineers are developing new
Tissue engineering uses aspects of cellular engineering to technologies to help further their research.
develop biological tissues. Whole tissues or portions of tissues
can be made from cells and then used to repair damaged Language Arts Connection Write a short
areas of the body. Scientists in this field are even trying to newspaper-style article comparing and contrasting the
make entire organs using their understanding of cellular
different fields of bioengineering.
function, engineering, and biological systems.
Image Credits: ©Corbis

3D BIOPRINTING NANOTECHNOLOGY
these other paths.
EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 14: A pacemaker is a nonliving system that functions inside a living system,
the human heart.
pacemaker
electrode
Pacemakers generate electrical signals that stimulate the heart when cardiac activity is
abnormal. The pacemaker has gone through many design changes based on improved
technology and medical knowledge since its initial conception. As technologies
improved, designs became smaller. As scientific understanding of anatomy, heart
conditions, and biological systems progressed, so did the efficiency of pacemakers.
Scientists and engineers continually work together to improve upon this design and
many others in the medical field.
Explain The batteries in pacemakers eventually need to be recharged or

replaced. What types of features would you consider when designing a better
battery for a pacemaker?
When designing a new component for a device, engineers will still use the engineering
design process. The process is iterative, so the steps may not be applied in the same
order. For example, when designing a new battery for a pacemaker, engineers may
Image Credits: (r) ©Photographer’s Choice/Peter Dazeley/Getty Images

start by testing pacemakers and existing batteries. The data gathered in these tests
may help them brainstorm new ideas for how to improve the previous design.
The engineering team also will have different constraints when improving a design
than when creating a new design. For example, engineers will only be able to develop
batteries that fit inside the existing pacemaker and work with the components already
in the design. They also may be working within a shorter timeframe and a smaller
budget than if they were developing a new pacemaker design.
By working with patients, doctors, and manufacturers, engineers can identify the most
important criteria to incorporate into their design. Perhaps patients would rather have
a battery that is easier to recharge than one that lasts a few years longer and needs
to be replaced. Once engineers understand the limitations in the current design, the
constraints, and the important criteria, they can begin developing new designs.

CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 6. Make a decision matrix to compare three models of a

device, perhaps personal tablet devices or phones. Use
1. Imagine that you are an engineer who designed a the following questions to build the matrix and evaluate
prototype for a client. After testing the prototype, you the results:
discover it does not address the client’s needs. What a. What design criteria are most important?
might be a possible next step in the process? b. How would you weight these criteria?
c. How would the competing designs score on each
2. You and a partner have brainstormed a design for an criterion?
implanted device to help keep insulin levels in check for
d. Which design(s) should move to the next stage of the
a person who is diabetic. What should be the next step in
process and why?
the design process?
a. test on a patient
b. build a prototype
c. revise the design
d. evaluate the design
In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
3. Which of the following technologies would likely involve
supports the main ideas from this lesson:
a bioengineer to design and build? Select all correct
answers. Bioengineering is the application of engineering processes and
a. artificial heart valve practices to living things.
b. tablet computer Engineering develops and modifies technological solutions for
c. artificial hip joint the needs of society.
d. global positioning system
Remember to include the following information in your
e. automobile engine
study guide:
f. surgical robot
• Use examples that model main ideas.
4. A biomedical engineer is developing a portable medical
imaging machine designed to be used in remote areas or
in situations where a natural disaster has made access to
local imaging facilities difficult. She made a list of criteria
and constraints for the new device. Which of these should Consider how bioengineering solutions influence the environment
be classified as criteria? Select all correct answers. while addressing the wants of society.
a. transmits information wirelessly to base medical facility
b. one person can carry it without assistance
c. uses a rechargeable battery
d. case made of high-impact plastic
e. generates high-definition CT scans
f. completes scans rapidly
5. One of the ways in which society impacts technology

is through government regulation. Describe how
government regulation can have both positive and
negative impacts on technology.
A BOOK EXPLAINING
COMPLEX IDEAS USING
ONLY THE 1,000 MOST
COMMON WORDS
BAGS OF STUFF
INSIDE YOU
Parts of your body and
how they work together
You know that an organ system is two or more organs
working together to perform body functions. Here’s a RANDALL MUNR
OE
XKCD.COM
look at several organ systems in the human torso.

YOU ARE
HERE
THIS IS WHAT YOU THINK WITH.

HOLE TO OUTSIDE When you read words (like these),
This hole is in your nose. It this part of your body turns them
helps you breathe and lets into ideas.
you smell things. By choosing the right words, you
can take an idea that’s happening
in your head and try to make an
HOLE TO OUTSIDE
idea like it happen in someone
This is the hole in your else’s. That’s what’s happening
mouth. It’s where air goes in right now.
and out, food goes in, and
words come out.
Note: Some people don’t
like it when you make words
come out while you’re putting BLOOD
food in. (to your arms
THINKING
and the rest
BAG
HEAD of your head)
MOUTH WATER MAKER
PARTS
This makes the water in your This pushes
mouth that helps food fi t on your blood
down your neck. about once a
second to send
it around
your body.
AIR BAG AIR BAG BLOOD

PUSHER
These add air to your blood.

CHEST They get bigger and smaller to pull
PARTS and push air in and out.
PART BREAKER
Sometimes, blood gets
stuck in here.
That’s one of the biggest
BLOOD CLEANER reasons people’s bodies
stop working.
BLOOD This bag breaks tiny things into even BLOOD HALLWAYS
(from other smaller, simpler parts they’re made These carry blood around your
body parts) of. Your body uses it in many ways, body. If you get a hole in them, the
like to get rid of the stuff in wine that blood starts to fall out. If this starts
makes you feel strange (which keeps happening, it can be a big problem,
you from feeling strange forever). It and you should fix it fast.
also makes water for your hallways. If
this bag has a problem, your eyes turn
yellow and your body stops working.
Unit 1 Thing Explainer 63

BAGS OF STUFF INSIDE YOU
Sometimes, this opening FOOD BAG FEAR WATER

gets blocked. Then, when This holds and breaks up These make a kind of water
you eat rich food and the food using special water. that makes your body feel
bag tries to push water afraid or excited.
CHEST out, it hurts.
PARTS
WATER FOR RICH

FOOD
This holds water for
breaking down rich
food (like the yellow
stuff you spread).
When you eat rich BLOOD
food, this pushes out (to other
water to break body parts)
it down.
SMALL FOOD HALLWAY
This hallway is where a lot
of food gets broken down
and the stuff your body
SPECIAL WATER needs is taken out.
MAKER The hallway is about as
This bag makes long as a car. It makes
some of the waters a lot of turns so it can fi t
that help turn food in your stomach.
into power. If it goes EXTRA PART
wrong, you can have This doesn’t seem
BIG FOOD HALLWAY
a problem where you to do anything.
This hallway is
get too much or too Sometimes it has a
wider than the small
little sweet stuff in problem and doctors
hallway, but shorter.
your blood. have to take it out.
This is where your
LIFE INSIDE YOU body takes extra
There are a lot of water out of the
living things in these food so you don’t PARTS FOR
hallways that help you need to drink as MAKING MORE
break down different much water. OF YOU
kinds of food.
These parts can
USED FOOD HOLDER make new people.
Once you’re done with
food, it waits here until
you push it out.
HOLE TO OUTSIDE HOLE TO OUTSIDE In about half
Food comes out here If your body makes a of all people
when you’re done new person, it comes these go to a
eating it. out of here. About half single opening.
of all people have this.

Go online for more
about Thing Explainer.
AND NOW
YOU ARE
HERE
BLOOD CLEANERS
These look for stuff in your blood that you’re
done with or have too much of—like extra
sweet stuff, or stuff from the doctor that you
ate to feel better—and send it to be pushed
out of your body.
YELLOW WATER HALLWAY

WHITE BLOOD RED BLOOD
Most of the time, the water from your blood
PIECES PIECES
cleaners is yellow, but eating certain colorful
foods can make it change color for a while.
(If it turns dark or red, it may mean
you’re sick.) PUSHED TOGETHER
In real life, these parts are all pushed
together inside your chest like this.
BODY PLAN HOLDERS

These parts hold lots of plans for
new people. Each plan is made from Air bags
pieces of the plans used to make you.
These parts also control how your
voice, hair, and body grow.
LOWER
YELLOW WATER HOLDER PARTS
This holds yellow water until
you push it out.
Part
Image Credit: ©Kenneth Eward/BioGrafx/Science Source
HOLE TO OUTSIDE breaker

The yellow water from your
blood comes out here.
Food
Large bag
food
hallway
Small food
hallway

UNIT CONNECTIONS
Technology Connection FIGURE 1: Computers, like this laptop,

are made up of components.
Computer Systems Computers and people have more in common than you might
think. Computers are systems that use hardware and software to store, manipulate,
and analyze data. People are living systems that use smaller systems to survive
and reproduce. Computers have many components that have a similar function to
human structures or other living systems. For example, a processor is a computer’s
control center, much like a brain is a person’s control center. Computers can be
part of a larger system, or network, just as people are part of larger systems like
populations and ecosystems.
Using library and Internet resources, research computer systems. Create and label a
diagram of a computer system that describes how the computer is made up of
smaller systems, how it links to other larger systems, and how information and energy flows
among systems. Make a list of questions you would ask about the relationship between
people and computers based on the diagram you develop.
Music Connection FIGURE 2: Listening to and playing

music has been linked to health and
medical benefits.
Your Body on Music Have you ever felt calm, excited, or sad while listening to
music? This is because music can affect your mood. Multiple studies have shown
that music has other effects on the human body, such as increasing cognitive
abilities and lowering blood pressure. Music can even be used as a therapy to
decrease the symptoms of heart disease.
Using library or Internet resources, research the effects playing and listening to
Image Credits: (t) ©Muriel de Seze/DigitalVision/Getty Images; (c) ©Corbis/Steve Hix/Getty Images; (b) ©Courtesy of NASA
music can have on the human body. Evaluate the claims and evidence provided,
then construct an argument either for or against using music as a medical therapy. Write a
blog entry to convince others of your argument. Support your argument with specific text
evidence from reliable, scientific sources.
Earth Science Connection

FIGURE 3: Exercise in space slows
muscle loss and mineral loss in bones.
Humans in Space Living in space is tough on the human body. Zero gravity
environments negatively affect balance, coordination, muscle strength, and bone
density. Isolation in confined spaces can lead to sleep and mood disorders and poor
nutrition. The radiation levels in space are more than ten times the levels found on
Earth. All of these problems must be solved for humans to safely live away from
Earth for long periods of time.
The effects of space on the human body can be reduced through engineering. For
example, some astronauts use specialized machines to exercise in space. Collaborate
with a group to develop a prioritized list of criteria and constraints that an engineer might
consider when designing an apparatus to combat the effects of space on the human body.

UNIT PRACTICE AND REVIEW
SYNTHESIZE THE UNIT DRIVING QUESTIONS
Look back to the Driving Questions from the opening section

In your Evidence Notebook, make a concept map, of this unit. In your Evidence Notebook, review and revise
graphic organizer, or outline using the Study Guides you your previous answers to those questions. Use the evidence
made for each lesson in this unit. Be sure to use evidence to you gathered and other observations you made throughout
support your claims. the unit to support your claims.
When synthesizing individual information, remember to follow

these general steps:
• Find the central idea of each piece of information.
• Think about the relationships between the central ideas.
• Combine the ideas to come up with a new understanding.
PRACTICE AND REVIEW
1. How does organization make it possible for the human Use the information from Figure 4 to answer Question 4.
body to carry out the wide range of interactions
necessary for survival? Cortisol Concentrations over a 24-Hour Period
a. Cells are the foundation of the human body and each FIGURE 4: Cortisol concentrations change throughout the day.
cell can carry out all interactions necessary for survival. Cortisol Concentrations over a 24-hour Period
b. Tissues are the highest level of organization in the

human body and tissues are capable of carrying out
specialized tasks necessary for survival.
c. Levels of organization make it possible for cells,
Cortisol concentration
tissues, organs, and organ systems to specialize and

take on specific functions.
d. There is no overlap in the organization and interaction
of organ systems, making it possible for the body to
fulfill a wide range of life functions.
2. Select a relationship that is similar to the following

relationship: neuron : send electrical signal 1 12 24
Hour of day
a. cardiac cell : muscle cell
b. muscle cell : contraction
c. circulatory system : blood cell 4. Cortisol is produced at certain times of the day, as shown
in the graph. Cortisol has a positive feedback on Process
d. homeostasis : endocrine system
A, which outputs Substance Z. At what time of day will
the concentration of Substance Z be at its highest if there
3. A newly discovered organism has cells with large fluid-
is no other feedback on Substance Z?
filled sacs in the middle. Considering current scientific
a. morning
knowledge about the structure and function of cell
organelles, what is a likely function of these structures in b. afternoon
the new organism? Select all correct answers. c. evening
a. store water and waste d. late night
b. store genetic information
c. produce sugar
d. strengthen the cell
Unit 1 Unit Closer 67

Use the following information and the diagram to answer 8. What evidence supports your model and your claim
Questions 5–8. for Question 7? Provide evidence and explain your
reasoning.
The pituitary gland regulates the concentration of
water in blood by releasing higher or lower levels of the
antidiuretic hormone (ADH). ADH increases the amount of 9. Imagine a solution for a problem scores high for all
water reabsorbed from urine by tubules in the kidneys. criteria but violates one of the constraints. What is the
relationship between the solution and the problem?
FIGURE 5: The pituitary gland controls the concentration a. The solution will work for the problem because it does
of water in blood. not have to satisfy every constraint.
b. The solution may work for the problem if there is a
Concentration Concentration trade-off between criteria and constraints.
of water in of water in
c. The solution is not viable for the problem as it is
blood rises. blood falls.
currently defined and delimited.
d. The solution will never be successful and should be
Pituitary gland Pituitary gland abandoned.
releases Homeostasis releases
less ADH. more ADH.
10. Imagine your team is developing technology to perform
less invasive angioplasty, a surgery typically used to
Kidneys reabsorb Kidneys reabsorb unblock arteries in the heart. You have two solutions.
less water. more water. Urine Both solutions are equally effective and safe. Solution
Urine is dilute. is concentrated. 1 costs less than Solution 2. Solution 2 is made from
recycled materials and has a lower environmental impact
than Solution 1. What is a likely next step to help you
5. Which sequence models the correct flow of information choose between the two solutions?
in this feedback loop?
a. Prioritize cost and environmental impact to decide
a. pituitary gland → kidney tubules → pituitary gland which solution is best for this problem.
b. kidney tubules → pituitary gland → water b. Redefine the problem and optimize the two solutions
concentration in blood to solve the new problem.
c. water concentration in blood → kidney tubules → c. Design a solution that is cheaper and has a lower
pituitary gland environmental impact than both Solution 1 and
d. water concentration in blood → pituitary gland → Solution 2.
kidney tubules d. Add constraints until one solution is no longer viable.
6. How does this feedback loop demonstrate multiple body

systems working together to maintain homeostasis?
a. The pituitary gland works with the kidneys to regulate UNIT PROJECT
the water concentration in blood.
b. The pituitary gland is part of the endocrine system, Return to your unit project. Prepare your research and
which interacts with the excretory and circulatory materials into a presentation to share with the class. In
systems to regulate water concentration in blood. your final presentation, evaluate the strength of your
hypothesis, data, analysis, and conclusions.
c. The pituitary gland is part of the nervous system,
which interacts with the digestive and immune Remember these tips while evaluating:
systems to regulate water concentration in blood.
• Look at the empirical evidence—evidence based on
d. The pituitary gland maintains homeostasis, the observations and data. Does the evidence support
kidneys regulate the water concentration in blood, the explanation?
and blood circulates to deliver water to cells. • Consider if the explanation is logical. Does it
contradict any evidence you have seen?
7. Imagine a disorder that prevented kidney tubules from • Think of tests you could do to support and
reabsorbing water from urine. Draw a model that explains contradict the ideas.
how this change would affect this feedback loop.

UNIT PERFORMANCE TASK
Analyzing a Disease Outbreak

Greenfield, a small town in south Texas, has seen a recent
FIGURE 6: Clinical symptoms presented in the twenty-five
outbreak of sickness involving unexplained high fevers. All undiagnosed high-fever cases, Greenfield, TX, 2016
symptoms reported are shown in Figure 6. The town lacks
the medical expertise and laboratory resources to properly Number of Affected
diagnose the medical cause of the high fevers. Town residents Symptoms Individuals
need information about what is causing the outbreak, why
Fever (body temperature > 38.5 °C) 25
the symptoms are occurring, and how further cases can be
prevented. The only other thing that seems out of place in Discomfort 19
Greenfield is the large flea population. What information can
Headache 17
you provide to the residents of Greenfield?
Muscle ache 16
1. DEFINE THE PROBLEM Chills 16
With your team, write a statement outlining the problem Rash 11
you’ve been asked to solve. Record any questions you have
on the problem and the information you need to solve it. Light sensitivity 7
Confusion 3
2. CONDUCT RESEARCH
With your team, investigate all of the information you’ve been
given about the outbreak in Greenfield. What is the most
likely disease causing the outbreak?
CHECK YOUR WORK

3. DEVELOP A MODEL
On your own, analyze the problem you’ve defined along with
your research. Make a model that demonstrates how the A complete presentation should include
disease is transmitted and how the body systems are working the following information:
together to combat the infection. Your model should also • a clearly defined problem with supporting questions
show why the symptoms are occurring and how homeostasis
that are answered in the final presentation
is involved in the immune response.
• a model of disease transmission and immune
response in humans
4. IDENTIFY A SOLUTION • a recommendation that explains how to solve the
Provide a range of solutions for how the town can avoid problem and uses evidence to support the solution
further outbreaks of this disease. • images and data that further support your solution
5. COMMUNICATE
Present your findings to the town residents, explaining
the most likely cause of the disease, why the symptoms
are occurring in relation to the immune response and
homeostasis, and your proposed solutions for preventing
further outbreaks. Your presentation should include images
and data to support your claims.

UNIT 2
Chemistry in
Living Systems
Lesson 1: Chemical Bonds
and Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
Lesson 2: Carbon-Based
Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Unit Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Unit Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Unit Performance Task . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Image Credits: ©Miguel A. Muñoz/Alamy
The decomposition of food involves

chemical reactions.
70 Unit 2 Chemistry in Living Systems

FIGURE 1: This bombardier beetle is emitting a defensive spray.
Bombardier beetles store two chemicals in separate chambers in their abdomens.

When the beetle is threatened, the chemicals quickly mix, producing a hot, noxious
spray that deters most attackers. While the burning chemicals can harm or even kill
insects or other animals threatening the beetle, the bombardier beetle itself is not
harmed by the chemical blast.
Predict How do you think living things, such as the bombardier beetle, use
chemistry to maintain homeostasis and survive in their environment?
DRIVING QUESTIONS
1. Why is water crucial for life on Earth?
2. What properties of water make it important to organisms?
3. How is matter changed in chemical reactions?
4. How do organisms use chemistry to survive?
5. What materials are organisms made of?
Image Credits: ©CB2/ZOB/Wenn.com/NewsCom
UNIT PROJECT
Chemistry of Soap and Stains the Unit Project
Worksheet to help
plan your project.
What makes some stains harder to remove than others? Why do certain soaps
and cleaners work on some types of stains but not others? Discover the chemical
properties of different stains and how cleaners act on chemical bonds and structures
to clean them. Can you predict which cleaners will wash away each stain?
Unit 2 Chemistry in Living Systems 71

2.1
Chemical Bonds
and Reactions
The climber, the mountain, the

moon, and even the air are all
made up of matter. CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
Explore Online
FIGURE 1: A cheeseburger is placed into hydrochloric acid. Over several hours, the acid
Image Credits: (t) ©imageBROKER/Josef Beck/Alamy; (bl) (bc) (br) ©Science Photo Library/Rhys Lewis & Minh Tan Pham, AHS/DECD/age fotostock
breaks down much of the cheeseburger.
Gather Evidence When you eat food, chemical reactions in your digestive tract help break down
Record evidence that the that food. You can see changes in the hamburger as it is placed into the beaker of
matter in the hamburger is hydrochloric acid (HCl) in Figure 1. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid that is present in
undergoing a chemical reaction. your stomach. It can break down matter very quickly; it can even break down metals
such as aluminum and zinc!
Digestion takes place through the interactions of stomach acid, hormones, and other
chemicals, along with a network of nerves and muscles in the digestive system. Each
organ contributes to breaking down food. For example, salivary glands in your mouth
secrete an enzyme that helps to digest starches. During digestion, your stomach lining
secretes gastric juice containing hydrochloric acid and a protein called pepsin. Gastric
juice and pepsin work together to break down food very quickly.
Predict When the food you eat encounters the gastric juice in your stomach,
chemical reactions help break down the food. Draw a diagram showing what you think
happens to matter such as a food when it undergoes a chemical reaction.

EXPLORATION 1
Atoms, Elements, and Compounds
Living systems require complex interactions, some of which you can observe on a
large, or macroscopic, scale every day. To understand these interactions on a deeper
level, we need to take a closer look and explore the composition of living things at a
molecular level. All organisms depend on different chemicals and chemical reactions.
The study of living things relies on a basic understanding of chemistry.
Atoms and Elements

Every physical thing you can think of, living or not, is made of incredibly small particles
called atoms. An atom is the smallest basic unit of matter. Trillions of atoms could fit
in a space the size of the period at the end of this sentence. Although there is a huge
variety of matter on Earth, all atoms share the same basic structure.
FIGURE 2: Atoms consist of three types of particles. Protons have a positive charge, Engineering
electrons have a negative charge, and neutrons have no charge.
Some elements occur naturally
electron cloud proton and are abundant on Earth.
Other elements are very rare
or synthesized in laboratories.
nucleus
Research the processes scientists
neutron and engineers use to synthesize or
isolate rare elements. What types
of elements have only been found
in a laboratory? Why don’t we see
these elements in nature? Create an
infographic detailing your findings.
An element is a substance made up of one type of atom and cannot be broken into
simpler substances by ordinary chemical means. All the atoms of a given element have
a specific number of protons. This number never varies. Atoms of different elements
have different numbers of protons. For example, all hydrogen (H) atoms have one
proton, and all carbon (C) atoms have six protons. Because the proton number never
varies, we often identify an element by the number of protons in its nucleus. Scientists
refer to the number of protons in the atoms of any given element as that element’s
atomic number. The elements are organized in a table called the periodic table.
Image Credits: (b) ©Jupiterimages/Thinkstock/Alamy
FIGURE 3: Table salt is formed by

Chemical Bonds a chemical bond.
The electrons of an atom orbit the nucleus, occupying different energy levels. An atom
is most stable when its outer energy levels are filled with electrons. The atoms of some
of the elements, such as neon (Ne) and helium (He), have full outer energy levels and
are rather unreactive. These elements rarely form bonds because they are already
stable. The atoms of most other elements become more stable by bonding with other
atoms, which is why atoms rarely exist alone in nature. For example, sodium (Na) and
chlorine (Cl) atoms can bond to form sodium chloride (NaCl), also known as table salt.
Lesson 1 Chemical Bonds and Reactions 73

Ionic Bond Ionic Bonds
One way that some atoms become more stable is by gaining or losing electrons. Atoms
FIGURE 4: Sodium chloride is an
that have gained or lost electrons are known as ions. Atoms that gain electrons become
example of ionic bonding.
negatively charged ions. Atoms that lose electrons become positively charged ions.
Positive and negative ions are attracted to one another. Ionic bonds form through this
attraction. Ionic bonds are a very strong type of chemical bond.
Cl-
Sodium chloride (NaCl), or table salt, is an example of an ionic bond. A sodium atom
+
Na (Na) transfers one electron to a chlorine atom (Cl). When it loses its one outer electron,
+
the sodium atom becomes a positively charged sodium ion (Na ). When it gains an
−
electron the chlorine atom becomes a negatively charged chloride ion (Cl ). The
+ −
attraction between the Na and Cl ions forms NaCl, shown in Figure 4.
Covalent Bond Covalent Bonds

Not all chemical bonds form by the transfer of electrons. Some atoms become more
FIGURE 5: Two chlorine atoms
stable by sharing one or more pairs of electrons with other atoms, known as covalent
form a covalent bond.
bonding. Covalent bonds are generally weaker than ionic bonds but are still very
strong. Depending on the number of electrons an atom has, two atoms may form
several covalent bonds, or share several pairs of electrons.
Cl Cl A molecule is two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds. A chlorine

molecule (Cl2), shown in Figure 5, shares a pair of electrons in a covalent bond.
Covalent bonding is what makes it possible for atoms to form very large molecules,
often with very complex shapes. Many substances in living things are composed of
large, complex molecules.
Analyze Create a Venn diagram to compare and contrast ionic and covalent bonds in
terms of electrons and stability.
Compounds
Compounds are substances composed of atoms of two or more different elements
bonded together in specific ratios. Common compounds in living things include water
(H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Model The chemical FIGURE 6: Carbon dioxide is made of two oxygen atoms each bonded to a carbon atom.
formula for carbon dioxide Water is made of two hydrogen atoms each bonded to an oxygen atom.
is CO2. According to the model of carbon dioxide water
carbon dioxide water
this molecule in Figure 6, what does
the 2 represent?
H H
O C O
O
CO2 H2O
The diagrams of the CO2 and H2O molecules use one type of model, known as a space-
filling model, to represent molecules. Space-filling models are three-dimensional
diagrams that show atoms as spheres attached to one another. Atoms of different
elements are usually represented by different colors.

A space-filling model is only one type of model scientists use to conceptualize
molecules. Another type of model, called a ball-and-stick model, also uses spheres but
uses sticks to represent the bonds between the atoms. A third, much simpler model, is
a structural formula. This model uses letters to represent atoms and lines to represent
bonds. Figure 7 shows carbon dioxide using three different molecular models.
Analyze Although
FIGURE 7: Types of Molecular Models
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) different kinds of models
are useful for understanding
O C O O C O O=C=O phenomena, all models have
limitations. Describe one strength
and one limitation for each of these
space-filling model ball-and-stick model structural formula types of models.
The properties of a compound are often very different from the properties of the
elements that make up the compound. For example, at 25 °C (77 °F), hydrogen and
oxygen are extremely flammable gases. Tanks containing either gas often bear
warning symbols to prevent accidental explosions. When bonded together, however,
these flammable elements form water. At room temperature, water is a liquid, not a
gas, and—far from being flammable—it is often used to put out fires caused when
other compounds react with oxygen!
FIGURE 8: The flammable gases oxygen and hydrogen combine to make a nonflammable
liquid essential to life on Earth—water.
+
Image Credits: (l) ©iStock/Getty Images Plus; (r) ©Digital Vision/Creative Crop/Getty Images
When examining the chemical formulas for compounds, look closely at the ratios
of the atoms of the elements in the compound. For example, water (H2O) has two
hydrogen atoms for each oxygen atom. If the ratio of oxygen to hydrogen changes, a
new compound with new properties results. Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), for example,
has two hydrogen atoms and two oxygen atoms. The same elements are present but
in a different ratio, so this compound has different properties than water.
Explain Think back to the hamburger that was placed in the acid. Answer these questions
about the matter in the hamburger:
1. How can matter be arranged? Draw a diagram to illustrate the difference between atoms,
elements, and compounds.
2. How are atoms held together? Explain the differences between the two main types of
bonding.
3. How do you think the arrangement of matter, such as the matter in the hamburger,
changes in chemical reactions?

EXPLORATION 2
Properties of Water
Gather Evidence When you’re thirsty, you need to drink something that is mostly water. Why is water so
As you read, record necessary for life? Your cells, and those of every other living thing on Earth, are mostly
evidence to answer this question: water. The composition and structure of the water molecule gives it unique properties
What characteristics of a water essential to living things.
molecule make it unique?
Polar Molecules
A water molecule has two covalent bonds. A water molecule is an example of a polar
FIGURE 9: In water molecules,
molecule. You can think about polar molecules similarly to how you think about the
the oxygen atom has a slightly
poles of a magnet. Just as magnets have a north and a south pole, polar molecules
negative charge, and the
have a region with a slightly positive electric charge and a region with a slightly
hydrogen atoms have slightly
positive charges. negative electric charge. Just like poles of magnets repel one another and opposite
poles attract one another, so do the poles in polar molecules.
- Polar molecules form when atoms in the molecule have unequal pulls on the electrons
they share. In a molecule of water, the greater number of protons in the nucleus of an
O oxygen atom attracts the shared electrons more strongly than does the single proton
in a hydrogen atom. Because electrons carry a negative charge, the oxygen atom
H H
gains a slight negative charge, and the hydrogen atoms gain slight positive charges.
+ +
The more equally charged the atoms in chemical bond are, the less polar a bond is,
because the atoms share the electrons more equally.
Hydrogen Bonds
When a hydrogen atom is part of a polar molecule, the hydrogen atom has a slight
positive charge. This slightly positive atom is attracted to a slightly negative atom,
often oxygen or nitrogen, forming a hydrogen bond. Life depends on hydrogen
bonds. For example, hydrogen bonds are part of the structures of proteins and DNA
molecules. Hydrogen bonding is important in other ways, as shown in Figure 10.
FIGURE 10: Water’s surface tension comes from hydrogen bonds that cause water
molecules to stick together, allowing this spider to walk across the surface of water.
Image Credits: (l) ©Dominic Ruefenacht/EyeEm/Getty Images

+
+
+
+
- -
+
+
hydrogen bond
-
Analyze How are hydrogen bonds similar to ionic bonds?

Properties of Hydrogen Bonds
Individual hydrogen bonds are about 20 times weaker than typical covalent bonds,
but they are strong enough to have an influence on water molecules. As a result,
a large amount of energy is needed to overcome the interactions among water
molecules. Water is a liquid at the temperatures that support most life on Earth
because of hydrogen bonding among the water molecules. Without hydrogen bonds,
water would boil at a much lower temperature than it does, because less energy would
be needed to change liquid water into water vapor. Hydrogen bonds are responsible
for other important properties of water.
High Specific Heat Hydrogen bonds give water an abnormally high specific heat. This
means that water resists changes in temperature. This property is very important in
cells. The processes that produce usable chemical energy in cells release a great deal of
heat. Water absorbs the heat, which helps to regulate cell temperatures and maintain
homeostasis.
FIGURE 11: When water and
Cohesion The attraction among molecules of a substance is called cohesion. Cohesion mercury are placed in glass
from hydrogen bonds makes water molecules “stick” to each other and produces tubes, the water adheres to the
surface tension. sides of the tube. The mercury,
by contrast, forms a rounded
Adhesion The attraction among molecules of different substances is called adhesion. surface at the top of the liquid.
For example, water molecules can stick to each other or to the sides of a glass tube.
Adhesion helps plants transport water from their roots to their leaves, because water
molecules stick to the sides of the tissues through which water passes.
Explain As shown in Figure 11, water sticks to the sides of a glass tube, but mercury
forms a rounded, bubble-like surface at the top of the liquid. Which is probably greater
in mercury—cohesion or adhesion? Explain your answer.
Water as a Solvent
Many substances dissolve in the water in your body. When one substance dissolves
in another, a solution forms. A solution has two parts: the solvent and the solute. Analyze The liquid part
The substance in a solution that is present in the greater amount and that dissolves of blood, called plasma, is
another substance is the solvent. A solute is a substance that dissolves in a solvent. The about 95% water. Molecules such
amount of solute dissolved in a certain amount of solvent is a solution’s concentration. as sugars and proteins are dissolved
Although water is known as the “universal solvent,” not all substances dissolve in the water of blood plasma. What
in water. For example, nonpolar molecules, such as oil, will not dissolve in water. is the solute and what is the solvent
Substances that are similar in structure mix more readily. This phenomenon is in blood plasma?
also known as “like dissolves like.” For example, nonpolar molecules will dissolve
in nonpolar solvents. Some vitamins, such as vitamin E, are nonpolar. They do not
dissolve in water in the body, but they do dissolve in nonpolar substances such as the
Image Credits: ©Charles D. Winters/Science Source
lipids that make up body fat. This is why vitamin E is classified as a fat-soluble vitamin.
Predict Why is the ability to dissolve many substances important for a solvent that is
found in living things?

Acids and Bases
Some compounds separate into ions when they dissolve in water. An acid is a
+
compound that releases a proton—a hydrogen ion (H )—when it dissolves in water.
+
An acid increases the concentration of H ions in a solution. Bases are compounds that
+ +
remove H ions from a solution. When a base dissolves in water, the H concentration
+
decreases. A solution’s acidity, or H concentration, is measured by the pH scale.
Explore Online +
FIGURE 12: The pH of a solution depends on the concentration
Understanding pH of H ions.
Hands-On Lab
pure water
Investigating Acids and
Bases Use different tools stomach acid blood
to measure the pH of various bile
substances including foods and
cleaning products.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
more acidic neutral more basic
H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H H+ H+ H+ + H+
+
H+ H+ H+ H+ H+
H + H+
H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H H+
H +
H+
H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ + H+ H+ H+ H+
H H+
H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+
H+
H+
H + H +
H +
H+
H+ H+ H+ H+
+ +
higher H concentration lower H concentration
Analyze Lemon juice has a high hydrogen ion concentration. Where would you
expect to find it on the pH scale?
In order to maintain homeostasis, most organisms need to keep their pH within a

very narrow range around neutral (pH 7.0). However, some organisms require a pH
outside this range. For example, the azalea plant thrives in acidic (pH 4.5) soil, and a
microorganism called Picrophilus survives best at an extremely acidic pH of 0.7.
For all of these different organisms, pH must be regulated. One way pH is regulated
in organisms is by substances called buffers. A buffer is a compound that can bind to
+ + + +
an H ion when the H concentration increases, and can release an H ion when the H
+
concentration decreases. The buffer maintains a more constant level of H ions and
helps to maintain homeostasis.
bi_cnlese539273_98a
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Leslie Kell Explain Construct an explanation for how hydrogen bonds between water molecules
contribute to the properties important for the survival of living things. In your
explanation, discuss the structure of the water molecule, and explain how this structure
contributes to the unique properties of water. Finally, explain how these properties are
related to the proper functioning and survival of living things.

EXPLORATION 3
Chemical Reactions and Enzymes
Chemical reactions are important to all living things. Plant cells make compounds Explain Think about the
by linking simple sugars together. Plant and animal cells break down sugars to get last food you ate. How do
usable energy. These are just a few of the chemical reactions in living things. Chemical you know the chemical bonds in
reactions change substances into different substances by breaking chemical bonds your food were broken?
and forming new chemical bonds, rearranging atoms in the process.
Modeling Chemical Reactions

To understand chemical reactions, we need to know the inputs and outputs. Reactants
are the initial substances in a chemical reaction. As the reaction proceeds, the bonds
of the reactants are broken and rearranged to form the products of the reaction. The
products of a chemical reaction are different from the reactants—all the same atoms
are still present, but their rearrangement produces substances with properties that are
different from those of the starting materials.
For example, hydrogen peroxide, shown in Figure 13, is a very reactive compound.
You may have used a hydrogen peroxide solution to clean a cut or scrape. When
this compound comes into contact with certain proteins in your blood, bubbles are
produced. The foamy substance you see is made up of oxygen gas and water. The
properties of these molecules are very different than those of hydrogen peroxide.
Chemical equations model what happens in a chemical reaction. In a chemical
equation, the reactants are on the left side of the equation, and the products are on
the right side. Chemical reactions also model the conservation of matter. This means
that in chemical reactions, atoms are not created or destroyed, only rearranged. All
the atoms from the reactants will still be present in the products once the reaction
is complete.
Energy and Matter
Analyze Answer these

FIGURE 13: This chemical reaction shows that two molecules of hydrogen peroxide
questions about the
(H2O2) break apart to form two molecules of water (H2O) and one molecule of
oxygen (O2). chemical reaction in Figure 13:
1. How does the arrangement of
atoms and bonds change?
2. What are the inputs and
outputs of the reaction?
3. How can you tell that matter
2H2O2 2H2O + O2 is conserved in this reaction?
hydrogen peroxide water oxygen

Chemical Equilibrium
FIGURE 14: Carbonic acid Some chemical reactions go from reactants to products until all the reactants are
dissolves in the blood so consumed. This is like a one-way street. The reaction can only proceed in one direction
that carbon dioxide can be and is irreversible. These types of chemical reactions have an arrow pointing toward the
transported to the lungs. products. Other chemical reactions are like a two-way street. They can proceed in either
direction, meaning they are reversible. These chemical reactions go in one direction or
the other depending on the concentrations of the reactants and the products. Arrows
pointing in each direction indicate a reversible chemical reaction. One such reversible
reaction lets blood carry carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide reacts with water in your
blood to form a compound called carbonic acid. Some of the carbonic acid breaks
down into water and carbon dioxide, which exits the body via the respiratory system.
In an irreversible chemical reaction, the reaction proceeds in one direction until at
least one reactant is completely consumed. In a reversible chemical reaction, the
reaction proceeds to an equilibrium point. At the equilibrium point, both reactants
and products are present. The chemical reaction does not stop but continues in both
Analyze In terms of directions at equal rates, so that the net concentrations of each reactant and product
homeostasis, why it is do not change. If some of the products of one reaction are removed, the chemical
important for some reactions to reaction proceeds in the direction required to restore the reactants and products to
equilibrium again. A reversible reaction will always maintain an equilibrium as long as
be reversible?
there are reactants and products.
Activation Energy
All chemical reactions involve changes in energy. The reactants must absorb energy
in order to break their chemical bonds. When new bonds form to make the products,
energy is released. During a chemical reaction, energy is both absorbed and released.
Some chemical reactions absorb more energy than they release, while other reactions
release more energy than they absorb. Whether a chemical reaction absorbs or
releases more energy depends on the bond energy of the reactants and products.
Bond energy is the amount of energy needed to break a specific chemical bond.
Some energy must be absorbed to start a chemical reaction. Activation energy is the
amount of energy that needs to be absorbed to start, or activate, a chemical reaction.
Language Arts
Activation Energy
Connection
One analogy used to describe FIGURE 15: The
activation energy compares it to the peak on the
graph indicates
energy needed to push a rock up a
the activation
hill. Once the rock is at the top of energy. This is the activation energy
Image Credits: (t) ©Science Picture Co./Science Source
the hill, it rolls down the other side amount of energy reactants
by itself. Write your own analogy reactants must
difference
describing activation energy. absorb in order
in energy
Energy
to break their
chemical bonds
so the reaction
can proceed.
products
Reaction progress

Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions FIGURE 16: A chemical reaction
in a firefly releases light energy.
Chemical reactions may be classified by whether or not energy is absorbed or
released during the reaction overall. The total energy of the reaction is the difference
between the energy absorbed when bonds break and the energy released when
bonds form. When a chemical reaction releases more energy than it absorbs, it is
called an exothermic reaction. In an exothermic reaction, the products have lower
bond energies than the reactants. The excess energy—the difference in bond energy
between the reactants and the products—is often given off as heat or light. The prefix
exo- means “outside.” In an exothermic reaction, energy is an output.
Explain In this firefly’s
When a chemical reaction absorbs more energy than it releases, it is called an body, chemical reactions
endothermic reaction. In an endothermic reaction, the products have higher bond
take place that allow the firefly to
energies than the reactants. Energy must be absorbed to make up the difference.
give off light to attract a mate. Is
The vessel that contains an endothermic reaction in progress usually feels cold to the
this light most likely the result of
touch because it is absorbing energy from its surroundings—which includes your skin
if you are touching the container. The prefix endo- means “inside.” In an endothermic endothermic or exothermic
reaction, energy is an input. reactions? Explain your answer.
Data Analysis
Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions

FIGURE 17: Energy is released in exothermic reactions and absorbed in endothermic reactions.
activation energy
activation energy
reactants products
Energy
Energy
difference difference
in energy in energy
reactants
products
Reaction progress Reaction progress
a Exothermic reaction b Endothermic reactions
Explain Use the graphs in Figure 17 to answer the following questions:

1. How do endothermic and exothermic reactions differ in terms of energy?
Image Credits: (t) ©Moment/tomosang/Getty Images
2. Is activation energy part of the overall difference in energy for a chemical reaction?
3. Why do exothermic reactions feel warm to the touch, while endothermic reactions
feel cold? Use evidence from the graphs to support your answer.
A huge number of chemical reactions take place at any given time in a living organism.
Survival of the organism depends on some reactions proceeding as rapidly as possible
despite a restrictive environment and high activation energies.
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Leslie Kell Lesson 1 Chemical Bonds and Reactions 81
Catalysts
Chemical reactions in living things often need to happen quickly, but some have a
high activation energy that makes this not possible. Remember that the activation
energy is the amount of energy a chemical reaction needs to absorb before it can
begin. Often, that activation energy comes from an increase in temperature. Once the
reaction starts, however, it still might proceed slowly. For any reaction to take place,
the reactant molecules need to collide with enough force and in a specific orientation.
Especially if the concentration of reactants is low, collisions with the necessary force
and orientation are much less frequent.
However, the activation energy, and thereby the rate of the chemical reaction, can be
changed with a catalyst. A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of the reaction.
Catalysts are neither changed nor consumed during a reaction, so they are not part of
the equation. Catalysts provide an alternate way for the reaction to occur that requires
less activation energy.
Activation Energy with Catalyst Activation Energy With a Catalyst

FIGURE 18: This
graph shows
how a catalyst
activation energy
changes the
activation energy
Analyze According to the of a reaction. activation energy with catalyst
graph, how does a catalyst Note that the
Energy
increase the rate of a chemical overall difference reactants difference in energy

reaction? in energy does
not change as a
result of adding a
catalyst.
products
Reaction progress
Explore Online Enzymes

Hands-On Lab
One way to provide the necessary activation energy for a reaction is to increase the
Experimenting with temperature of the system. However, chemical reactions in organisms must take place
Catalase Design and conduct an at the organism’s body temperature, which must remain within a narrow range. In
investigation of how a factor affects addition, the reactants are often present in low concentrations. To lower the activation
the activity of the catalase enzyme. energy and help molecular collisions be more efficient, cells use biological catalysts.
The catalysts used in living organisms are called enzymes. Enzymes, like other catalysts,
lower the activation energy and increase the rate of chemical reactions. This is true
in both reversible and irreversible reactions. Enzymes are involved in almost every
process in organisms, from breaking down food to building proteins. For example,
during digestion, an enzyme called amylase in your saliva begins to break down
starches in your food. In the intestines, another enzyme called maltase breaks down
7-25-16 the sugar maltose into individual glucose molecules.
Leslie Kell

Enzyme structure is important because each enzyme’s shape allows only certain
reactants to bind to the enzyme. The specific reactants that an enzyme acts on are
called substrates. In the same way that a key fits into a lock, substrates fit the active
sites of enzymes. This is why, if an enzyme’s structure changes, it may not work at all.
This model of enzyme function is called the lock-and-key model.
FIGURE 19: The maltase enzyme is shaped to fit a molecule of maltose.
enzymenzym enzym enzymenzym enzym

e e e enzymenzym enzym
e e e e e e
active active
site siteactive site
glucose
glucose glucose
maltose
maltose maltose glucose
glucose glucose
1 The sugar maltose is the substrate for 2 The maltase enzyme is shaped so that 3 The enzyme allows a chemical reaction
this enzyme. Maltose is made up of two only the maltose molecule fits into the to occur that breaks the maltose
glucose molecules bonded together. active site of the enzyme. molecule into two glucose molecules.
The lock-and-key model is a good starting point for understanding enzyme function.
However, scientists have found that the structures of enzymes are not fixed in place. Model Make a diagram
Instead, enzymes actually bend slightly when they are bound to their substrates. In to illustrate how an enzyme
terms of a lock and key, it is as if the lock bends around the key to make the key fit
would break down a substrate
better. The bending of the enzyme is one way in which bonds in the substrates are
according to the induced-fit model.
weakened. This explanation is known as the induced-fit model.
Almost all enzymes are proteins. Interactions between different parts of the protein
cause it to form a complex 3D structure. This 3D structure enables an enzyme to
function properly as a catalyst. Changes in conditions such as temperature and pH can
affect the shape and function of a protein. Enzymes work best in a limited temperature
range that is around the organism’s normal body temperature. At only slightly higher
temperatures, the hydrogen bonds in an enzyme may begin to break apart. The
enzyme begins to unravel and unfold, or denature, as shown in Figure 20.
FIGURE 20: A change in temperature or pH can cause an enzyme to become denatured.
denaturation
Explain Why is having a
denaturation very high fever dangerous
for humans? Cite evidence related
to enzyme structure and function.
functional protein denatured protein

functional protein denatured protein

A change in pH can also affect the hydrogen bonds in enzymes and so cause
denaturation. Many enzymes work best at the nearly neutral pH that is maintained
within the body’s cells. If the fluid becomes more acidic or basic as the pH changes,
the reactions slow down. If the fluid becomes very acidic or basic, enzymes may stop
working altogether. Not all enzymes have the same pH requirements. For example,
enzymes in the stomach work best in acidic conditions. Alternately, some enzymes in
the small intestine work best under slightly basic conditions.
Predict At the beginning of the lesson, you saw hydrochloric acid breaking down a
hamburger. Hydrochloric acid is present in the stomach. How do you think enzymes in
the stomach might resist being denatured by such an acidic environment?
You can see denaturation occur when you cook an egg. As the egg starts cooking, the
proteins in the egg white extend as they unravel and unfold. The protein molecules
then begin linking to other protein molecules to form a network.
Collaborate Certain In some cases, denatured proteins can become renatured or regain their normal
chemicals can be used to shape. However, many proteins are not able to regain normal function once they are
denatured. In the case of the egg white, the proteins form new bonds that cause the
change hair from straight to curly.
white to develop the characteristic white gel of the cooked egg.
With a partner, discuss how this
might be related to chemical bonds FIGURE 21: The changes that occur in an egg white as it cooks involve the denaturation
and the denaturation of proteins. of proteins.
Because enzymes are proteins, changes in pH and adding heat can cause them to
become denatured. For a catalyst to work properly, it must maintain the proper shape
to accept the substrate molecule. Denaturation alters that shape and the catalyst no
longer works properly.
Image Credits: ©Fotokostic/Shutterstock
Explain Answer these questions to construct an explanation for how matter changes
during chemical reactions:
1. What happens in terms of atoms and bonds in chemical reactions?
2. How are energy inputs and outputs related to chemical reactions?
3. How do enzymes help living things carry out chemical reactions?

Hands-On Lab
Experimenting with Catalase

Many chemical reactions take place in the cells of living things. Some of these
reactions break down molecules from nutrients to obtain energy. Other reactions
synthesize all the compounds that cells need to survive. Together, these two
categories of reactions are called metabolism. Metabolism is the total of all the
chemical reactions that take place in a living organism.
Catalysts are substances that help speed up chemical reactions by lowering the
activation energy required to start the reaction. Within living organisms, these
substances are called enzymes. Enzymes are proteins. The reactants that enzymes
work on are called substrates, and the resulting substances are called products. We
would not survive without enzymes, because the essential reactions that keep us
alive would take far too long.
Activation Energy with a Catalyst

Activation Energy With a Catalyst
FIGURE 22: A catalyst lowers the activation energy for a chemical reaction.
activation energy
activation energy with catalyst

Energy
reactants difference in energy
products
Reaction progress
Many factors influence how well an enzyme functions. Temperature, pH, and the
presence of inhibitors such as heavy metals can affect the ability of an enzyme to
catalyze a reaction.
One important enzyme is catalase. Catalase is found in many cells, and it is highly
concentrated in the human liver. Catalase speeds up the decomposition, or
breakdown, of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in the body. Hydrogen peroxide is a toxic
byproduct of cellular respiration. Too much hydrogen peroxide in the body can
result in death. Catalase is able to speed up the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
into harmless water and oxygen. This chemical reaction is shown below.
2H2O2 → 2H2O ⁺ O2

SAFETY Choose a factor, such as temperature or pH, and investigate how it affects the activity
Hydrochloric acid and sodium of the catalase enzyme.
hydroxide are corrosive to the
skin. Use caution when pouring
Predict How do you think changes in this factor will affect the activity of the catalase
these chemicals. Raw liver can
carry E. coli, so be sure to wear enzyme? Give reasoning to support your claim.
gloves or use forceps when
handling the liver and wash
your hands thoroughly. PROCEDURE
Design a procedure to investigate how the factor you chose affects catalase activity.
Use the following questions to guide you in writing your procedure. If there is time,
you may investigate more than one factor.
• Which variable will you be changing, and how will you change it?
• Which variables will be kept constant?
MATERIALS • How many experimental setups will you need? Which setup will serve as your
• beaker control?
• beef liver
• How will you measure the activity of the enzyme?
• How many times will you run your test, and what safety considerations need to be made?
• forceps, scalpel, and tongs
Have your teacher check your procedure before moving on. Before carrying out the
• graduated cylinder, 10 mL experiment, create one or more data tables for your measurements and observations.
• hot plate
• hydrochloric acid, diluted ANALYZE

(1.0 M HCl)
Answer the following questions in your Evidence Notebook:
• hydrogen peroxide, 3% 1. How did you know when the activity of the catalase enzyme had increased or
• ice decreased?
• pH paper and pH probe 2. Make a graph of your data, and show any calculations you completed. What
patterns can you identify in the data?
• ruler and scissors
• sodium hydroxide, diluted

EXPLAIN
(1.0 M NaOH)
Write a conclusion explaining how the factor you tested affected enzyme activity.
• test tubes and test tube rack
Include each of the sections below in your explanation.
• thermometer Claim Was your prediction correct? What conclusion can your make based on the data?
• water, distilled Evidence Give specific examples from your data to support your claim.
Reasoning Explain how the evidence you gave supports your claim.
REFINE
Explain how you would improve this investigation if you were to do it again.
Precision and Accuracy Did the equipment used provide the level of precision needed
to make a valid conclusion?
Propose Changes What improvements would you make in this procedure to obtain
more precise data? Why would you make these changes?
Go online to choose one

ENZYMES AND ATHLETES INVESTIGATING ACIDS AND BASES
of these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
Explore Online
FIGURE 23: Hydrochloric acid is highly acidic. It is present in your stomach and can break
down food matter very quickly.
In the digestive system, several organs work together to break down food into simpler
molecules. Digestion begins in the mouth, continues in the stomach, and is completed
in part of the small intestine. In the mouth, mechanical digestion begins as you start
chewing. Your teeth shred and grind the food into smaller pieces. As you chew your
food, salivary glands secrete the enzyme amylase that begins the breakdown of
complex starch molecules into glucose.
Once food has been chewed and mixed with saliva, the tongue pushes it to the back
of the mouth to swallow. The food moves down to the stomach where digestion
continues. In the stomach, your stomach lining secretes gastric juice containing
hydrochloric acid (HCl) and the digestive enzyme pepsin. Proteins are digested in
the stomach and small intestine, but fats and sugars are digested only in the small
intestine where other enzymes, including maltase, continue the process.
Image Credits: (l) (c) (r) ©Science Photo Library/Rhys Lewis & Minh Tan Pham, AHS/DECD/age fotostock
Whenever you eat, your stomach produces hydrochloric acid. This acid has a pH of
about 1.5. Cells in the stomach lining produce a layer of mucus that protects the cells
from damage by the acid.
Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook to explain how matter, such
as a hamburger, is changed in a chemical reaction. Use evidence and models to support
your claim, and address the following questions:
1. How can matter be arranged, and how do we model the arrangement of matter?
2. How does matter and energy change in chemical reactions, and how can these
changes be modeled?
3. How do the properties of water and the ability to modify the rates of chemical
reactions enable living things to carry out functions necessary for life, such as
digesting food?

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 6. How do the properties of elements compare to the

properties of the compounds they form?
1. What does all matter have in common? a. The properties of the elements may differ from the
a. It is liquid at room temperature. properties of the compounds they form.
b. It is made up of atoms. b. The properties of the compound are always the same
c. It is visible. as the elements that are in the compound.
d. It is neutral. c. The properties of the compound will change only if
the elements in the compound are exposed to heat.
2. Which statement best describes compounds? d. The properties of the compound are the same as the
a. Compounds are collections of several atoms of the properties of the individual atoms in the compound.
same element.
7. Which of the following is not a property of water?
b. Compounds are made up of atoms of one or more
elements bonded together. a. high specific heat
c. Compounds rarely occur in nature and are often b. cohesion
synthesized by humans. c. relatively low boiling point
d. Compounds are composed of atoms that are not likely d. adhesion
to react with one another.
8. How do temperature and pH affect an enzyme that a
3. Which of the following are examples of matter? Select all chemical reaction depends on?
correct answers. a. They can break down the reactants.
a. heat b. They can break down the products.
b. sunlight c. They can change the shape of the enzyme.
c. water d. They can cause the chemical reaction to reverse.
d. grass
e. air FIGURE 24: Hydrogen bonds form between water molecules.
+
4. An animal’s stomach contains enzymes that break down +
food into smaller molecules that the animal’s cells can +

+
use. Enzymes perform this function by - -
a. participating in chemical reactions
b. increasing the reaction temperature +
c. decreasing the activation energy hydrogen bond +
d. lowering the pH
-
5. A chemical reaction proceeds until it reaches an

equilibrium. Which statement is true when the reaction is 9. How does the structure of a water molecule result in
at equilibrium? hydrogen bonding? Use evidence from Figure 24 to
a. All the reactants are used up. support your answer.
b. The reaction is completed and will not change.
10. You may have noticed that water sticks to surfaces such
c. One reactant is used up, but one or more of the other
as glass. Which property of water is responsible for this
reactants are still present.
phenomenon?
d. Both products and reactants are present.
11. Explain why the formation of hydrogen bonds between
water molecules is important for the survival of living
things.

16. Which of these statements about enzymes is true? Select
FIGURE 25: Hydrogen peroxide breaks down into water
all correct answers.
and oxygen.
a. Enzymes can help break chemical bonds.
b. Enzymes always change their shape when they bind
to a molecule.
c. Enzymes can break down a variety of different
2H2O2 2H2O + O2
substances.
hydrogen peroxide
hydrogen peroxide water
water oxygen
oxygen
d. An enzyme’s shape is related to the shape of the
substrate it binds to.
Use Figure 25 to answer questions 12–13.
12. Describe what is happening in terms of atoms and bonds MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE
in this chemical reaction.
13. Explain how this model of a chemical reaction In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
demonstrates that matter is conserved. supports the main ideas from this lesson:
Living things and the nonliving materials they use are all
Activation
FIGURE 26: A reaction Energy With
progresses witha Catalyst
the help of a catalyst. made of matter.
In chemical reactions, bonds are broken and new bonds are
formed. Atoms are rearranged, but not created or destroyed.
activation energy
Changes in matter keep living things alive and help them
activation energy with catalyst
maintain homeostasis.
Energy
reactants difference in energy study guide:

products include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions, and
Reaction progress other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
Consider how matter changes during chemical reactions and how
Use Figure 26 to answer questions 14–15. external conditions affect these changes.
14. Which statement is true regarding a catalyst?

a. A catalyst increases the activation energy for a
chemical reaction.
b. A catalyst decreases the difference in energy for a
chemical reaction.
c. A catalyst allows the reactants to start at a higher
energy level.
d. A catalyst lowers the activation energy for a chemical
reaction.
273_103a 15. Is this graph depicting an exothermic or endothermic

chemical reaction? Use evidence to support your answer.

2.2
Carbon-Based Molecules
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?

Carbon-based materials
take many forms.
FIGURE 1: All living things and many nonliving things are made up of carbon-containing
compounds.
Gather Evidence
Image Credits: (t) ©TLaoPhotogra phy/Shutterstock; (b) ©Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock

gather evidence for how the atoms
in biomolecules are separated and
rearranged to make new
biomolecules.
The universe is made up of many different elements, but one of the most important
elements in living things is carbon. It is often called the element of life because carbon
atoms are the basis of biomolecules, molecules that make up living things. Carbon
is also found in a number of nonliving things. Its properties allow it to form millions
of different compounds with vastly different properties. Carbon atoms can arrange
themselves into the molecules that make up your food and your clothes. Carbon-based
materials are also used for many technical applications, such as electronic, optics, and
even the rubber in tires.
Predict How can carbon be the central component of so many different types of
molecules?

EXPLORATION 1
Properties of Carbon
Organic chemistry refers to the chemistry of carbon-based molecules, because living Predict Why do you think
organisms are responsible for the production of nearly all naturally occurring carbon carbon has an entire branch
compounds. It was once believed that carbon-based compounds were only able to of chemistry devoted to its study?
be produced in living things. Now, organic chemists know how to synthesize many
different types of carbon-based compounds to make foods, materials, medicines, and
much more.
Despite the great number of carbon-based compounds that exist, those that compose
all living things can be divided into four main groups: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and nucleic acids. Because of their relatively large size, these organic compounds are
called macromolecules. Their structures and functions may differ in many ways, but
they all share a common feature—they contain carbon.
Structure of Carbon-Based Molecules

Carbon atoms are the basis of most molecules that make up organisms and are
involved in most processes that support life. The atomic structure of carbon gives
it unique bonding properties. These properties allow it to form covalent bonds, or Collaborate With a
bonds that share pairs of electrons. Carbon has four available electrons to share with partner, compare the
atoms of other elements to form covalent bonds. In organic molecules, carbon is mostcapric acid shapes of the molecules in Figure 2.
capric
Whatacid
is similar? What differs?
commonly bonded to the elements hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
H H H HH HH HH HH HH HH H H H
O
C C C OCC CC CC CC CC CC CC HC C C H
FIGURE 2: Carbon-based molecules can have many different structures, including
O straight chains, branched chains, and rings.
H H OH HH HH HH HH HH HH H H H
H H
Straight Chain Branched Chain Ring
glucose glucose
isohexane isohexane H H
capric acid H H C O HH C O
H H
H H H H H H H H H H C H C O C O
O H C H H
C C C C C C C C C C H H H H H HH H H H H H
H C H
O H C C C H CC CC HC C C C C C
H H H H H H H H H HH O O H H O H H
H H H H HH HH H H H H OO H O H
C C C C
glucose H O HH O H
H
CAPRIC ACID isohexane ISOHEXANE GLUCOSE
H H C O H
A fatty acid found in plant oils such as coconut
C oil
O and A clear liquid used to make A simple sugar that is an
H C H
palm kernel oil, as well as in the milk ofHsome
H
H
mammals. gasoline and glues, and as a important energy source for
H H H H
This fatty acid has been shown to haveCantibacterial C and solvent for extracting oils. living organisms.
H C C C C C H O H H
anti-inflammatory properties. H O O H
H H H H H C C
H O H
Analyze According to Figure 2, how many chemical bonds does carbon form? How
is the number of bonds carbon can make related to its ability to form molecules with
many different shapes?
8-1-16
8-1-16
L. Kell
L. Kell Lesson 2 Carbon-Based Molecules 91
In addition to forming single bonds, carbon atoms can also form double, or even triple,
bonds. In structural formulas, double bonds are represented with two bars, and triple
bonds are represented with three bars. As you can see in Figure 3, the carbon atom
in carbon dioxide forms a double bond with each oxygen atom. In acetylene, each
carbon forms one triple and one single bond. Both are carbon-based gases, but they
have different chemical properties. For example, they have different densities, and
carbon dioxide is odorless, while acetylene has a slight odor similar to garlic.
Carbon Dioxide
Carbon Dioxide AcetyleneAcetylene
FIGURE 3: Carbon can form single, double, or triple bonds.
Predict Which do you O C O O C O
Carbon Dioxide (C02) Acetylene (C2H2)
think is the strongest type
of covalent bond? A single, double,
or triple bond? Explain your answer. O=C=
OO=C=O H–C––HC–H
–C–C–H
A colorless, odorless gas that is naturally A colorless gas that burns with a bright
present in air (about 0.03 percent) and is flame and is used in welding. In its pure
used by plants in photosynthesis. form, it has a sweet, garlic-like odor.
Monomers and Polymers

Looking back at Figure 2, you may note three characteristics of carbon atoms. One
is that carbon can bond with itself or other atoms. The second is that the unique
bonding in carbon molecules enables them to form a ring or a long-chain structure of
repeating subunits. A polymer is a large molecule made of subunits called monomers.
The monomers in a polymer may be the same, as they are in the cellulose molecule in
Figure 4, or they may be different, as they are in proteins. The third characteristic of
carbon atoms is they often bind to hydrogen atoms. In fact, many carbon compounds
contain only carbon and hydrogen and are a class of compounds called hydrocarbons.
The covalent bonds in hydrocarbons store a great amount of energy.
Language Arts
FIGURE 4: Cellulose is a polymer made of smaller subunits called glucose monomers.
Connection One
polymer you may have heard of cellulose fibers in
plant cell wall
before is silk. Silk fibers, made by
spiders and some worms, are very
strong and durable. Now,
researchers are trying to produce
even stronger silk by feeding
silkworms carbon-based materials
such as carbon nanotubes.
Scientists are hoping to use the
enhanced silk for medical implants monomer
and wearable electronics. With a H
partner, research carbon-enhanced H C O H
polymer
silk and discuss the ways this C O
material might influence human H H
H
society. C C
H O O H H O H
C C
H O H

Engineering
Making Polymers FIGURE 5: Glucose and fructose undergo dehydration to

form sucrose, commonly known as table sugar.
Formation of Sucrose
Polymers may form through the process of dehydration
glucose fructose
synthesis. This process involves chemical reactions
CH2OH
in which a molecule of water (H2O) is released as one
C O
monomer bonds to another. One monomer provides H H H CH2OH O H
+
a hydrogen ion (H ) and the other provides a hydroxyl C C + C C
−
group (OH ). Some polymers can be broken down in a OH OH H OH HO H OH CH OH
2
C C C C
reverse reaction, called hydrolysis. The bonds between the
H OH OH H
monomers are broken by the addition of water molecules. H2O
In the human body, enzymes called hydrolases

CH2OH
use hydrolysis to break apart polymers. In industry,
C O
dehydration synthesis can be used to make a wide variety H H H CH2OH O H
of polymers, such as those in nylon and polyester fabrics. C C O C C
OH OH H H HO CH OH
2
Explain What might be some of the economic and C C C C
environmental tradeoffs of producing clothes from H OH OH H
human-made polymers, such as nylon and polyester, sucrose
versus natural polymers, such as cotton?
Isomers
The molecular structures you’ve seen so far look flat, but molecules are actually three-
fructose
dimensional (3D). The 3D placement of atoms and chemical bonds within organic
molecules is central to understanding their chemistry. Molecules that share the same
chemicalCH OH butOdiffer in theHplacement, or structure, of their atoms and/or
formula
2
chemical bonds are known as isomers. Because the atoms are connected in different
C C
ways, isomers have different physical and chemical properties. For example, glucose
HO are
and fructose H energy sources CHcell
OH for OH
2 processes. However, fructose is not as easily
metabolized as C glucose. Isomers
C allow for greater variety of organic compounds with
different properties.
OH H
FIGURE 6: The isomers glucose and fructosebi_cnlese539273_127a
both have the chemical formula C6H12O6.
8-11-16
Glucose glucose Fructose
L. Kell
fructose
CH2OH
CH2OH O
C O H
H H C C
H
C C H OH CH2OH
H HO
OH OH OH C C
C C
H OH OH H
glucose
Explain Compare and contrast the different types of carbon structures in terms of their
structures, chemical formulas, and functions. CH2OH
C O
H H Lesson 2 Carbon-Based Molecules 93
H
EXPLORATION 2
Structure and Function of Carbon-Based Molecules
The carbon-based macromolecules found in all organisms may be classified in four

basic types: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These molecules, often
called biomolecules, have different structures and functions, but all are formed
around carbon chains and rings. Some organisms, like most green plants, make
high-energy biomolecules through a process called photosynthesis. Other organisms
obtain carbon-based molecules by eating food. All living things break down organic
molecules and rearrange them to form new molecules necessary for life.
Carbohydrate Structure and Function

Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The most basic
carbohydrates are simple sugars, or monosaccharides. Many simple sugars have
Analyze Which of the either five or six carbon atoms. Glucose, one of the sugars made by plant cells during
carbohydrates shown in photosynthesis, is a six-carbon sugar. Simple sugars bind together to make larger
Figure 7 are monomers, and which carbohydrates called polysaccharides.glucose sucrose joined
A polysaccharide with two sugars
are polymers? Explain your answer. CH OH
together, such as sucrose, is called a disaccharide.
2
CH2
OH
C O C O
H H H H H H CH2OH O H
C C C C O C C
FIGURE 7: Glucose, sucrose, and cellulose are all carbohydrates. OH OH H OH OH OH H H OH CH OH
2
C C C C C C
H OH H OH OH H
Monosaccharide Disaccharide Polysaccharide
glucose glucose sucrose sucrose cellulose
CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH H OH CH2OH H OH
C O C OH C O C OCH OH O C C C O C C
H H H H HH H H 2H CH2OHH O H O OH H H H H O OH H H
C HC C C HC
C C O C C O C C C C C C C C C
OH OH H
OH OH
OH H OHOHOH H
OH OH H H OHH CH OH OH
2 CH2OH H H O OH H H H H
C C C C C C C C C CC C C O C C C O
H OH H OH H OH H OH OH H OH H CH2OH H OH CH2OH
cellulose cellulose
GLUCOSE H OH H CHSUCROSE
OH H OH H CELLULOSE
OH 2 CH2OH OH
C C C C C O C C C C C
O
A simple sugar
O that is an
OH O H OH H H
H HHA simple
H H O sugar made of
OH O H OH a
H glucose
H H
A complex carbohydrate with a straight, rigid
C C C C C C C
important energy source in O
Cmonomer
C
OH O H OH
bonded C toC a fructose C structure that makes up the cell wall—a tough,
H H H H H HH HH H H
living organisms.C O
C O Cmonomer.
C C Known
C C as table
O
C
sugar.
O outer layer of plant cells.
CH2OH H OH H OH CH2OH
CH OH 2
CH OH 2
The energy contained in carbohydrate molecules can be released and used for essential
FIGURE 8: Carbohydrate-rich
cell processes. Carbohydrate-rich foods such as bread, pasta, vegetables, fruit, and
Foods
sweeteners contain carbohydrate molecules that your body breaks down to release
Image Credits: (b) ©Elena Schweitzer/Shutterstock
usable energy. Simple carbohydrates like glucose and sucrose can be quickly
broken down and absorbed by your body. Complex carbohydrates are made up of
longer chains of molecules and are broken down more slowly. Sources of complex
carbohydrates include whole grains, potatoes, and vegetables. Complex carbohydrates
8-11-16
are often rich in cellulose, or fiber, which is not broken down in your digestive system.
L. Kell
Predict Why does it take longer for your body to break down complex carbohydrates
than simple carbohydrates? How is this related to their molecular structures?
nlese539273_128a
1-16 8-11-16
ell L. Kell
Lipid Structure and Function FIGURE 9: Otters have a gland
that secretes oil onto their fur.
Lipids are similar to carbohydrates in that they contain many of the same elements.
Unlike carbohydrates, lipids are nonpolar molecules. Thus, most lipids are insoluble
in water because water molecules are polar. This is the origin of the phrase, “oil and
water don’t mix, “ because lipids include many natural fats, oils, and waxes. Lipids also
include phospholipids and steroids. Some lipids, such as fats and oils, are broken down
as a source of usable energy for cells. Phospholipids are important for cell membrane
structure. Waxes form protective coatings, and steroids act as chemical messengers.
saturated fatty acid
The simplest lipids are fatty acids. More complex lipids often contain several fatty acidssaturated fatty acid
linked together. Fatty acids consist of long chain hydrocarbons containingHtwoH Hoxygen
H H H H H H H H H H H H H HO
atoms at one end. Fatty acids are distinguished from one another by chain length How
H C C C C C C C C C C C C CExplain C C C C C does
OH
and by the number of hydrogen atoms connected to each carbon atom. As shown in
secreting
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H oil onto their fur
Figure 9, fatty acids are modeled in two different ways. The line drawings represent
help otters maintain homeostasis?
the same molecules as those above them, but the individual elements are not labeled. O
Each kink in the chain represents a carbon atom, including the ends.
OH
FIGURE 10: Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated.
Saturated Fatty Acid

saturated fatty acid unsaturated
Unsaturated Fatty Acid fatty acid
saturated fatty acid
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H O H H H H H H HH H H H H H HO
H H
C H
C H
C H
C H
C H
C H
C H
C H
C H
C H
C H
C H
C H
C H
C H
C H
C O
C OH H C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C OH
H H
C C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C
H C OH
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
O
O
OH O
OH
OH
Saturated fatty acidsunsaturated fattyinacid

are found mostly foods from animals Unsaturated fatty acids are found mostly in oils from
unsaturated fatty acid
and some plants. They are usually solid at room temperature. plants and are usually liquid at room temperature. There
There areH no
H double
H H H bonds H between
H H H theH Hcarbon
H H Hatoms,
O are double bonds between some carbon atoms, so this
H H H
so thisHmolecule HisH H
“saturated” H H
with H H H
hydrogen
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C OH H H H O
atoms. The molecule is not saturated with hydrogen atoms, and it has
H H
saturatedC fatty
C C C C
acid C C
shown C C C
here isCstearic
C C
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H C C C
acid. C C OH a bent shape. The unsaturated fatty acid shown here is
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H linoleic acid.
Image Credits: (t) ©neelsky/Shutterstock; (b) ©Lucas Sevilla Garcia/Shutterstock
O
Collaborate With a partner, make a chart to compare
O and contrast these two sets
OH
of molecules: carbohydrates and lipids, and saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.
OH
Compare and contrast the elements that make them up, the arrangement of their
atoms, and the types of bonds that hold the atoms together.
FIGURE 11: Foods Containing
Fats and Oils Fats and Oils
We often think of fats as something to avoid in our diets. However, fats and lipids serve
many important roles in maintaining overall health. Fats contain 2.25 times as much
bi_cnlese539273_CMYK
energy per gram as carbohydrates,
8-5-16so fats are a major source of energy. They also play
an important role in the absorption
L. Kellof some vitamins and minerals. Fats are needed
to build and repair cell membranes and are an essential part of the myelin sheath that
surrounds and protects nerves. Fats are also required for processes such as muscle
movement, blood clotting, and inflammation.
Lesson 2 Carbon-Based Molecules 95

Phospholipids
A phospholipid is a lipid that consists of glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate
group. The “head” of the phospholipid is made up of the glycerol backbone and the
phosphate group. The fatty acids make up the “tails.” The polar head of a phospholipid
is soluble in water, or hydrophilic, which means “water loving.” The nonpolar tails are
insoluble in water, or hydrophobic, which means “water fearing.” When phospholipids
are placed in a watery environment, they arrange themselves in two layers. The
hydrophilic phosphate heads face outside, and the hydrophobic tails face the inside,
away from the water.
FIGURE 12: phospholipid

A phospholipid R
O
is made up of a
hydrophilic head
O P O– phosphate
hydrophilic O
and hydrophobic head CH2 CH CH2
tails. The head O O glycerol
contains glycerol C OC O
and a phosphate
group. The fatty saturated
acids in the tails fatty acid
may be saturated or hydrophobic
unsaturated. tails unsaturated
fatty acid
Cell membranes are made up of a double layer of phospholipids. The polar heads face
the outside of the membrane, and the nonpolar tails face the inside of the membrane.
Since some of the molecules that need to pass through the membrane are polar,
the nonpolar tails of the phospholipids would normally repel them. Proteins in the
membrane create “passageways” that allow both polar and nonpolar molecules to
pass from one side to the other.
FIGURE 13: Phospholipids are responsible for the dynamic nature of the cell membrane.
The membrane also contains carbohydrates, cholesterol, and proteins.
carbohydrate
chain
cholesterol proteins
protein
Predict The hydrophobic
tails of phospholipids keep
water from passing directly through head
the cell membrane. How might this
be beneficial for the maintenance
of homeostasis in a cell?
tail
cytoskeletal
protein proteins
channel
phospholipid

Waxes
Waxes are distinguished from other lipids by very long carbon chains that are very
hydrophobic. They resist water and are solid at a range of temperatures. Waxes FIGURE 14: Waxes form
form protective coatings for many living things, including plants, animals, fungi, and protective coatings on leaves.
bacteria. Their properties also make waxes valuable commodities. Many products
contain waxes, including makeup and foods.
Worker honey bees make wax out of carbohydrate molecules in honey. Bees consume
the honey, and special glands in their abdomens convert the sugars in the honey into
wax molecules. The wax then oozes out of the bee through small pores and forms
flakes on the outside of the bee’s body. Worker bees then chew the wax to make it
soft and pliable, and finally incorporate it into the beehive structure. These bees are
breaking down carbon-based molecules to make different molecules.
Analyze Waxes are a main component of the cuticle found on the upper surface of
some plant leaves. Why might the leaves of these plants have a waxy cuticle?
Steroids
So far, the lipids you have examined have a mostly linear structure. Steroids, however,
are a class of lipid that has a fused ring structure. All steroids have four linked carbon
rings, and several of them have a short tail. Steroids contain both hydrophobic and
hydrophilic regions, and they are insoluble in water.
Cholesterol is an example of a lipid with a fused ring structure. Your body needs a
certain amount of cholesterol to function properly. Not all of the cholesterol in your
body comes from your diet; your cells can make cholesterol from fatty acids. The ability
to make cholesterol is important because it is an important part of cell membranes.
Cholesterol is also the starting compound for steroid hormone production.
Cholesterol-based steroids have many functions. Some regulate your body’s response
to stress. Others, such as testosterone and estrogen, control sexual development and
the reproductive system.
FIGURE 15: A nutrition label shows how many milligrams of cholesterol are present
in your food. Nutrition labels also show how many grams of carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins are present.
Image Credits: (t) ©Oleg Shpak/Alamy Images; (b) ©Spauln/E+/Getty Images
Explain Excess cholesterol has been linked to heart disease, so the labels on some
food products contain wording such as “cholesterol-free.” Is it necessary to eat a
completely cholesterol-free diet? Explain your answer.

Protein Structure and Function
Analyze How do the Proteins are often described as the building blocks of life. They play many essential
terms polymer and roles in organisms. Many proteins function as enzymes, which help regulate chemical
monomer apply to the structure of reactions within our bodies. The building blocks for proteins are amino acids. There are
a number of different amino acids, but organisms use only 20 to build proteins. Our
protein molecules?
bodies can make 12 of these standard amino acids. The others come from foods you
eat, such as meats, beans, and nuts.
FIGURE 16: Proteins are made up of amino acids linked together in a chain called a polypeptide.
HO R R OO O R O
H R O R O R O
H NOC C C N C C N
N C C C N C C N
N C HC H
C
OH N C CH N
H H
H H OH
H HOH H H H H H
H
peptide bonds
peptide bondspeptide bonds
Amino acids have a carbon atom Peptide bonds form between the A polypeptide is a chain of precisely
bonded to a hydrogen atom, an amino group of one amino acid and the ordered amino acids linked by peptide
amino group (NH2), and a carboxyl carboxyl group of another amino acid. bonds. A protein is made of one or more
group (COOH). Different amino acids polypeptides.
have different side groups (R).
Proteins differ in the number and order of amino acids. The specific sequence of amino
acids determines a protein’s structure and function. Proteins may have three, and
sometimes four, levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
FIGURE 17: There are four possible levels of protein structure.
primary structure secondary structure tertiary structure quaternary structure

H
C H
N C
O C N
H O C
H
N C
N C C
C O
O
H
C H
N C
C C O C N
H N C O C
H O
C O H N H
N C
C C N C C
C O
N H O C O
H
O C N H H
C
C C N C
O C N
H N C O
C O H N O
C C
N H O C
O C N H
C C
H N C O
C O H N
C C
Predict Which would The primary structure of a protein is the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide.
probably have the greatest Hydrogen bonds between amino acids cause the chain to fold into zig-zag-shaped
effect on a protein’s function—a sheets and spirals, which make up the secondary structure. The tertiary structure is
the 3D shape of the protein. Many proteins contain multiple polypeptide chains, or
change to the primary, secondary,
subunits, which combine to form the quaternary structure.
or tertiary structure? Explain your
answer. Remember that enzymes and other proteins are particularly sensitive to environmental
changes. If pH or temperature exceed the normal ranges for a cell, the shape of
its proteins may change, and their function may be disrupted. This process, called
denaturation, only disrupts secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures—the
sequence of the protein remains unaffected.

Nucleic Acid Structure and Function
The unique sequence of amino acids in a protein is determined by the sequence of
FIGURE 18: Nucleotide Model
monomers in another biological polymer: nucleic acid. Nucleic acid polymers are made
up of monomers called nucleotides. A nucleotide is composed of a sugar, a phosphate
phosphate
group, and a nitrogen-containing molecule, called a base. The sugar and phosphate group nitrogenous
nucleotides form the backbone of the DNA double helix. The nitrogenous bases form base
matching pairs held together by hydrogen bonds.
There are two general types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA. Figure 19 shows the
structure of each of these nucleotides and their nitrogenous bases. The names of the
nitrogenous base also refer to the nucleotides that contain the bases. deoxyribose
(sugar)
FIGURE 19: DNA and RNA are both nucleic acids.
DNA RNA
deoxyribonucleic acid ribonucleic acid
cytosine cytosine
NH2 NH2
C N C N
HC C O HC C O
HC NH HC NH
sugar-
guanine phosphate guanine Collaborate With a
backbone partner, compare and
N O N O
HC HC contrast RNA and DNA in terms of
C C C C
HN C NH HN C NH structure and nitrogenous bases.
N C N C
base pair
NH2 NH2
adenine adenine
N NH2 N NH2 Explore Online

HC HC
C C C C
Hands-On Lab
HN C N HN C N
N CH N CH Modeling Biochemical
Compounds Model a variety of
thymine uracil biomolecules to better understand
O O how atoms are arranged in these
C NH C NH large molecules.
CH 3 C C O C C O
HC NH HC NH
replaces thymine in RNA
nitrogenous bases nitrogenous bases
Explain Use evidence you have gathered to support or refute the claim that living
things break down and rearrange carbon-based molecules. To organize your thoughts,
make a graphic organizer to compare and contrast the four main types of biomolecules
in these aspects: elemental makeup, overall structure, and main functions.

EXPLORATION 3
Chemical Energy
Your cells need energy to perform essential cell processes. This energy comes from
FIGURE 20: When an elk eats
food, but not directly. First, the food must be digested. Digestion breaks food into
plants, energy in the plant
molecules is released through a individual molecules, and some of these molecules store energy in their bonds. This
series of chemical reactions. chemical energy is only usable after biomolecules are broken down by a series of
chemical reactions known as cellular respiration.
Chemical Energy and ATP

Cellular respiration transfers energy from organic molecules such as glucose to a
molecule called ATP, or adenosine triphosphate. ATP is known as the energy currency
of the cell. It provides the energy necessary for cell processes such as pumping
molecules across the cell membrane and driving chemical reactions. ATP also provides
energy for mechanical processes, such as the contraction of muscle cells.
Model Draw a simple Cellular respiration is complementary to another process called photosynthesis. In
flow chart to show how this process, organisms such as plants and algae absorb energy from sunlight and use
energy is transferred from the sun it to help make high-energy sugars. When an animal such as an elk eats a plant, the
to the elk’s cells. plant matter is digested, and individual molecules are transported to cells. Cellular
respiration converts energy from some of these molecules to a form cells can use.
Energy and Matter
Cellular respiration is a multistep process that transfers chemical energy from

glucose to ATP, which provides energy for cell processes. In addition to glucose,
cellular respiration requires oxygen as a reactant. The products are ATP, carbon
dioxide, and water. Heat is also released as a product of cellular respiration.
FIGURE 21: Cellular Respiration

Collaborate With a
partner, answer the oxygen carbon dioxide
following questions. (O2) (CO2)
1. What is the energy input for
cellular respiration, and what glucose water
are the energy outputs? (C6H12O6) (H2O)
2. According to this model,
Image Credits: (t) ©Frank Pali/age fotostock/Getty Images
is cellular respiration an
endothermic or exothermic
process? Explain your answer.
heat ATP

ATP is a molecule made up of subunits called adenine and ribose, as well as three
phosphate groups. The bonds between the phosphate groups are high-energy bonds
that store chemical energy in a form that cells can use.
NH2 FIGURE 22: ATP

N O– O– O– is made up of
N adenine, ribose, and
O P O P O P O three phosphate
N O O O
groups. The “tri” in
N O
triphosphate signifies
adenine phosphate groups
that there are three
phosphate groups in
OH OH this molecule.
ribose
ATP is generated when cells carry out cellular respiration. In this process, energy
from the breakdown of biomolecules is used to add a phosphate group to adenosine
diphosphate, or ADP. The energy carried by ATP is released when a bond between two
phosphate groups is broken. A phosphate group is released, and ATP becomes ADP, a
lower-energy molecule. The energy released can be used to power cell processes such
as transporting materials, carrying out reactions, and producing new molecules.
Language Arts
FIGURE 23: Cells
Connection Make an
ATP use energy from the
analogy to explain the role of ATP in
breakdown of carbon-
P P P based molecules storing energy and releasing energy
to add a phosphate for cell processes.
energy energy group to ADP. This
added released forms ATP, a higher-
energy molecule.
When a phosphate
ADP group is removed from
ATP, energy is released
P P
+ P for cell processes.
Analyzing Energy Content in Food

The energy in food is measured in Calories. One Calorie from food equals one kilocalorie,
or 1000 calories. Proteins and carbohydrates have 4 Calories per gram, and fats have 9
Calories per gram. The number of Calories in food is indirectly related to the amount
of ATP that can be produced from the food. The number of ATP molecules produced
depends on the type of molecule that is broken down—carbohydrate, lipid, or protein.
Carbohydrates are the molecules most commonly broken down to make ATP, but they
are not stored in large amounts in your body. The body uses fat for energy storage
instead because it is more Calorie-dense and can yield greater amounts of ATP per unit
mass. Proteins store about the same amount of energy as carbohydrates, but they are
less likely to be broken down to make ATP. The amino acids in proteins are needed to
build new proteins more than they are needed for energy.
Explain A common misconception is that proteins are a good source of energy. Explain
which types of foods are the best energy sources and how this relates to the amount of
ATP made by your cells.

EXPLORATION 4
The Cell Membrane
Collaborate Think To maintain homeostasis, cells need to take in some substances while expelling others.
about another system that But how do cells manage the import and export of materials? The cell membrane,
controls inputs and outputs. Why is or plasma membrane, has a specialized structure that allows the cell to control
it necessary to control inputs and the passage of materials into and out of the cell. Different types of carbon-based
outputs in this system? molecules, including lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates, make up the cell membrane.
Cell Membrane Structure

The cell membrane consists of a double layer of phospholipids. The hydrophilic heads
of the phospholipids face the watery environment outside the membrane, and the
hydrophobic tails face the inside of the membrane. However, the types of substances
that could pass through the membrane, and their rates of passage, would be quite
limited if the membrane was only composed of phospholipids. To solve this problem,
the cell membrane also contains carbohydrates, proteins, and cholesterol.
Explore Online FIGURE 24: The cell membrane is made of two phospholipid layers embedded with
Hands-On Lab other molecules, such as proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol.
Modeling the Cell

carbohydrate
Membrane Make a model to chain
investigate the properties of the cholesterol proteins
cell membrane. protein
head
tail
cytoskeletal
protein proteins
channel
phospholipid
A cell membrane needs multiple passageways for substances to enter and exit the cell.
This task is accomplished by proteins. Some proteins embedded in the phospholipid
bilayer transport materials across the membrane. Others, in the form of enzymes,
speed up chemical reactions that take place on the membrane. Still others act as
receptors for specific molecules, such as hormones.
Explain How do the Carbohydrates on the cell membrane serve as identification tags, which allow cells
structures within the cell to distinguish one type of cell from another. They also enable neighboring cells to
membrane help the cell function adhere to each other. Cholesterol gives strength to the cell membrane by limiting the
within a larger system? movement of the phospholipids, preventing the membrane from becoming too fluid.
Cholesterol also protects the cell membrane at low temperatures by preventing it from
becoming solid if the cell is exposed to cooler than normal temperatures.

The structure of the cell membrane gives it the property of selective permeability. This Model Draw a model to
means it allows some, but not all, materials to cross. Selective permeability enables illustrate the concept of a
a cell to maintain stable conditions in spite of unpredictable, changing conditions semipermeable membrane.
outside the cell. Molecules and other materials cross the membrane in several ways.
Some of these methods require the cell to expend energy; others do not. How a
particular molecule crosses the membrane depends on the molecule’s size, polarity,
and concentration inside versus outside the cell.
Passive Transport
Cells almost continually import and export substances across the cell membrane. If
they had to expend energy to move every molecule, cells would require an enormous
amount of energy to stay alive. Fortunately, some molecules enter and exit a cell
without energy input from the cell in a process called passive transport. This type of
transport results from the diffusion of molecules across a membrane.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of molecules in a fluid or gas from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration. It results from the natural motion
of particles, which causes molecules to collide and scatter. Concentration is the
number of molecules of a substance in a given volume. A concentration gradient
is the difference in the concentration of a substance from one location to another.
Molecules diffuse down their concentration gradient—that is, from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration.
FIGURE 25: Passive Transport Explore Online
higher concentration
Analyze Compare and
contrast the way molecules
move in diffusion and facilitated
diffusion. Discuss concentration and
mode of transport across the
membrane.
diffusion facilitated diffusion

lower concentration
Some molecules cannot simply diffuse across a membrane. Facilitated diffusion is the
diffusion of molecules across a membrane through transport proteins. Some proteins
form openings, or pores, through which molecules can move. Other proteins bind to
specific molecules to be transported on one side of the membrane. When the correct
molecule binds, these proteins change their shape, and this allows the molecule
to pass through the membrane to the other side. Each protein in the membrane is
specific to a certain type of molecule or particle.

Hands-On Lab
MATERIALS Heat and Diffusion

• beaker, medium (3)
• food coloring You can see diffusion in action when you add food coloring to water. In this lab, you
• hot plate will measure the rate of diffusion in water at three different temperatures.
• ice Predict Which solution will have the greatest rate of diffusion: a hot, cold, or
• timer room-temperature one? Explain your answer.
• water
PROCEDURE
1. Place the same amount of water in three beakers.
2. Place Beaker 1 on the hot plate until it is warm, but not boiling. Place Beaker 2 in
an ice bath or refrigerator. Leave Beaker 3 at room temperature.
3. With the timer ready, add one drop of food coloring in the room-temperature
water. Record how long it takes the food coloring to evenly disperse throughout
the solution. Repeat for the other two solutions.
4. Record your data in a data table.
ANALYZE
1. How could you tell that molecules were diffusing in this lab?
2. In which solution did diffusion occur most rapidly?
3. Explain your results in terms of the movement of water and food coloring
molecules in each beaker. How did temperature affect this movement?
FIGURE 26: Osmosis is the Osmosis

movement of water toward areas
of higher solute concentration. Water molecules, of course, also diffuse. They move across a semipermeable
membrane from an area of higher water concentration to an area of lower water
selectively concentration. They are also moving from an area of lower solution concentration to
permeable
solute membrane an area of higher solution concentration. This process is called osmosis. It is important
to recognize that the higher the concentration of dissolved particles (solutes) in a
solution, the lower the concentration of water molecules in the same solution. The
membrane is only permeable to some solutes, so water must cross the membrane to
equalize the concentrations of the two solutions.
Plants use osmosis to move water into the cells of their roots. Proteins in the cell
lower solute higher solute
membranes of root cells transport certain molecules into the cell. These molecules
concentration concentration
(higher water (lower water become more highly concentrated on the inside of the root cells than outside, and
concentration) concentration) water follows the molecules into the cells. Water is always drawn toward areas of
higher solute concentration.
Model Red blood cells burst when placed in pure water. Draw a model explaining
this phenomenon. Label semipermeable membrane, solute concentration, and
movement of water on your model.
movement of water

Active Transport Explore Online
FIGURE 27: Active Transport

Sometimes a cell must move a substance against a concentration gradient in
order to maintain homeostasis. Then it must use a process called active transport. lower concentration
Active transport drives molecules across a membrane from a region of lower
concentration to a region of higher concentration using transport proteins.
Unlike facilitated diffusion, the activity of transport proteins must be powered
by chemical energy. An input of energy is necessary because the transport
proteins have to overcome the natural tendency of substances to move with a
concentration gradient. ATP often provides the energy for active transport.
ATP ADP
Endocytosis
A cell may also use energy to move large substances across the cell membrane
using vesicles. Endocytosis is the process of taking liquids or fairly large molecules Analyze Make a table to
into a cell by engulfing them in a membrane. The cell membrane folds inward compare passive and active
around the substance and pinches off inside the cell, forming a vesicle. The vesicle transport in terms of energy,
then fuses with a lysosome or similar vesicle. The vesicle membrane and content are concentration, and the role of
broken down (if necessary) and released into the cell. proteins in the membrane.
FIGURE 28: Endocytosis allows cells to take in materials.
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
Exocytosis
Exocytosis is the release of substances out of a cell by the fusion of a vesicle with
the membrane. A vesicle forms around materials to be sent out of the cell. The vesicle
then moves toward the cell’s surface, where it fuses with the membrane and releases
its contents.
FIGURE 29: Exocytosis allows cells to expel materials.

Predict Which would be
more likely to carry out
endocytosis: a white blood cell
engulfing foreign materials or a cell
that excretes hormones? Explain.
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
Explain Cystic fibrosis is a disease that occurs when a protein that normally transports
ions across the cell membrane does not function properly. A change to the tertiary
structure of the protein prevents it from transporting chloride ions out of cells. This leads
to a lack of water outside the cells, which causes a sticky mucus to form in the lungs.
Explain how diffusion and osmosis are related to the symptoms of cystic fibrosis.

Data Analysis
Food and Energy
Have you ever heard the saying, “You are what you eat?” In
FIGURE 30: Nutrition labels contain information about the
many ways, this is true! Living things are made up of different biomolecules in your food.
types of organic, or carbon-based, molecules. When we eat
food, our digestive system breaks down the food into smaller
molecules that can be used by the body. When digestion
is complete, nutrients are absorbed by the body and
transported by the circulatory system and lymphatic system
to all the cells.
Once food enters the body, it can be broken down further
to harness energy and form new types of molecules. For
example, sugar molecules contain the elements necessary
to produce many other types of organic molecules. These
elements can be rearranged and combined with other
elements through chemical reactions to form new products
such as proteins, fats, and DNA.
The information on a food label, such as the one in Figure 30,
can help you make good choices and compare the values of
different foods. The label shown here is for cereal.
Serving size and number This measurement varies from one
  34 of a cup
product to another. In this case, one serving equals __
of cereal. ANALYZE
Calories The numbers listed on the label are for one serving Use the nutrition label shown in Figure 30 to complete the
only. If you eat your cereal with milk, you will have a different calculations necessary for Questions 1-6.
number of Calories. 1. The label shows the calories in one serving of this food. If
Nutrients to limit Americans usually consume too much you were to eat two servings of this food, how many total
saturated fat, trans fat, cholesterol, and sodium. Trans fat is calories would you consume?
a type of fat that can cause cell damage. A diet high in these 2. If you were to eat two servings of this food, how many
nutrients is linked to obesity, which affects more and more grams of carbohydrates would you consume?
Americans of all ages. Too much sodium can raise blood 3. Total carbohydrates is the sum of the simple sugars,
pressure by causing the body to retain water. starches, and dietary fiber in a product. Based on the label,
Nutrients to target Americans need to consume enough what percentage of the total carbohydrates are in the
fiber, vitamins, and other nutrients each day. Notice that this form of fiber?
product is low in Vitamin A and Vitamin C, but high in iron. 4. Carbohydrates contain 4 Calories per gram, fats contain
9 Calories per gram, and proteins contain 4 Calories per
Image Credits: ©Spauln/E+/Getty Images
gram. Calculate the amount of caloric energy provided by

each group of biomolecules in one serving of this food.
5. The label indicates that there are 0.3 grams of saturated
fat in this product. What percentage of total fats is made
up of unsaturated fats?
6. If a serving of this food is 29 grams, what percentage
of the food is made up of carbohydrates?

The guidelines for what makes up a healthy diet have
FIGURE 31: Food has energy and nutrients your body can use.
changed over time. You may have seen the food pyramid,
which has carbohydrates at the base of the pyramid, and
fats, oils, and sweetened foods at the top of the pyramid.
More recently, a plate with four main sections for vegetables,
proteins, grains, and fruits has been used as a model of a
balanced diet. This is an example of how different fields of
science work together to gather new information and update
guidelines accordingly.
Language Arts Connection Research current

nutritional guidelines using scientific and government
sources. Consider the following when conducting your research:
• What is a balanced diet?
• How is a balanced diet modeled?
• How have nutritional guidelines changed over time?
Develop an informational pamphlet to share with your peers. Your
pamphlet should contain the information you researched.
Informative/explanatory writing is a well-organized analysis of a

topic. This type of writing tells how or why. Be sure to:
• Provide an introduction that clearly states the topic and
engages readers.
Image Credits: (t) ©Elena Schweitzer/Shutterstock; (c) ©Lucas Sevilla Garcia/Shutterstock; (b) ©alexpro9500/Shutterstock
• Organize your ideas to make important connections and

distinctions.
• Include details that support your ideas.
• Provide a conclusion that supports your explanation.
PRACTICE
Track Your Nutrients
Record the foods you eat over the course of a week. Record
the amount of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins contained
in the foods you eat for each meal. Are there any patterns in
your eating habits?
MODELING BIOCHEMICAL BUILDING BLOCKS OF INVESTIGATING Go online to choose one

. COMPOUNDS PLANTS . OSMOSIS of these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 32: Carbon is essential to life on Earth.
Carbon is often called the building block of life because carbon atoms are the central
component of most molecules that make up living things. These molecules form the
structure of living things and carry out most of the processes that keep organisms
alive. Carbon is so important because its atomic structure gives it bonding properties
that are unique among elements.
Carbon atoms can arrange themselves into the molecules that make up your food and
your clothes. Carbon-based materials are also used for many technical applications,
such as electronics, optics, and even the rubber in tires.
Explain How can carbon be the central component of so many different types of
molecules? Write an explanation that answers these questions:
1. How do the properties of carbon allow it to form a variety of different molecules?
Image Credits: ©Monkey Business Images/Shutterstock
2. What evidence is there that chemical reactions in organisms’ cells break apart and
rearrange carbon-based molecules?
3. How is energy from biomolecules transferred to cell processes in living things?

CHECKPOINTS

FIGURE 33: Formation and Breakdown of ATP
1. Suppose you are going to draw models of the four main

biomolecules. Which statement describes how the ATP
models will be similar?
P P P
a. They will all be formed around carbon chains
and rings. energy
energy
b. They will all include a chain of amino acids. added released
c. They will all have hydrocarbon chains connected
only by double bonds.
d. They will all include a sugar, a phosphate group, ADP
and a base. P P
+ P
2. Which of these evidence statements should you include

in an explanation of the relationship among carbon,
5. Use the model in Figure 33 to write an explanation for
amino acids, and proteins? Select all correct answers.
how ATP stores energy and how this energy is released
a. Amino acids are polymers made up of proteins. for cell processes.
b. Proteins are polymers made up of amino acids.
c. Proteins and amino acids are polymers because 6. Which type of transport across the membrane requires
they contain multiple carbon atoms. ATP—facilitated diffusion or active transport? Explain
d. Amino acids are monomers made up mostly of your answer.
carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen.
7. Draw a Venn diagram to compare and contrast
3. Use these terms to complete the statement carbohydrates and lipids. Include terms related to the
explaining how living things obtain and use the molecular structures, functions, and energy content of
molecules necessary for life: these molecules.
ATP, glucose, cell processes, cellular respiration,
photosynthesis MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE
Some living things, such as plants and algae, transfer
energy from sunlight to _____ molecules. This process is
known as _____. Virtually all living things transfer energy In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
from these molecules to another molecule called _____, supports the main ideas from this lesson:
which provides the energy for _____. The process that Organisms are made up of carbon-based molecules.
produces this molecule is called _____.
Carbon-based molecules are broken down and rearranged in
organisms’ cells to form new molecules and obtain energy.
4. Use these terms to complete the statement
explaining how enzymes carry out chemical reactions Remember to include the following information to your
in living things: study guide:
bonds, shape, proteins, temperature • Use examples that model main ideas.
Enzymes are _____ that help break chemical _____, • Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
as well as form new ones. Enzymes require specific • Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
environmental conditions related to _____ and pH include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions, and
to properly function. If these conditions are not met, other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
the _____ of the enzyme may change. This could result
Consider how the models in this lesson can be used to compare and
in a nonfunctional enzyme that cannot carry out
contrast different types of carbon-based molecules.
chemical reactions.

UNIT CONNECTIONS
Physical Science Connection FIGURE 1: Schematic View of Graphene
Graphene The unique chemistry of carbon molecules has many uses in nonliving
systems. For example, graphene is a substance composed of a honeycomb lattice
of carbon, just one atom thick. Graphene was first characterized in 2004 and is an
excellent conductor, extremely flexible, and 100 times stronger than steel. Scientists
and engineers are just beginning to tap into the many possible uses for graphene
and products made with it.
Using library and Internet resources, research current and potential applications of
graphene. Write a blog entry explaining the applications you think would have the
greatest benefits. Use evidence from your research to support your claims.
Art Connection
Chemistry of Pigments Pigments are colored substances that can be used to color
FIGURE 2: A Collection of Pigments
other materials. Pigments have been used for thousands of years to add color to
artwork, clothing, skin, textiles, decorations, and other materials. Each pigment,
whether organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic, has unique chemical properties
that determine the pigment’s color, durability, binding and other attributes. People
using pigments and dyes carefully select those with the characteristics most
appropriate and useful for the application at hand.
Image Credits: (t) ©yurkoman30/Fotolia; (c) ©Fotolia Premium/Fotolia; (b) ©NASA/JPL-Caltech/University of Arizona/University of Idaho
Using library and Internet resources, research the chemical properties and historical
uses of pigments. Using your favorite pigments, produce your own work of art—a
painting, a print, or another format. Prepare a report describing the chemistry and history of
the pigments you chose to accompany your artistic work.
Life Science Connection

Silicon-Based Life All known life forms on Earth depend on the chemistry of FIGURE 3: Titan, one of Saturn’s moons,
carbon biomolecules. Carbon may not be the only possible basis for life, however. has conditions that some think may be
The element silicon (Si) shares several important chemical properties with carbon, able to support silicon-based life.
including the ability to form four bonds per atom. Some scientists have theorized
that silicon-based life—perhaps on other planets, with conditions unlike those
found on Earth—might be possible. For example, some scientists think other
planetary bodies, like Titan, may be able to sustain silicon-based life.
Using library and Internet resources, research the case for silicon as a basis for the
chemistry of living things. Construct an explanation using evidence stating whether
you think silicon-based life could exist. In your argument, discuss the specific chemical
properties of silicon compared to carbon that could make life possible or not. Cite specific
text evidence to support your claims.



PRACTICE AND REVIEW
Use the information in from Figure 4 to answer question 1. 2. Hydrogen bonding is an important factor contributing to
many properties of water, including boiling point, specific
1. In the graph shown in Figure 4, the solid red line heat, and adhesion. Which of the following would be
represents the energy of a chemical reaction. The dotted true if hydrogen bonds between water molecules did not
red line represents the energy of the same reaction, in the form? Select all correct answers.
presence of a catalyst. Which statement best describes a. Water would have less mass per volume.
the role played by the catalyst? b. Plants would be less efficient in transporting water
a. The catalyst is used up in the reaction. from roots to leaves.
b. The catalyst makes the reaction more endothermic. c. Heat produced by biochemical processes would be
c. The catalyst increases the concentration of reactants. more difficult to regulate.
d. The catalyst lowers the activation energy of the reaction. d. Less water would exist in liquid form on the surface of
Earth.
Activation Energy with a Catalyst
3. In large hydrocarbon molecules such as fatty acids, the
Activation
FIGURE 4: The Effect Energy With
of a Catalyst on aaChemical
Catalyst Reaction
component atoms are held together by covalent bonds.
Can similar stable molecules be formed with hydrogen
bonds? Explain your reasoning.
4. In our bodies, the enzyme amylase is present in saliva

and breaks down starch molecules into maltose. In our
intestines, the enzyme maltase breaks down maltose
into two glucose molecules. In your Evidence Notebook,
Energy
reactants difference in energy develop a model demonstrating what effect an amylase

enzyme deficiency would have on a person.
5. You learn that two sugar compounds are isomers,

meaning they have the same chemical formula but differ
products in the placement of atoms and/or bonds. Would you
Reaction progress expect the two sugars to have the same physical and
chemical properties? Explain why or why not.

6. A phospholipid bilayer is the central component of cell Use the information from Figure 5 to answer question 10.
membranes, which water molecules cannot freely pass
through. What characteristics of the phospholipid bilayer
FIGURE 5: Modes of passive transport include diffusion and
prevent water from crossing freely? facilitated diffusion.
a. The exterior and interior regions of the membrane are
hydrophobic, keeping water outside.
b. The exterior and interior regions of the membrane are
hydrophilic, trapping water inside the membrane.
c. The exterior of the membrane is hydrophobic, keeping
water away, though the interior is hydrophilic.
d. The exterior of the membrane is hydrophilic, but the
interior is hydrophobic, keeping water from passing.
7. Is it more difficult for your body to break down simple

carbohydrates or complex carbohydrates?
a. Simple carbohydrates are easier to break down diffusion facilitated diffusion
because they consist of only one or two sugar lower concentration
molecules.
10. In the image in Figure 5, molecules are entering a cell
b. Complex carbohydrates are easier to break down
via forms of passive transport. If the molecules reach a
because they consist of many sugars chained together.
higher concentration inside the cell than outside, which
c. Simple carbohydrates are easier to break down
of these forms, if any, can still be used to transport
because they consist of many sugars chained together.
molecules into the cell? Are other methods of transport
d. Complex carbohydrates are easier to break down more suitable in this scenario? Explain your reasoning.
because they consist of only one or two sugar
molecules.
UNIT PROJECT
8. What would be likely to happen if the hydrogen bonds in
DNA were broken?
Return to your unit project. Prepare your research and
a. The loss of bonds would cause a DNA mutation. materials into a presentation to share with the class. In
b. The hydrogen bonds would be replaced with covalent your final presentation, evaluate the strength of your
bonds. hypothesis, data, analysis, and conclusions.
c. The loss of bonds would tear the DNA strands apart.
Remember these tips while evaluating:
d. The loss of bonds could cause the DNA strands to fuse.
• Consider the chemical properties of the stains, and
9. Insulin is a protein made up of two polypeptide chains. how those properties affect the effectiveness of the
If a mutation caused a change in one of the amino acids soaps.
in the primary structure of one of the insulin subunits, • Do your predictions match closely with your
could that change affect the secondary, tertiary, or observations in the experiments? Why or why not?
quaternary structure of the protein as well? In your • Think of ways you could apply your findings to
Evidence Notebook, create a model to show how each predict properties of other substances.
level of protein structure might be affected by a primary
structural change.

How Do Enzymes Help

with Lactose Intolerance?
Lactose intolerance is an inability to digest lactose, a sugar 4. C O N D U C T R E S E A R C H
found in milk and other dairy products. More than two- On your own, research the structure of lactose, how it breaks
thirds of adults suffer from lactose intolerance, which down in the body, how lactose intolerance arises, and what
can cause symptoms including abdominal pain, gas, the supplement tablets have in common with the normal
nausea, and diarrhea after dairy products are consumed. digestive process. How does this information correlate with
Supplements have been developed to assist those with lactose your experimental findings?
intolerance—but how do these supplements work?
5. C O M M U N I C A T E
1. ASK A QUESTION
Write a report explaining how the lactose intolerance
With your team, define the specific question to be supplement tablets work, why some people require these or
answered. Identify all of the factors you will explore to similar pills, and how lactose is broken down. Present your
answer the question and the characteristics a complete report and relate your findings to what you have learned
answer should have. about chemical reactions, rearrangement of atoms, breaking
of chemical bonds, and the formation of new products.
2. PLAN AND CARRY OUT AN INVESTIGATION
With your team, design and carry out an experiment to
determine the effect of lactose intolerance supplement
tablets on milk.
Explore Online
Hands-On Lab
CHECK YOUR WORK

Digesting Milk
A complete presentation should include
Use glucose test strips to determine the presence and
the following information:
amount of glucose in the milk. What differences do you
expect to see between milk alone and milk treated with • a clearly defined problem with supporting questions
the tablets? that are answered in the final presentation
• a summary of experimental results, based on
observations
3. ANALYZE DATA • a solution describing the mechanism of lactose
breakdown, the specific deficiency in lactose intolerance,
On your own, analyze the question you’ve defined along with
your research. Can you characterize the effect the tablets have
and the way in which the supplement tablets counteract
on the milk? How does this relate to the condition of lactose symptoms in lactose-intolerant people
intolerance in humans? What might be the connection?

UNIT 3
Matter and Energy

in Living Systems
Lesson 1: Photosynthesis. . . . . 116
Lesson 2: Cellular Respiration . .128
Lesson 3: Modeling Matter and

Energy in Ecosystems . . . . . . . . 140
Lesson 4: Cycling of Matter and

Energy in Ecosystems . . . . . . . . 158
Thing Explainer: Tree . . . . . . . . 172
Unit Connections. . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Unit Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Unit Performance Task . . . . . . . 179
Image Credits: ©Dave Porter/Alamy Images
Kelp forests are important aquatic

ecosystems.
114 Unit 3 Matter and Energy in Living Systems

FIGURE 1: These terrariums are self-sustaining environments.
Many terrariums are closed, self-sustaining systems. The organisms in these terrariums
are able to produce all of the materials needed for survival. Earth is also a closed
system. Very little matter is added to or lost from the Earth system.
Predict How do plants and animals grow if no new matter is added to the system?
DRIVING QUESTIONS
1. What do plants need to survive? How do plants obtain energy?
2. How do animals obtain energy to grow?
3. How are energy and matter transferred through organisms and their
environment?
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt • Image Credits: ©aon168/Shutterstock
UNIT PROJECT
Bottle Biome the Unit Project
Worksheet to help
plan your project.
How do energy and matter cycle through a closed system such as the Earth system?
How do the plants and animals survive? Make your own closed biological system
inside a bottle, and investigate how the plants and animals survive with no materials
being added to the system. Can you explain how the bottle represents Earth?
Unit 3 Matter and Energy in Living Systems 115

3.1
Photosynthesis
Matter is recycled and

energy flows through CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
organisms and the
environment. The colonization of other planets was an idea once found only in science fiction stories.
Today, this idea is closer to becoming a realistic pursuit. One of the problems that must
be solved before the colonists leave Earth is this—where will the colonists get food?
One line of inquiry involves figuring out what it takes to grow plants in an environment
different from Earth.
Gather Evidence FIGURE 1: Astronauts from NASA and around the world have Explore Online
As you explore the lesson, been growing plants in space to learn how to someday grow them on other planets,
gather evidence to describe the such as Mars.
inputs and outputs of matter and
the transfer and transformation of
energy in photosynthesis.
Image Credits: (t) ©Pichugin Dmitry/Shutterstock; (b) ©NASA Kennedy Space Center
Predict Imagine you are colonizing another planet, and you want to grow plants
there as a food source. What do you need to bring, and what questions would you ask
about the planet in order to refine your list?

EXPLORATION 1
Matter and Energy in Photosynthesis
Living systems take in energy and matter and convert them to forms they can use.
FIGURE 2: This panda is a
Plants, for example, are producers that capture light energy and convert it to chemical consumer that gets its
energy to carry out cell processes within the plant. The chemical energy takes the energy and nutrients from
form of chemical bonds in sugar molecules. When a consumer, such as a panda, eats eating leaves.
plant matter, it obtains this energy and other nutrients it needs for cell processes
and growth through the process of digestion. Any matter that cannot be digested is
excreted as waste.
Modeling Photosynthesis
Plants, algae, and some bacteria use a process called photosynthesis to capture and
transform light energy from the sun and store it in high-energy sugar molecules. Both
plant cells and animal cells use sugars made by photosynthesis as an energy source.
However, photosynthesis is not just important to organisms—it also helps regulate
Earth’s environment. Photosynthesis produces the oxygen we breathe, and it removes
carbon dioxide from Earth’s atmosphere.
Organisms are complex living systems. Organisms live and interact in ecosystems,
Explain Describe the
which are systems within the biosphere. All organisms play different roles in the
cycling of matter and the transfer of energy in their ecosystem. To better understand
transformation of energy
the relationship between organisms and the environment, scientists collect many as it is transferred from the sun to
different types of data. the panda.
FIGURE 3: This setup shows a plant in a closed system. Sensors are measuring carbon
dioxide and oxygen concentrations in the chamber. The gas concentrations are shown in
parts per thousand. Collaborate Discuss
with a partner why it
would be beneficial to human
survival to have plants on a planet
Gas Levels
where oxygen levels are low and
0.4
CO2 carbon dioxide levels are high.

(ppt) 0.2
0.0
212
O2
(ppt) 210
208
Time (min)
Image Credits: (t) ©DLILLC/Corbis
Gather Evidence Identify inputs and outputs for this system. How can the data
help scientists understand the relationship between plants and the environment?
Lesson 1 Photosynthesis 117

Photosynthesis is important to life on Earth. Nearly all organisms on Earth depend
on this process. So understanding the relationship between organisms and
photosynthesis is critical. Using equipment to measure the rate of photosynthesis, for
example, is one way to study the impact that organisms have on the process. Using
models is another way to understand processes like photosynthesis. Scientists can
study the relationship between the inputs and outputs.
Energy and Matter
Model Draw a plant The process of photosynthesis can be modeled in various ways. For example, a
and label the inputs and chemical equation is one way to represent photosynthesis.
outputs of photosynthesis. enzymes
Where should the labels for 6CO2 + 6H2O →→→ 6O2 + C6H12O6
light
enzymes and light be placed?
This model shows the inputs and outputs as reactants and products. The multiple
arrows indicate that the process of photosynthesis has many steps. Light and
enzymes are placed over the arrows to indicate that they must be present for this
reaction to take place. In this equation, carbon dioxide and water are reactants,
and oxygen and glucose are products. Plant cells use glucose to form complex
carbohydrates such as starch and cellulose, which the plant uses for growth and
maintenance.
Light and Photosynthesis

Light is a form of energy known as electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic
radiation travels in waves of various wavelengths, as shown in Figure 4. Plants
absorb only visible light to use for photosynthesis. Even in the visible portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum, not all wavelengths are absorbed by plants. Visible light
consists of different wavelengths that correspond to different colors of light.
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
FIGURE 4: The Electromagnetic Spectrum
gamma ray x-ray ultraviolet infrared microwave radio wave
10 –14 10 –12 10 –10 10 –8 10 –6 10 –4 10 –2 100 102 104
visible
4 x 10 –7 5 x 10 –7 6 x 10 –7 7 x 10 –7
Analyze Think about light as a form of energy and answer the following questions:
What are microwaves used for? What are radio waves used for? What do you think might
happen if visible light were blocked from Earth? How would photosynthesis be impacted?

In plant cells, light absorption and photosynthesis take place inside an organelle called
a chloroplast. Inside the inner membrane of the chloroplast are stacks of disc-shaped
sacs called thylakoids, which contain pigment molecules called chlorophyll.
FIGURE 5: The area inside the chloroplast is the stroma. The area inside the thylakoid sac
is called the lumen. The stages of photosynthesis occur across the thylakoid membrane
that separates the stroma and the lumen.
Explain Place these
chloroplast
systems in order from
outer membrane inner membrane largest to smallest, beginning with
Earth, and explain your reasoning:
leaf plant cell thylakoid
tree, biosphere, plant cell,
chloroplast, leaf
lumen stroma
Different types of chlorophyll absorb different wavelengths of light, transforming the

light energy into chemical energy through photosynthesis. Unabsorbed wavelengths
get reflected by the plant’s pigments, and our eyes detect these as the plant’s color.
FIGURE 6: Chlorophyll is a pigment molecule in chloroplasts. Plants have two main types
of chlorophyll, called chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b.
Analyze Which colors
of light are absorbed,
and which colors are reflected by
most plants?
Explore Online
Engineering Hands-On Lab
Investigating
Choosing a Light Source
Image Credits: (b) ©Ed Reschke/Peter Arnold/Getty Images
Light Sources and

Photosynthesis Design an
Scientists and engineers may study the inputs and outputs of a system as part experiment to investigate the
of optimizing the system. For example, different light sources can affect the rate effect of different light sources on
of photosynthesis in a plant system. Different light sources emit light with a the rate of photosynthesis.
variety of wavelengths. Light emitting diodes, or LEDs, can be designed to only
give off certain colors, such as red, blue, or green, which correspond to different
wavelengths of visible light. Applying specific light sources to plants is one way
to optimize the rate of photosynthesis.

Comparing Producers
Most, but not all, organisms rely directly or indirectly on sunlight and photosynthesis.
Places such as deep oceans and dark caves have thriving populations despite
never receiving any sunlight. The very hot water found near cracks in the ocean
floor, called hydrothermal vents, is one such environment. These vents release
chemical compounds such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) that serve as an energy source.
Hydrothermal vents support a dense ecosystem made up of organisms completely
dependent on the chemicals coming out of the sea floor.
FIGURE 7: Chemosynthetic microbes live on or below the sea floor, and inside the bodies
of other vent animals. Tubeworms grow in clumps around the vents.
Image Credits: (l) ©University of Washington/National Oceanic And Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)/OAR/OER; (inset) ©Ralph White/Corbis
Chemosynthesis is the process of using chemical energy to make sugars from carbon
dioxide for energy storage. Like plants that rely on photosynthesis, chemosynthetic
organisms make their own food, but the raw materials differ.
The producers that live around hydrothermal vents carry out a process represented
by the following chemical equation. The process produces the carbohydrates these
producers need for energy.
6CO2 + 24H2S + 6O2 → C6H12O6 + 24S + 18H2O
Model Make a graphic organizer to compare the inputs and outputs for
chemosynthesis and for photosynthesis.
Analyze Think back to the question about growing plants on another planet and
answer the following questions:
1. What inputs would you need to provide in order for plants to carry out photosynthesis?
2. What are the outputs from plants that are needed for human survival?
3. How would producers that carry out chemosynthesis differ from photosynthetic
producers as a possible food source?

EXPLORATION 2
Transforming Light Energy into Chemical Energy
So far you have seen that plants transform energy from sunlight into chemical energy
stored in the chemical bonds of sugar molecules. But, how does this transformation of
energy happen? Chloroplasts in cells are like solar-powered chemical factories. They
transfer light energy to energy-carrying molecules called ATP and NADPH. Cells use
these molecules as energy currency for cell processes. In plant cells, they are used to
convert carbon dioxide into sugars.
Predict How do you think
FIGURE 8: Two energy-carrying molecules are used in photosynthesis. ATP stores energy
ADP +bond, and
in a phosphate-phosphate P NADPH carries high-energy
ATP electrons. plant cells transfer energy
from sunlight to the energy-
carrying molecules ATP and NADPH?
ADP + P ATP
NADP+ + H+ + 2 e- NADPH
NADP+ + H+ + 2 e- NADPH
Stages of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis can be broken into two stages – the light-dependent reactions and
the light-independent reactions. The light-dependent reactions take place within and
across the membrane of the thylakoids, which are stacked inside the chloroplast. The
light-independent reactions take place in the stroma, the area outside the thylakoids.
Gather Evidence
FIGURE 9: The two stages of photosynthesis, light-dependent reactions and light-
independent reactions, occur in the chloroplast. Examine the diagram of the
chloroplast. How does alternating
H 2O CO2
between light-dependent and
light-independent reactions help
the cell conserve energy and
+
light energy NADP matter? Cite evidence from the
ADP diagram to support your answer.
light- light-
dependent independent
reactions reactions
ATP
NADPH
chloroplast
energy-carrying molecules
O2 sugar
Analyze Identify the inputs and outputs for both stages of photosynthesis. Specify
for both energy and matter.

The Light-Dependent Reactions
The light-dependent reactions are the photo part of photosynthesis. The main
functions of the light-dependent reactions are to capture and transfer energy. Light
energy is captured and transferred in the thylakoid membrane by two groups of
molecules called photosystem II and photosystem I. They are named for the order in
which they were discovered, not the order in which they occur.
Explore Online
FIGURE 10: The Light-Dependent Reactions
electron transport chain ATP synthesis
H+ H+ H+
H+ H+ H+
thylakoid H+ H+
lumen photosystem II photosystem I ATP synthase
H +
H+ H+
H 2O 2 H+ + ½ 02 H+
H+
e-
thylakoid e- e-
e- e-
membrane
e- e-
stroma
NADPH+ + H+ NADPH
H+
ADP ATP
light energy light energy
H+
The light-dependent reactions are summarized in the steps below.

1. Energy absorbed from sunlight—In photosystem II, chlorophyll and other pigment
molecules in the thylakoid membrane absorb energy from sunlight. The energy is
_
transferred to electrons (e ). These high-energy electrons leave the chlorophyll and
enter the electron transport chain, a series of proteins in the thylakoid membrane.
2. Water molecules split—Enzymes break down water molecules. Electrons from
+
water molecules replace the electrons that left the chlorophyll. Hydrogen ions (H )
remain inside the thylakoid, and oxygen is released as a waste product.
3. Hydrogen ions transported—Energized electrons move from protein to protein
in the electron transport chain. Their energy is used to pump hydrogen ions across
the thylakoid membrane. The result is a buildup of hydrogen ions inside the
Model Make a simple thylakoid, establishing a concentration gradient, which is a form of stored energy.
flow chart to show how The electrons move on to photosystem I.
energy is transferred from light to 4. Energy absorbed from sunlight—In photosystem I, chlorophyll and other
ATP in the light-dependent stage of pigment molecules in the thylakoid membrane absorb energy from sunlight.
photosynthesis. Energized electrons leave the pigment molecules.
5. NADPH produced—The energized electrons from photosystem I are added to
+
NADP to form NADPH, an energy-carrying molecule, by an enzyme.
6. Hydrogen ion diffusion—Hydrogen ions diffuse out of the thylakoid through the
ATP synthase protein channel. Diffusion of the hydrogen ions is powered by the
concentration gradient. ATP synthase uses energy from the concentration gradient
to make ATP by adding a phosphate group to ADP.

The Light-Independent Reactions
The second stage of photosynthesis uses energy from the light-dependent reactions
to make sugars. As the name for this stage implies, the light-independent reactions
do not need sunlight. These reactions can take place any time energy is available. The
energy sources for the light-independent reactions are the molecules ATP and NADPH
formed during the light-dependent reactions. This energy is needed for a series of
chemical reactions called the Calvin cycle, named for the scientist Melvin Calvin, who
discovered the process. The Calvin cycle is the synthesis part of photosynthesis. Its
chemical reactions use the energy carried by the ATP and NADPH produced by the
light-dependent reactions to make simple sugars.
Collaborate A common
FIGURE 11: The Light-Independent Reactions
misconception is that the
NADPH NADPH+ 2 bulk of a plant’s material comes
from soil or water. Explain where
C C C
the carbon in sugars actually comes
ADP
from, citing evidence from the
ATP Calvin cycle to support your answer.
C C C
C C C
C C C C C C
1
C C C C C C
C
from CO2 3
C C C C C C C C
ADP
ATP 4
The light-independent reactions are summarized in the steps below.

Explain How does the
1. Carbon dioxide added—A CO2 molecule is added to a 5-carbon molecule already Calvin cycle act as a bridge
in the cycle, yielding a 6-carbon molecule. between carbon in the atmosphere
2. Three-carbon molecules formed—The 6-carbon molecule splits, forming two and carbon-based molecules in the
3-carbon molecules. ATP and NADPH provide the energy to rearrange these food you eat?
3-carbon molecules into higher-energy molecules that also have 3 carbons each.
3. Three-carbon molecules exit—One high-energy 3-carbon molecule leaves the
cycle while the rest remain. One 6-carbon sugar molecule is formed from every two
3-carbon molecules that exit the cycle.
4. Three-carbon molecules recycled—Energy from ATP is used to change five
3-carbon molecules into three 5-carbon molecules, which stay in the Calvin cycle to
accept new CO2 molecules that enter the cycle.
Model Develop a model to illustrate how photosynthesis transforms light energy into
chemical energy. In your model, show how energy from sunlight is transformed to energy
stored in sugars, and identify the inputs and outputs for each stage of the process.

Guided Research
Variation in Photosynthesis
Not all plants carry out photosynthesis in exactly the same way. There are three
different pathways of photosynthesis that depend on the carbon-based compound
first produced when CO2 enters the light-independent reactions. Recall the light-
independent reactions, or Calvin cycle, use energy from ATP and NADPH to build
sugars from smaller molecules. Carbon enters the Calvin cycle as CO2 molecules, which
are rearranged during chemical reactions to form sugar. Early in the process, 3-carbon
molecules are formed and exit the cycle to form 6-carbon sugars. The formation of
Explain How are the 3-carbon molecules occurs in most plants, resulting in the name C3 plants. This is one
three pathways of pathway in which carbon is rearranged in plants. A second pathway results in 4-carbon
photosynthesis similar in terms molecules being formed early in the Calvin cycle. These plants are called C4 plants.
of carbon and the formation of Finally, a third pathway takes in CO2 and incorporates the carbon in organic acids
carbon-based molecules? called crassulacean acids, named after the plant types in which this process occurs.
Crassulacean plants include the succulent, or water-storing plants, such as cacti.
Nearly all land plants exchange gases through openings called stomata. Carbon
dioxide enters and oxygen exits through these openings. At the same time, water that
has been absorbed through the plant roots transpires, or is given off as water vapor
through the open stomata. So the stomata play an important role in regulating the
input of CO2 and the output of oxygen as part of photosynthesis, as well as overall
water loss.
FIGURE 12: Stomata are found on above-ground parts of plants, including the petals of
flowers, stems, and leaves.
Image Credits: ©Power and Syred/Science Source
The stomata do not stay open all the time. Instead, the stomata open and close in
response to homeostatic mechanisms in the plant. This helps the plant conserve water
when water availability is limited. In general, plants lose water fastest during intense
sunlight, especially when the temperature is warm, or when the air is dry, or in windy
conditions. The variations among C3, C4, and CAM plants are mainly based on plant
adaptations to different climates.

Plants can be classified by the way their photosynthetic pathways are adapted Predict How would you
to environmental conditions. Most plants are C3 and C4 plants, which open their expect the abundance of C3
stomata during the day, losing most of the water taken up by their roots. But CAM plants to change as regions around
plants are adapted for life in extremely hot and arid climates. These plants generally the world become warmer and
keep their stomata closed during the day to reduce the amount of water that is lost drier?
in transpiration. The stomata often are open through the night, when it is cooler
and more humid. CAM plants fix CO2 at night, avoiding water loss by not opening
their stomata during the day. The CO2 is released during the day to be used in
photosynthetic reactions.
FIGURE 13: Three Pathways of Photosynthesis
C3 Plants C4 Plants CAM Plants
rice, wheat, oat, soybean, corn, nutgrass, and succulents, cacti, bromeliads,
cotton, most trees and tumbleweed and orchids
lawn grasses
Image Credits: (l) ©Image Source/Corbis; (c) ©I love photo/Shutterstock; (r) ©tonda/iStock/Getty Images Plus/Getty Images
stomata open in daytime stomata open in daytime stomata open at night
Language Arts Connection Carry out further research to learn more about these
variations in photosynthesis. Prepare a presentation to explain the differences between
C3, C4, and CAM plants. In your presentation, include information about how each type of plant
carries out photosynthesis, and how the differences help plants survive in different environments.
Use text, visuals, and interactive components to make the concepts in your presentation
engaging and easy to understand.
A multimedia presentation combines text, sounds, and images. A successful multimedia

presentation includes:
• a clear and consistent focus
• ideas that are presented clearly and logically
• graphics, text, music, video, and sounds that support key points
• an organization that is appropriate to its purpose and audience
INVESTIGATING LIGHT SOURCES THE COLOR OF PLANTS Go online to choose one of

AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS ON OTHER PLANETS these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
As scientists and engineers plan for the next phase of space exploration—traveling
to and colonizing other planets, they must devise ways of meeting the needs of
humans. Today’s astronauts are studying how plants grow in space. Their results will
help scientists determine the best way to keep plants alive until they arrive at the new
planet. The next step in this process will be to determine how plants might grow in the
new planet’s environment.
FIGURE 14: Growing plants in space is important not only as a long-term food source,
but also as a connection to life on our home planet, Earth.
Explain Use what you have learned to further explain how plants could be grown
on other planets. Address the following in your explanation:
1. What inputs do plants need to carry out photosynthesis, and how might you
provide these on another planet?
2. What outputs do plants produce from photosynthesis, and how do these
benefit humans?
3. How do plants transfer energy from light to sugar molecules?
Image Credits: ©NASA Kennedy Space Center
4. What questions would you ask about the planet to refine your list of
necessary materials?

CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 6. Draw a simple ecosystem made up of at least one

producer and one consumer. Add arrows and labels to
1. Which of these are the result of producers performing show how energy and matter flow from the sun to the
photosynthesis? Select all correct answers. producer and from the producer to the consumer.
a. Makes oxygen available for cellular respiration
b. Tranfers carbon dioxide back to the atmosphere 7. Draw a diagram showing the interaction between light
c. Transfers energy from sunlight to consumers and chlorophyll. The diagram should show how this
interaction results in the transfer of energy and electrons
d. Cycles carbon through the biosphere
through photosystem I and photosystem II.
2. Write the overall chemical equation for photosynthesis.

8. Is it true that all organisms on Earth depend on the sun as
Be sure to show the relationship of light and enzymes to
their energy source? Explain your answer.
the reaction.
3. Use the terms below to complete this paragraph:

NADPH, ATP, thylakoids, chlorophyll, chloroplasts, electrons MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE
Light energy is absorbed by __ found in the membranes
of __, which are saclike structures inside __. The light
energy dislodges __, which are used to make __. Energy
from this process is used to make __. The electrons and supports the main idea from this lesson:
energy are used to make sugars, which the plant stores or Photosynthesis is a process used by most producers to
consumes for energy. transform light energy into stored chemical energy.
4. Draw a Venn diagram to compare chemosynthesis to
study guide:
photosynthesis.
FIGURE 15: The two stages of photosynthesis, light-dependent
reactions and light-independent reactions, occur in the
chloroplast.
Consider how the models for photosynthesis you have used in
this lesson can be used to explain changes in energy and matter.
Explain these changes in terms of energy flow and matter cycling
within and between systems.
5. Draw the diagram above, and add the following

labels to illustrate the transfer of matter and energy in
photosynthesis:
+
NADPH, NADP , sugars, light, ADP, O2, H2O, ATP, CO2

3.2
Cellular Respiration
Cars need energy to move.

A mixture of oxygen and
gasoline, when ignited by
a spark, produces a small,
controlled explosion in CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
the engine’s cylinder that
moves the axle. Both cars and your body need fuel. Most cars use gasoline as a fuel, which often
includes ethanol in addition to gasoline. For a car or a human body to use fuel, the
energy in the chemical bonds of the fuel must be released. A combustion reaction in a
car’s engine releases this energy. Your body uses a similar reaction in which it releases
the energy contained in the chemical bonds of the food you eat.
Gather Evidence FIGURE 1: The ignition of a mixture of ethanol and oxygen in the Explore Online
As you explore the lesson, air produces a combustion reaction, which releases energy in the forms of heat and light.
gather evidence that bonds are
broken and new bonds are formed
in the process of cellular respiration.
Image Credits: (t) ©Cultura/Echo/Getty Images; (b) ©Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
Predict How is the process of fuel combustion in a car engine similar to the way the
cells in your body release energy stored in fuel?

EXPLORATION 1
Matter and Energy in Cellular Respiration
Fuel is any material that reacts to release energy to be used for work. Not all fuels are Analyze How are
alike. They have many different chemical structures. glucose and ethanol similar
in structure and function? How do
HH FIGURE 2: Ethanol is a fuel made they differ?
HH C C OO HH from plant material, such as corn.
CC OO As a renewable energy source,
HH HH
HH it helps reduce petroleum use.
CC CC
OO HH HH HH HH
Glucose is a simple sugar that
HH OO OO HH
CC CC HH C C C C OO HH
living things use for energy.
HH OO HH HH HH
Glucose
Glucose Ethanol
Ethanol
Energy in Living Systems

Whether food for organisms or fuel for cars, almost all the energy on Earth has its
origins in the sun. In the process of photosynthesis, plants transform light energy from
the sun into chemical energy in the form of glucose. When an organism eats a plant,
any energy the plant has not used can be used by the consumer.
Ancient plants and animals that died decomposed and were buried under soil, rock,
and sometimes sea water. These organisms decomposed into organic materials that
contain unused stored energy. Over millions of years, heat and pressure transformed
these remains into the fossil fuels we use today. Chemical bonds must be broken for
the stored energy to be released. In cars, a combustion reaction provides the energy
needed to break these bonds and release energy. In cells, a similar process called
cellular respiration releases chemical energy from sugars and other carbon-based
molecules to make ATP when oxygen is present.
Exothermic Reaction
Exothermic Reaction
FIGURE 3: Activation energy is the
energy needed to start a chemical
activation energy
reaction. An exothermic reaction
releases more energy than it absorbs.
Cellular respiration is an exothermic
reaction.
Energy
reactants
difference in energy
products
Reaction progress
Gather Evidence Explain why cellular respiration is an exothermic reaction. Cite

evidence from the graph shown in Figure 3 to support your explanation.
Lesson 2 Cellular Respiration 129

Hands-On Lab
Cellular Respiration and Exercise

Burning fuel through either combustion or cellular respiration requires oxygen. In each
process, bonds break and new bonds form. In this lab, you will use an indicator called
bromothymol blue to gather evidence to support a claim about the inputs and outputs
of cellular respiration. Bromothymol blue changes color in the presence of an acid.
Predict What evidence could there be to support the claim that during cellular
respiration, chemical bonds are broken and new bonds are formed?
SAFETY
Do not consume any of the materials used in this lab. Be careful not to breathe in
through the straw.
MATERIALS PROCEDURE
• bromothymol blue solution 1. Place the amount of bromothymol blue solution specified by your teacher in a cup
• cups or beakers (2) or beaker.
• straw 2. Get the timer ready. Slowly blow through the straw into the bromothymol blue
solution, and record how long it takes for the solution to change from blue to
• timer
yellow. Be sure not to inhale when the straw is in the solution.
3. Place the amount of bromothymol blue solution specified by your teacher in a
second cup or beaker.
4. Run in place for approximately one minute.
5. Get the timer ready again. Slowly blow through the straw into the bromothymol
blue solution, and record how long it takes for the solution to turn yellow.
ANALYZE
The water turned acidic when you blew into it because carbon dioxide in your breath
reacted with water to form carbonic acid.
1. How do your findings support the claim that bonds were broken and new bonds
were formed to produce the gas you breathed out?
2. When you exercised, what was different about the time it took the solution to
change color? Explain why this happened.
FIGURE 4:
Bromothymol blue
is an indicator that
Image Credits: ©Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
changes color in
the presence of
an acid.

The Process of Cellular Respiration
During cellular respiration, the breakdown of glucose and other carbon-based
molecules releases energy stored in their chemical bonds. The stored energy is
transferred to ATP, which we can think of as the cell’s “energy currency.” Energy in the
form of heat is also released in the process. The release of heat accounts for why the
body temperatures of mammals range from 36 to 39°C (97–103°F).
Cellular respiration is an aerobic process, which means that it requires oxygen to
take place. Some organisms can produce small amounts of ATP through anaerobic
processes, or processes that do not require oxygen. However, the presence of oxygen
allows cellular respiration to produce far more ATP from each glucose molecule. The
inputs and outputs of cellular respiration are shown in Figure 5.
FIGURE 5: Inputs and Explain What is the role

oxygen carbon dioxide of the organism in this
Outputs of Cellular
(O2) (CO2)
Respiration model of cellular respiration?
glucose water Explain your answer.
(C6H12O6) (H2O)
heat ATP
Energy and Matter The balanced chemical equation for cellular respiration is:
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → → → 6CO2 + 6H2O + heat + ATP
1. How does this equation represent the law of conservation of matter—that matter
cannot be created or destroyed?
2. How does this equation represent the law of conservation of energy—that energy
cannot be created or destroyed? Consider the role of photosynthesis in your answer.
Mitochondria
Cellular respiration takes place inside an organelle called the mitochondrion (plural Collaborate
mitochondria), shown in Figure 6. Mitochondria release the chemical energy required With a partner, cite
to make ATP. Both plant and animal cells contain mitochondria, because both plants evidence that supports the claim
and animals carry out cellular respiration. that mitochondria are the
“powerhouses of the cell.”
mitochondrion FIGURE 6: The
mitochondrion has
cristae an inner membrane
with many folds, called
cristae. The outer
membrane separates
the mitochondrion from
the rest of the cell. The
space between the two
intermembrane membranes is called the
space
matrix intermembrane space.
outer inner
membrane membrane

Explore Online Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis
Hands-On Lab
Almost all energy for living things comes from photosynthesis, either directly
Investigating or indirectly. Producers absorb light energy from the sun and transform it using
Photosynthesis and Cellular photosynthesis to a usable form of energy, or food. This energy is then passed from
Respiration Design an producers to consumers. Although only producers carry out photosynthesis, both
experiment to determine which producers and consumers carry out cellular respiration. Photosynthesis stores energy
organisms (pond snails or Elodea) from sunlight as chemical energy. In contrast, cellular respiration releases stored
produce carbon dioxide and which energy as ATP and heat.
use carbon dioxide.
FIGURE 7: A Comparison of Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration
Photosynthesis light
energy
REACTANTS PRODUCTS
CO2 C6H12O6
H2O O2
Analyze What is the

relationship between
the inputs and outputs of
Cellular Respiration
photosynthesis and cellular
respiration? PRODUCTS REACTANTS
CO2 C6H12O6
H2O O2
heat ATP
Model Sort the following terms into those that occur during photosynthesis and those
that occur during cellular respiration. Then place the terms in the correct order.
• absorption of sunlight
• ATP production
• production of sugars
• breakdown of sugars

EXPLORATION 2
Using Chemical Energy
One way that organisms maintain homeostasis is through cellular respiration, which Analyze Identify the
releases energy to carry out cell processes and helps maintain body temperature. inputs and outputs of
Bonds in food molecules and oxygen molecules are broken and new molecules are glycolysis and the two stages of
formed that transfer energy in forms that the organism can use. Cellular respiration cellular respiration.
transfers chemical energy stored in the bonds of glucose and other molecules to ATP.
O2
FIGURE 8: The process of
electrons carried in NADH glycolysis occurs before the
two main stages of cellular
pyruvate
respiration: the Krebs cycle and
electrons carried the electron transport chain.
in NADH and
FADH2
glucose glycolysis electron
Krebs cycle
transport chain
mitochondrion
CO2 H 2O
ATP ATP ATP
Glycolysis and the Stages of Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration occurs in mitochondria. Before it can take place, however, glucose
must be broken down into compounds the mitochondria can use. This process occurs
in the cytoplasm of the cell. Glycolysis, shown in Figure 9, is an anaerobic process that
uses a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions to break glucose into two three-carbon
molecules, called pyruvate. Mitochondria use the pyruvate molecules to fuel cellular
respiration.
FIGURE 9: Glycolysis
ATP ADP ADP ATP
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
glucose 2 pyruvate
NAD +
NADH
Gather Evidence Summarize evidence that bonds are broken and new bonds are
formed in glycolysis.

Krebs Cycle
The Krebs cycle, sometimes called the citric acid cycle, is the first set of reactions in
cellular respiration. The function of the Krebs cycle is to complete the breakdown
of glucose started in glycolysis and fuel the production of ATP. This is done by
transferring high-energy electrons to the electron transport chain.
FIGURE 10: The Krebs Cycle
1 c c c pyruvate
NAD+
CO2
NADH
c
2 c CoA
Coenzyme A
CoA
NADH
NAD+ c citric acid
c c c c c 3
FADH2 CO2
FAD NAD+
4
6 c c c c NADH
4-carbon
compound c c c c c
5-carbon
ADP compound
5
ATP CO2
NADH NAD+
The Krebs cycle is summarized in the steps below.

1. Pyruvate is broken down A 3-carbon pyruvate molecule is split into a 2-carbon
molecule and a carbon dioxide molecule, which is given off as waste. High-energy
+
electrons are transferred to NAD , forming a molecule of NADH. The NADH moves
to the second stage of cellular respiration, the electron transport chain.
2. Coenzyme A is added A molecule called coenzyme A bonds to the 2-carbon
Analyze How is the
molecule, forming an intermediate molecule.
Krebs cycle a bridge
3. Citric acid is formed The 2-carbon part of the intermediate molecule is added to a
between the energy in sugars and
4-carbon molecule to form the 6-carbon molecule called citric acid.
energy-carrying molecules?
4. Citric acid is broken down The citric acid molecule is broken down by an enzyme,
and a 5-carbon molecule is formed. A molecule of NADH is made, which moves out
of the Krebs cycle. A molecule of carbon dioxide is given off as a waste product.
5. Five-carbon molecule is broken down The 5-carbon molecule is broken down by
an enzyme. A 4-carbon molecule, a molecule of NADH, and one ATP are formed.
Carbon dioxide is given off as a waste product.
6. Four-carbon molecule is rearranged Enzymes rearrange the 4-carbon molecule,
releasing high-energy electrons. Molecules of NADH and FADH2, another electron
carrier, are made. They leave the Krebs cycle, and the 4-carbon molecule remains.
Explain During the hands-on lab, which product of the Krebs cycle caused the
bromothymol blue solution to change color?

The Krebs cycle is a continual series of reactions. All the carbon atoms in glucose
eventually end up as carbon dioxide, a waste product expelled from the cell. The
role of the electron carriers NADH and FADH2 is to transfer electrons to the electron
transport chain in the next stage of respiration. The transferred electrons will fuel the
formation of ATP.
The Electron Transport Chain

The second stage of cellular respiration, the electron transport chain, uses proteins Model Make a simple
embedded in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. It is similar to the electron flow chart to summarize the
transport chain stage of photosynthesis. The energy carried by the NADH and FADH2 energy transfer from energy-
molecules produced in the Krebs cycle is used to make ATP. A number of enzymes are
carrying molecules to ATP.
involved in this process.
FIGURE 11: The Electron Transport Chain Explore Online
H+ H+ H+
H+ H+ H+
intermembrane H+
space H+ H+ ATP synthase
H+ H+
H+ H+
H+
e-
inner e-
membrane e- e-
H+ FADH2 FAD H+ H+
matrix
NADH NAD+ 2 H+ + ½ O 2 H2 O
ADP ATP
H+
The electron transport chain is summarized in the steps below. Collaborate With a
1. Electrons are transferred Proteins inside the inner membrane of the partner, discuss how the
mitochondrion take high-energy electrons from NADH and FADH2. electron transport chain depends
2. Hydrogen ions are transported High-energy electrons travel from protein to
on the Krebs cycle. Consider the role
protein in the electron transport chain. The proteins use energy from the electrons of energy in your discussion.
to pump hydrogen ions across the inner membrane to produce a gradient, just as
in photosynthesis. The hydrogen ions build up in the intermembrane space.
3. ATP is produced Like in photosynthesis, the flow of hydrogen ions is used to make
ATP. Hydrogen ions diffuse through a protein channel in the inner membrane of
the mitochondrion. The channel is part of the ATP synthase enzyme. ATP synthase
adds phosphate groups to ADP to make ATP molecules.
4. Water is formed Oxygen picks up electrons and hydrogen ions to form water. The
water molecules are given off as a waste product.
Together, glycolysis and cellular respiration produce up to 38 ATP molecules for every
glucose molecule.

Fermentation
The cells in your body cannot store large amounts of oxygen for cellular respiration.
The amount of oxygen that is provided by breathing is enough for your cells during
normal activities. When you are doing high levels of activity, such as playing a game of
basketball as shown in Figure 12, your body cannot bring in enough oxygen for your
cells, even though you breathe faster. How do your cells function without oxygen to
keep cellular respiration going?
The production of ATP without oxygen continues through the anaerobic processes of
glycolysis and fermentation. Fermentation does not make ATP, but it allows glycolysis
+
to continue. Fermentation removes electrons from NADH molecules and recycles NAD
molecules for glycolysis. Why is this process important? Because glycolysis, just like
cellular respiration, needs a molecule that picks up electrons. It needs molecules
+
of NAD .
The role of fermentation is simply to provide the process of glycolysis with a steady
+
supply of NAD . If you’ve ever felt your muscles “burn” during hard exercise, that is a
result of fermentation. Lactic acid is a waste product of fermentation that builds up in
muscle cells and causes that burning feeling. Once oxygen is available again, your cells
return to using cellular respiration. The lactic acid is quickly broken down and removed
from the cells.
Analyze What is the role FIGURE 12: During

of anaerobic respiration in strenuous or
organisms? What is the role in prolonged activity,
ecosystems? athletes may not be
able to sustain the
oxygen levels their
bodies need. If not
enough oxygen is
supplied to the cells,
anaerobic respiration
takes over.
FIGURE 13: Bifidobacteria live in
Image Credits: (r) ©MCMXCV/Larry Dale Gordon/ Image Bank/ Getty Images; (l) ©SCIMAT/Science Source
the digestive tracts of animals,
including humans.
Not all organisms rely on oxygen for respiration. Organisms that use anaerobic
respiration have an important role in an ecosystem, because they can live in places
where most other organisms cannot. For example, microorganisms, such as the
bifidobacteria shown in Figure 13, live in the digestive tracts of animals and help in
the process of digestion. They must get their ATP from anaerobic processes because
oxygen is not available.
Explain Summarize the evidence that you have gathered to explain how molecules
are rearranged and energy is transferred in the process of cellular respiration.
1. Cite evidence to support the claim that bonds are broken and new bonds are formed
in each stage of cellular respiration.
2. Explain how energy is transferred from the bonds of food molecules to
cellular processes.

Hands-On Lab
Aerobic and Anaerobic Processes in Yeast

FIGURE 14: Yeast are single-
celled organisms that belong
The species used in this investigation, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, like other species to the group of organisms
of yeast, is a facultative anaerobe. It can break down sugars using either aerobic or called fungi.
anaerobic processes, depending on the presence of oxygen. When oxygen is not
present, yeast carry out ethanol fermentation. This process produces carbon dioxide
and ethanol, a type of alcohol.
Predict How will you know whether aerobic or anaerobic processes are occurring in the
bottle?
SAFETY
Obtain and wear goggles for this lab. Do not eat any materials used in this lab.
PROCEDURE MATERIALS
• active dry yeast (1 package)
1. Blow up the balloon a few times to stretch it.
• balance (optional)
2. Using the funnel, pour 150 mL of warm water into the bottle. Dry the funnel.
3. Using the dry funnel, add 1 packet of yeast to the water. Swirl the mixture gently. • balloon, round
4. Using the funnel, add 1 tablespoon (12 g) of sugar to the yeast solution, swirl, and • funnel
quickly cover the bottle with the balloon. Allow the mixture to react for 5 minutes. • graduated cylinder
5. After 5 minutes have passed, use the string, marker, and ruler to measure the
• marker
circumference of the balloon.
• ruler, metric
6. In a data table, record the circumference of the balloon, along with all of your
observations of what is happening in the bottle. Continue making and recording • string, 30 cm
observations every 5 minutes for the next 30 minutes.
• sugar, granulated
7. Dispose of waste according to your teacher’s instructions.
• tablespoon (optional)
• timer
ANALYZE • water, very warm (40°C)
1. Describe evidence, if any, that aerobic respiration took place in the bottle. • water bottle, plastic, 500 mL
2. How does matter cycle during aerobic respiration? Explain how the reactants are
• weighing boat (optional)
rearranged to form the products. What is the source of energy, how is the energy
transferred, and how is it used in the cell?
3. Describe evidence, if any, that fermentation took place in the bottle.
Image Credits: ©Andrew Syred/Science Source
4. How does matter cycle during fermentation? Explain how the reactants are
rearranged to form the products. What is the source of energy, how is the energy
transferred, and how is it used in the cell?
INVESTIGATING PHOTOSYNTHESIS Go online to choose one of

EVIDENCE FOR ENDOSYMBIOSIS
AND CELLULAR RESPIRATION these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 15: Because ethanol burns more cleanly than gasoline, Explore Online
it is added to gasoline to help reduce the emission of greenhouse gases produced by
combustion engines in cars. Like gasoline, ethanol contains energy in its chemical
bonds that can be released by the process of combustion.
Combustion and cellular respiration are both exothermic reactions that result in the
release of energy. The energy is released when chemical bonds that store energy are
broken. Combustion is a fast process that results in the production of energy in the
forms of heat and light.
CH3CH2OH + O2 → → → 2CO2 + 3H2O + heat
In contrast, cellular respiration is a slow process, with energy being released over a
series of several steps. This makes energy available for use whenever cells of the body
need it to carry out cellular activities.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → → → 6CO2 + 6H2O + heat + ATP
Explain A scientist named Antoine Lavoisier demonstrated that cellular

respiration is a combustion process. Recall that car engines use a combustion
reaction to release energy. Construct an explanation for how the breakdown
of fuel in a car engine compares to the breakdown of fuel in your body’s cells.
Image Credits: ©Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
Answer the following questions:

1. Look carefully at the equations for both combustion and cellular respiration,
and compare the inputs and outputs. How can the different inputs result in the
same outputs based on what you know about chemical bonds and atoms?
2. What is missing from the process of combustion that makes it an imperfect
model for cellular respiration? Explain your answer.

CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 6. Use the following terms to complete the statement:
ATP, cellular respiration, electron transport chain, glycolysis,
1. How does carbon flow between photosynthesis and Krebs cycle, photosynthesis
cellular respiration?
Living things require energy to grow and reproduce and
a. Photosynthesis produces carbon dioxide from glucose
to carry out different cell processes. Certain cells
generated by the process of cellular respiration.
can capture energy from the sun through the process
b. Cellular respiration produces carbon dioxide from of . Through a series of reactions, that
glucose generated by the process of photosynthesis. energy is transferred to organisms. Through the
c. Photosynthesis produces carbon dioxide from ATP process of , the energy currency of the
generated by the process of cellular respiration. cell, , is produced. This is a three-part process,
d. Cellular respiration produces carbon dioxide from ATP beginning with in the cell cytoplasm and
generated by the process of photosynthesis. proceeding within the mitochondrion with the
and, finally, the .
2. Which of the following are the main inputs, or reactants,
in cellular respiration? Select all correct answers. 7. How do you know that energy and matter are conserved
a. pyruvate during the process of cellular respiration? Explain.
b. glucose
c. carbon dioxide 8. Energy is transferred in several different ways during the
d. oxygen process of cellular respiration. Give two examples of ways
that energy is transferred during this process.
3. Which of the following are the main outputs, or products,
of cellular respiration? Select all correct answers. 9. Is oxygen necessary for the production of ATP in your
cells? Why or why not?
a. water
b. energy
10. How are photosynthesis and cellular respiration related?
c. oxygen
d. carbon dioxide
4. Before cellular respiration, glucose must be broken down
by the process of
a. photosynthesis.
b. glycolysis.
c. electron transport. Cellular respiration is a process that breaks down food molecules
d. fermentation. to release energy to fuel cellular processes in organisms.
5. During which process is lactic acid formed when there study guide:
is not enough oxygen present for cellular respiration to • Use examples that model main ideas.
take place?
a. fermentation • Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
b. glycolysis include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions, and
c. Calvin cycle other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
d. Krebs cycle
Consider how molecules are rearranged and energy is transferred
during the process of cellular respiration.

3.3
Modeling Matter and

Energy in Ecosystems
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?

This green sea turtle takes
in energy and matter by Phytoplankton are single-celled organisms that live in aquatic environments.
eating sea grass. Many species of marine animals feed on phytoplankton as their main food source.
Phytoplankton are producers that use chlorophyll to carry out photosynthesis. Figure
1 shows a global map of the concentration of chlorophyll in the ocean. Greater
chlorophyll concentrations correlate to larger populations of phytoplankton.
FIGURE 1: Global Concentration of Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll a concentration (mg/m3)
0.01 0.03 0.1 0.3 1 3 10
Gather Evidence
Image Credits: (t) ©Nature/UIG/Getty Images; (b) ©SeaWiFS Project/NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
As you explore the
lesson, gather evidence to explain
how energy and matter flow
through ecosystems.
Phytoplankton produce nearly half of all oxygen in the atmosphere and use a large
amount of carbon dioxide during photosynthesis. Scientists have discovered that the
global population of phytoplankton has been decreasing.
Predict How might a decrease in the phytoplankton population affect the global
flow of energy and matter?

EXPLORATION 1
Introduction to Ecosystems
As its name suggests, an ecosystem is a system—it has boundaries, components,

FIGURE 2: A gray fox emerges
inputs, and outputs. Every living thing requires specific resources and conditions. The
from its den.
gray fox shown in Figure 2 requires certain types of food, shelter, temperatures, and
other factors to survive. Gray foxes live in dens located in underground burrows, under
rock crevices, or in caves. They eat plants, insects, and small mammals, such as mice
and rabbits. Many types of internal and external parasites live on and in gray foxes,
including ticks and tapeworms. Coyotes prey upon gray foxes, but the foxes can climb
trees to escape.
Analyze What types of living and nonliving things does a gray fox’s ecosystem include?
Ecosystem Structure
The Florida Everglades, illustrated in Figure 3, is an example of a complex ecosystem
that can be difficult to study as a whole. To understand the complicated relationships
that make up ecosystems, scientists break them down into smaller parts.
FIGURE 3: The Florida Everglades is an aquatic ecosystem that is found in the temperate
deciduous forest biome.
biosphere
biome Language Arts

Connection Before
they were listed as an endangered
species, alligators in the Florida
ecosystem
Everglades were hunted to near
community extinction. Use library and Internet
resources to find information and
write a report about how human
activities have affected organisms,
populations, and communities in
population the Florida Everglades ecosystem.
Image Credits: (t) ©Photos.com/Jupiterimages/Getty Images
individual
Ecologists can study ecosystems at different scales. They may study an individual
alligator to learn more about factors that affect that species. They may also study an
entire population of alligators. A population is a group of the same species that lives
in the same area. Multiple populations of different species form a community. In the
Everglades, an ecologist may study how a community of alligators, turtles, and birds in
a certain area Interacts with one another.
Lesson 3 Modeling Matter and Energy in Ecosystems 141

An ecosystem includes all of the biotic, or living, and abiotic, or nonliving, components
in a given area. Energy and matter cycle through these various components during
processes such as photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and decomposition. Similar to
other systems, an ecosystem also has feedback mechanisms that keep it in equilibrium
and restore it to a balanced state when equilibrium is disrupted.
Explain What biotic and abiotic components are found in the ecosystem where you
live, and how do they interact?
Biomes and Biodiversity

A biome is a major regional or global distribution of organisms adapted to living
in that particular environment. Many different ecosystems make up a biome, and
changes in one ecosystem may significantly affect the entire biome. At the largest
scale, all life on Earth is part of the biosphere.
Biodiversity is a measure of the number of different species found within a specific
area. An area with a high level of biodiversity, such as a tropical rain forest, has a large
assortment of species living near one another. The amount of biodiversity found in
an area depends on many factors, including moisture and temperature. The complex
relationships in ecosystems mean that a change in one biotic or abiotic component
can have many effects, both small and large, on a number of different species.
FIGURE 4: World Biomes
Images; (c) ©Photodisc/Getty Images; (cr) ©Corbis; (bl) ©Comstock Images/Getty Images;
Image Credits: (tl) ©tonda/iStock/Getty Images Plus; (tc) ©Oleg Znamenskiy/Fotolia; (tr) ©Anh Luu/Shutterstock;
a Desert b Tropical grassland c Temperate grassland
d Tropical rain forest e Temperate deciduous forest f Temperate rain forest

(br) ©PetrJanJuracka/Shutterstock
©E+/oriredmouse/Getty
Credits:
g Taiga h Tundra
Image
(cl)

There are many different types of biomes. Scientists categorize biomes in several ways,
such as by the climate conditions and plant communities that thrive in them. This
makes each biome’s biodiversity different and unique. For the most part, the plants
and animals that live in one biome are not found in any other biome. Although biomes
can be categorized separately, they are still connected. Each of these broad biome
types can be further divided into more specific zones. For example, a prairie is a type of
temperate grassland. Frozen polar ice caps and high, snow- and ice-covered mountain
peaks are not considered biomes because they lack specific plant communities.
Model Using your knowledge of photosynthesis, cellular respiration, and ecosystem

structure, model how cutting down a tropical rain forest will affect surrounding biomes.
Consider how the loss of the rain forest will affect the rate of photosynthesis in the
area and how habitat loss will affect the rate of cellular respiration by animals in the
forest. Then, model how the change in amounts of CO2 and O2 could affect surrounding
ecosystems. What other ways might ecosystems be affected by such a loss?
Not all ecosystems are terrestrial, or land-based. About 71 percent of Earth’s surface
is covered with water, and it, too, is home to animal and plant life. These water-based
ecosystems are called aquatic ecosystems. There are two main categories of aquatic
ecosystems: salt water, or marine, and freshwater.
Collaborate Biodiversity tends to decrease the farther an ecosystem is located from

the equator. Discuss this pattern of biodiversity in terms of different biomes and
climate characteristics.
60°N
30°N
equator
0°
30°S
60°S
BIOMES
Desert Temperate rain forest

km 0 2,000 4,000
Tropical grassland Taiga
mi 0 2,000 4,000 Temperate grassland Tundra

Tropical rain forest
OTHER
Temperate deciduous forest
Polar ice

FIGURE 5: Like terrestrial ecosystems, aquatic ecosystems vary widely in size, location, and
abiotic and biotic components.
1 lakes and ponds fresh water marine

2 rivers
3 wetlands
4 estuaries 1 5
5 kelp forests
6 coral reefs
3
2 6
Some types of aquatic ecosystems are shown in Figure 1 lakes and ponds
5. Marine 4 estuaries
ecosystems include
2 rivers
the open ocean, coral reefs, kelp forests, and estuaries. Oceans spread from 5 kelp forests
coastal
3 wetlands 6 coral
shallows to the great depths of deep-sea vents. Most coral reefs grow within tropical reefs
Analyze How could zones. Kelp forests exist in cold, nutrient-rich waters. Estuaries occur where freshwater
rising ocean temperatures and salt water mix together.
affect coral reef ecosystems?
Freshwater ecosystems include rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, and wetlands. Rivers and
streams are flowing freshwater, while lakes and ponds are standing bodies of water.
Wetlands are land that is saturated by surface water for at least part of the year.
Each of these ecosystems has unique groups of plants and animals that inhabit them.
The plants and animals that live in these ecosystems are often highly specialized.
Remember that aquatic plants utilize photosynthesis to convert sunlight into usable
energy. They can only grow to water depths where sunlight can penetrate.
Cause and Effect
FIGURE 6: Discarded plastics pollute Bicaz Lake in Romania. Analyzing Human Impacts
Human activities impact ecosystems, sometimes in severe

ways. We produce wastes, such as plastics, that are a
major source of pollution. Humans destroy habitats to
build cities, grow crops, and mine resources. Most of these
activities impair the air, water, soil, and biodiversity in
ecosystems. How do you impact your ecosystem?
Image Credits: (b) ©Alamy
Explain Describe how changing a biotic or abiotic factor can influence an entire biome.
Could changing biotic or abiotic factors be responsible for the decrease in phytoplankton
populations introduced at the beginning of this lesson? Explain.

EXPLORATION 2
Energy and Matter Flow in Ecosystems
All organisms need a source of energy to survive. Energy is essential for metabolism,
FIGURE 7: Tropical rain forest.
which is all of the chemical processes that build up or break down materials in an
organism’s body.
Predict Describe two ways that energy and matter flow in the tropical rain forest
ecosystem shown in Figure 7.
A terrarium, as shown in Figure 8, is a simple way to model the flow of energy in an
ecosystem. Life in an ecosystem requires an input of energy. The law of conservation
of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy changes form as it
flows within an ecosystem, but the amount of energy does not change.
FIGURE 8: Energy changes form as it flows through an ecosystem.

Explain How does energy
flow in this terrarium in
energy flow terms of photosynthesis and
cellular respiration?
light chemical
energy energy heat
Explore Online
Image Credits: (t) ©E+/oriredmouse/Getty Images; (b) ©FLPA/Alamy Stock Photo
Energy and Matter
Energy and Matter Flow Through Organisms FIGURE 9: A kingfisher dives

underwater to catch a fish.
The kingfisher and the fish shown in Figure 9 are components of an ecosystem.
Each organism has a role in the transfer of energy and matter within that ecosystem.
In addition to the kingfisher and the fish, plants, soil, and temperature also affect the
flow of energy and matter. As in a terrarium, energy and matter change form as they
cycle through this ecosystem, but they are not destroyed.
Model What is the relationship between energy and matter in the kingfisher?
Make a model that shows how matter and energy cycle through this ecosystem.

An ecosystem is a complex web of interconnected biotic and abiotic components.
Changing one component in an ecosystem can affect many others. Imagine what
would happen if a chemical spill occurred at the lake the kingfisher depended upon
as a source of food. If the spill killed all the plants, this change would affect the insects
that ate the plants, the fish that ate the insects, and the kingfisher that ate the fish.
Thus one change can destabilize an entire ecosystem.
As part of the ecosystem, humans, like other species, rely on their environment for
survival. If residents of a local town also eat fish from this ecosystem, these changes
will negatively impact them. All species are affected by changes to the biotic and
abiotic factors in an ecosystem.
Image Credits: (bl) ©All Canada Photos/John E Marriott/Corbis; (tl) ©Patrick J. Alexander/U.S. Dept of Agriculture USDA Photography Center; (tc) ©Robert Harding World Imagery/James Hager/Getty Images; (tr) ©Getty Images
Food Chains
Feeding relationships are a major component of the structure and dynamics of
an ecosystem. Food chains and food webs are useful ways to model the complex
structure of an ecosystem to better understand how energy is transferred between
organisms. The simplest way to look at the transfer of food energy in an ecosystem
is through a food chain, as shown in Figure 10. A food chain is a sequence that links
species by their feeding relationships. This simple model follows the connection
between one producer and a single chain of consumers within an ecosystem.
FIGURE 10: Food chains help scientists understand the transfer of energy in an ecosystem.
Predict What might a Producer b Herbivore c Carnivore
happen in an ecosystem
if all the decomposers were Not all consumers are alike. Herbivores, such as desert cottontails, are organisms that
suddenly removed? eat only plants. Carnivores are organisms that eat only animals. Western diamondback
rattlesnakes are carnivores that eat desert cottontails. Omnivores are organisms that
eat both plants and animals. In a desert ecosystem, kangaroo rats are omnivores
that eat both seeds and insects. Detritivores are organisms that eat detritus, or dead
FIGURE 11: Decomposers break
organic matter. Earthworms are detritivores that feed on decaying organic matter
down dead organic matter,
in soil.
including plants and animals.
Decomposers are organisms that break down organic matter into simpler compounds.
These organisms include fungi, certain microbes in the soil, and earthworms.
Decomposers are important to the stability of an ecosystem because they return vital
nutrients back into the environment for other organisms to use.
Model Draw a food chain that includes organisms in the area where you live. Identify
the producer and consumers, and describe the flow of energy in the food chain.

Trophic Levels
Trophic levels, shown in Figure 12, are the levels of nourishment in a food chain. The
first trophic level is occupied by the producer. The second level is occupied by the
primary consumer, usually an herbivore. The third and fourth levels contain secondary
and tertiary consumers, and so on, which can be omnivores or carnivores.
FIGURE 12: Each organism in a food chain occupies a different trophic level.
Image Credits: (l) ©Patrick J. Alexander/U.S. Dept of Agriculture USDA Photography Center; (cl) ©Robert Harding World Imagery/James Hager/Getty Images; (cr) ©Getty Images; (r) ©Michael Fitzsimmons/iStock/Getty Images Plus
a Producer b Primary consumer c Secondary consumer d Tertiary consumer
Explain Does energy transfer completely from one trophic level to another? Use
evidence from this lesson to support your answer.
Energy flows up the food chain from the bottom trophic level to the top. Food chains Collaborate Think
are limited in length because energy is lost as heat at each trophic level. Organisms about a typical meal
use the remaining energy to carry out life functions such as cellular respiration and you eat. With a partner, discuss
growth. In this way, less and less energy is available for the next organism in the chain. what trophic level you occupy
Eventually, there is not enough energy to support another trophic level. within that food chain.
Data Analysis
Population Size
A scientist sampled a small cross section of a grassland ecosystem. Her data for
each trophic level are shown in the table.
Primary Secondary Tertiary

Trophic Level Producers Consumers Consumers Consumers
Population Count 6,025,682 723,082 98,541 4

1. How does the population size change at each trophic level in this sample?
2. What is the relationship between trophic level and population size?
3. Predict what would happen if a quaternary consumer were added to
this ecosystem.

Food Webs
Food chains are not isolated units but are linked together in food webs. Each organism
in an ecosystem may feed on or be eaten by several other organisms and may be part
of many different food chains.
Gather Evidence FIGURE 13: A food web is made up of several different food chains.
How would the food web
be affected if the triggerfish were reef shark phytoplankton
removed from the ecosystem?
What about the algae?
sea turtle
parrotfish
jellyfish
sea sponge zooplankton
triggerfish
algae
shrimp
Model Expand the food chain of the area where you live to make a food web.
A food web models the complex network of feeding relationships between trophic
levels within an ecosystem. A food web represents the flow of energy within and
sometimes beyond the ecosystem. The stability of any food web depends on the
presence of producers, as they form the base of the food web. In the case of a marine
ecosystem such as a coral reef, algae and phytoplankton are two of the producers that
play this important role.
Explain Use the evidence you have gathered in this lesson to answer the following
questions:
1. Scientists use both food chains and food webs to model energy and matter transfer in
an ecosystem. Describe the pros and cons of using a food chain or a food web.
2. In the phytoplankton example from the beginning of the lesson, how will the decrease
in phytoplankton affect the ecosystem’s food web?

EXPLORATION 3
Energy and Matter Distribution in Ecosystems
Ecosystems get their energy from sunlight. Producers use energy from sunlight to
make food. Herbivores eat the plants but burn some energy in the process. The energy
is given off as heat, which escapes into space. Carnivores then eat the herbivores but
Image Credits: (tl) ©Patrick J. Alexander/U.S. Dept of Agriculture USDA Photography Center; (tcl) ©Robert Harding World Imagery/James Hager/Getty Images; (tcr) ©Getty Images; (tr) ©Michael Fitzsimmons/iStock/Getty Images Plus
again, a portion of the energy is converted to heat, leaving it unavailable for use by the
organism. Each level in the food chain obtains much less energy than the level below
it. Fortunately, the sun provides a constant flow of energy into the system and allows
life to continue.
FIGURE 14: Energy and matter transfer between trophic levels, but some energy is lost as heat.
heat heat heat
Reduction of Available Energy

When a consumer eats food, the energy it contains undergoes a transformation.
Some energy is used for cellular respiration, which provides energy for movement
and maintenance of the organism. Some is converted to new biomass, or growth. Of
the remaining energy, some is released to the environment as heat, and the rest is
excreted as waste, as illustrated in Figure 15. Although energy changes to different
forms in this process, the total amount of energy remains unchanged or is conserved.
Analyze How does the
FIGURE 15: As trophic level increases, the amount of available energy is reduced because
amount of energy at each
some is converted to heat or excreted as waste. trophic level compare? Use
evidence to support your reasoning.
apex
consumers
heat/cellular
respiration
quaternary consumers
tertiary consumers decomposers
secondary consumers
primary consumers
light producers
energy

Data Analysis
Energy Calculations
SAMPLE PROBLEM Energy can be measured using calories (cal), kilocalories (kcal), and joules (J).
A caterpillar consumes 1000 J of energy from the plant it eats. However, the
caterpillar cannot digest all the plant matter, so 500 J of energy are lost as bodily
waste. Additionally, 320 J of energy are converted to heat or used for metabolism.
What percentage of energy remains for the caterpillar to use for biomass, or
growth?
FIGURE 16: A large amount of the energy from

energy a caterpillar consumes food 1000 J
is converted to heat via cellular
respiration or excreted as waste. growth
(new biomass)
waste 500 J cellular respiration 320 J
ANALYZE To determine the amount of energy left for the caterpillar to use, subtract
the amount converted to heat and excreted as waste from the total amount
consumed:
1000 J – 500 J – 320 J = 180 J
The caterpillar has 180 J left over to convert into biomass.
SOLVE To determine the percentage of energy that is usable, divide the amount of
available energy by the total amount of energy and multiply by 100 percent:
180 J
_____
1000 J
× 100% = 18%
So 18 percent of the total energy consumed by the caterpillar is available for
Image Credits: (t) ©Photolibrary/Matt Meadows/Getty Images; (b) ©Sebastien Cote/iStockPhoto.com

growth, and 82 percent of the energy is converted to other forms. Only a small
percentage of the energy in the food was converted to new biomass.
P R AC T I C E P R O B L E M
FIGURE 17: The energy a chipmunk energy
consumes is also largely converted to from food
heat or excreted as waste. growth
(new biomass)
waste cellular respiration
The chipmunk consumes 1000 J of energy from food, loses 177 J as waste, and
loses 784 J to cellular respiration.
1. How many joules of energy are available to convert into new biomass?
2. What percentage of the total energy was available to become new growth?
3. What percentage of the total energy consumed was converted to unusable
forms via cellular respiration, heat, and waste?
4. Make a model that supports the idea that energy is conserved. Use evidence
from this example to support your claim.
Pyramid Models
The same pattern of energy and biomass distribution at the organism level also occurs Gather Evidence
at the ecosystem level. Biomass is a measure of the total dry mass of organisms in a What information do
given ecosystem at the time of measurement. scientists need in order to
Pyramid models are useful for showing the productivity of an ecosystem and can determine how much energy is
illustrate the distribution of energy, biomass, and number of organisms. Productivity converted into biomass at different
is the percentage of energy entering the ecosystem that is incorporated into biomass trophic levels?
at a particular trophic level. Modeling ecosystem productivity with a pyramid allows
scientists to compare the distribution of energy, biomass, or numbers of organisms
between trophic levels.
Energy Pyramids
Trophic efficiency is the percentage of energy transferred from one trophic level to the
next. Remember that energy transfer from one organism to another is not efficient.
An energy pyramid models the transfer of energy beginning with producers and
working up the food chain to the top-level consumer. The pyramid illustrates how
available energy is distributed among trophic levels in an ecosystem. A typical
energy pyramid has a very large section at the base for producers, and sections
become progressively smaller above. Because energy is converted to heat lost to the
environment at each level of the pyramid, the more levels there are in the ecosystem,
the greater the loss of energy. The energy used by producers far exceeds the energy
used by the consumers they support.
In the simplified energy pyramid shown in Figure 18, energy flows from one trophic
level to the next. In this example, only 10 percent of energy produced is transferred to
the next trophic level. Notice that only 0.1 percent of the energy in the producer level
transfers to the tertiary consumer level.
FIGURE 18: An idealized energy pyramid of a grasslands ecosystem.
Data Analysis
tertiary
10 J 10% According to this model, if
consumers
the producer level contained
5000 J of energy, how many
secondary
100 J 10% joules of energy would be present
consumers
at the tertiary consumer level?
Using this information, can you
primary
consumers 1000 J 10% explain why the energy pyramid
is shaped the way it is?
producers 10 000 J 1%
1 000 000 J of sunlight

The simplified pyramid in Figure 18 shows a trophic efficiency of 10 percent for each
link in the food chain. A simplified pyramid like this can help scientists make models
and hypotheses. In reality, the energy transfer between trophic levels, or the trophic
efficiency, can range from 5 to 20 percent, depending on the type of ecosystem.
Producers convert only about 1 percent of the energy available from sunlight into
usable energy. This is because not all of the sunlight hits the leaves of a plant, not
all wavelengths of light are absorbed, and photosynthesis and cellular respiration in
plants require large quantities of energy.
Gather Evidence Why is there a limit to the number of trophic levels in an

ecosystem? Is energy conserved in an ecosystem?
Biomass Pyramid
A biomass pyramid, such as the one shown in Figure 19, compares the biomass
at different trophic levels within an ecosystem. It illustrates the mass of producers
needed to support primary consumers, the mass of primary consumers required to
support secondary consumers, and so on. Biomass is measured as the total mass per
unit of area. The biomass measurement includes living organisms and dead organic
matter. As organisms die and decompose, the nutrients and matter in their bodies are
cycled back through the biomass pyramid by decomposers.
FIGURE 19: A biomass pyramid depicts the total dry mass of organisms found at each
2
trophic level. In this example the biomass is measured as g/m .
tertiary
consumers 75 g/m2
secondary
consumers 150 g/m2
primary
consumers 675 g/m2
producers 2000 g/m2
The amount of energy and biomass decreases in a biomass pyramid as you move up
the trophic levels. In an energy pyramid, the percentage of energy transferred from
one trophic level to the next is approximately the same at every level. In a biomass
pyramid, the percentage of biomass transferred to the next trophic level depends on
the types of organisms present in each trophic level and the level of consumption and
the availability of that biomass for consumption. For example, leaf biomass is more
available and useful for herbivores than wood.
Model Create a model that demonstrates the relationship between biomass and
energy in an ecosystem.

Pyramid of Numbers
A pyramid of numbers shows how many individual organisms are present at each
trophic level in an ecosystem. Two examples of a pyramid of numbers are shown in
Figure 20. This type of pyramid is effective in showing the vast number of producers
required to support even a few top-level consumers. Ecosystems vary in the number
and types of organisms in each level. These organisms also vary in their rates of growth
and reproduction, as well as in the amount of biomass each species needs to sustain
life and growth. A trophic level that contains organisms that reproduce and grow
rapidly often has less biomass at any given time than one in which reproduction and
growth rates are slow. The size of the organisms also plays a role in the shape of the
various pyramids. The larger the individual organism, the fewer that are needed to
support the next trophic level.
Number of individuals per 0.1 hectare Analyze According to the
FIGURE 20: A pyramid of numbers models how many organisms are at each trophic level.
grassland pyramid, how
grassland (summer) many grass plants would be needed
to support 12 birds?
1 bird
90 000 predatory insects
200 000 herbivorous insects
1 500 000 grass plants
temperate forest (summer)
5 birds
120 000 predatory insects
150 000 herbivorous insects
200 trees
Think about why a pyramid of numbers or a biomass pyramid might appear in an

upside-down or diamond formation. A single tree in a rain forest would be greatly
outnumbered by the primary and secondary consumers, such as insects and birds, that
live on the tree. The upper layers of the pyramid of numbers would be larger than the
bottom layer representing the single tree. If a secondary or tertiary consumer, such as
a condor, were added to the top of the pyramid, a diamond shape would result.
Explain Compare and contrast the different ways to model energy and matter flow in
an ecosystem. If you were a scientist studying an ecosystem, explain how you would use
each type of pyramid and what information you could gain from each one.

Hands-on Activity
Biomagnification
MATERIALS Harmful chemicals enter aquatic ecosystems from the runoff of silt, pesticides,
• beads, large (16) and fertilizers. These chemicals enter the food chain and build up in the bodies of
organisms through a process known as biomagnification. Scientists study this process
• beaker, 500 mL
by measuring the amount of chemicals in each trophic level in parts per million.
• marker
FIGURE 21:
• tape, masking agriculture
Biomagnification
• paper cups (4 small, 2 medium, in an aquatic
1 large) ecosystem. pesticides
herring gull eggs
• pencil, sharpened 124 ppm
• salt
food chain
lake trout smelt zooplankton phytoplankton

4.83 ppm 1.04 ppm 0.123 ppm 0.025 ppm
ppm = parts per million
Predict How will the PROCEDURE

beads, or pollutants, 1. Label the small cups “Smelt,” the medium cups “Trout,” and the large cup “Gull.”
transfer between the cups? How is With just the pencil tip, punch one or two small holes in the bottom of each cup,
this a model of biomagnification? and cover them with tape.
How are contaminants magnified 2. Fill each of the cups halfway with salt. Add four beads to each small cup.
up the food chain? 3. Hold each of the small cups over the beaker and remove the tape. Allow the salt to
flow through the holes into the beaker.
4. Pour the remaining contents of two small cups into one medium cup. Pour the
contents of the other two small cups into the second medium cup. Repeat Step 3
with the medium-sized cups.
5. Pour the remaining contents of both medium cups into the large cup.
ANALYZE
1. What pattern did you notice for the transfer of pollutants between trophic levels?
2. Why would tertiary consumers have the highest concentrations of toxins?
3. How are humans affected by biomagnification? Use evidence from this activity to
explain why this is a concern.
WHAT DO IS YOUR DIET AQUATIC PRIMARY Go online to choose one of

ALLIGATORS EAT? ENERGY EFFICIENT? PRODUCTIVITY these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 22: Global Concentration of Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll a concentration (mg/m3)
0.01 0.03 0.1 0.3 1 3 10
Phytoplankton are tiny photosynthetic organisms that live in marine environments.

They serve as the base for the aquatic ecosystem food web and are an integral
part in the energy and matter flow in aquatic ecosystems. Through their role in the
production of approximately half of Earth’s oxygen, phytoplankton are important to
terrestrial food webs and pyramids.
Explain Refer to your notes in your Evidence Notebook to explain how the flow
of energy and matter through an ecosystem is modeled. Using this information,
answer the following questions:
1. Explain the relationship between the phytoplankton population and
Image Credits: ©SeaWiFS Project/NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
chlorophyll concentration.
2. How can a decrease in the phytoplankton population affect life on Earth?
3. How might this change affect the flow of energy and matter in the biosphere?

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 5. What is the relationship between a food chain and
trophic levels?
1. In a prairie ecosystem, which of the following a. A food chain demonstrates how the organisms at the
populations has the most stored energy for use by highest trophic levels have the most energy.
other organisms? b. Food chains illustrate the flow of energy from one
a. hawks trophic level to the next.
b. buffalo c. A food chain models the energy flow within a single
c. prairie dogs trophic level.
d. prairie grasses
6. A consumer eats 1500 J of food energy. The consumer
2. Which food chain correctly shows the direction that uses 15 percent of the food energy for new biomass
energy and matter flow through a forest ecosystem? and the rest for cellular respiration and waste. Use this
a. fruit—insect—sparrow—hawk information to answer the following questions:
b. hawk—fruit—insect—sparrow a. How many joules of food energy were converted into
new biomass?
c. insect—sparrow—hawk—fruit
b. How many joules of food energy are converted to heat
d. insect—hawk—fruit—sparrow
and excreted as waste?
3. Which of the following terms are in the correct order, c. What percentage of the food energy was converted to
from smallest to largest? heat and excreted as waste?
a. population, organism, community, ecosystem,
biome, Earth, biosphere FIGURE 23: Desert
b. organism, community, population, ecosystem,

biome, biosphere, Earth
c. organism, population, community, ecosystem,
d. ecosystem, organism, population, community,
4. Consider a pyramid model with a producer level, a

primary consumer level, a secondary consumer level,
and a tertiary consumer level. Which of the following
statements are correct?
a. The sun is the ultimate source of energy in an
ecosystem. 7. Why is a desert in North America, such as Arizona’s
Sonoran Desert (Figure 23), considered to be the same
b. Matter cycles and is generally conserved within or
biome as a desert in Africa? Image Credits: ©tonda/iStock/Getty Images Plus/Getty Images
among ecosystems.
c. Energy flows through ecosystems, but only a certain
8. What biotic and abiotic factors influence the flow of
amount of energy is transformed into biomass.
matter and energy in different biomes?
d. Energy flows through ecosystems, but some is lost to
the environment as heat.
9. Do you think it is possible for a biome to change from
e. Matter and energy are completely conserved and one type to another due to human activities? Explain a
transformed into biomass within an ecosystem. situation in which this might happen.

10. A student thinks that populations higher in a food chain

are larger because they deplete the populations of I n your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
organisms lower in the chain. Using evidence from this supports the main ideas from this lesson:
lesson, explain why this student’s thinking is incorrect.
Life in an ecosystem requires a source of energy. The flow of
energy and matter in an ecosystem can be demonstrated by
FIGURE 24: Rabbits are herbivorous and hawks are carnivorous. food chains, food webs, and pyramid models.
study guide:
a Primary Consumer b Tertiary Consumer other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
Consider how food chains, food webs, and pyramid models
11. Think about the trophic efficiency, or percentage
show the flow of energy and matter through trophic levels in an
of transferred energy between trophic levels, in an
ecosystem.
ecosystem. Why is an herbivorous diet more energy
efficient than a carnivorous diet? Use the example of
the rabbit and the hawk shown in Figure 24 to help
explain your answer.
12. An aquatic ecosystem contains 10,000 freshwater

shrimp, 1000 sunfish, 100 perch, 10 northern pike,
Image Credits: (l) ©Robert Harding World Imagery/James Hager/Getty Images; (r) ©Michael Fitzsimmons/iStock/Getty Images Plus
and 1 osprey. Draw a pyramid of numbers that

represents this ecosystem.
13. Describe how energy and matter flow, interact, and

change forms throughout the Earth system.
14. In your Evidence Notebook, make a model that explains

the relationship between river, estuary, and ocean
ecosystems. How do matter and energy flow within and
among these ecosystems?

3.4
Cycling of Matter and

CAN YOU SOLVE IT?

Oceans cycle energy
and matter through The curious-looking buildings shown in Figure 1 are part of a research facility located
the water cycle.
in Arizona called Biosphere 2. The tightly sealed glass and steel structure currently
serves as a place where scientists study Earth’s ecosystems to better understand
carbon and oxygen cycles, coral reef health, water recycling, and more.
Gather Evidence
FIGURE 1: Biosphere 2 is a research facility located in Arizona.
gather evidence to explain the
relationship between the cycling of
matter and the transfer of energy
through ecosystems.
Image Credits: (t) ©Onigiri studio/Shutterstock; (b) ©James Marshall/Corbis
On September 26, 1991, eight research scientists began a two-year adventure living
in Biosphere 2. The researchers, known as “biospherians,” were completely sealed off
from the outside environment to simulate living in a closed ecosystem. But the results
of the experiment were unexpected. The biospherians had to cope with inadequate
food, decreasing oxygen levels, and increasing carbon dioxide levels. The imbalances
resulted in many plants and animals dying, providing evidence that ecosystems are
much more complex and dynamic than originally thought.
Predict Why do you think researchers had problems with low oxygen levels and
increasing carbon dioxide levels in Biosphere 2? How would you solve this problem?

EXPLORATION 1
Matter Cycles Through Ecosystems
Earth is an open system in terms of energy, as it gains energy from the sun. In contrast,
Earth is a closed system in terms of matter. All of the matter on Earth has more or less
been here for billions of years. Matter and energy cannot be created or destroyed, only
transformed into other forms.
Predict Matter and energy move through ecosystems between different organisms.
Where does this matter come from and how does it travel through an ecosystem or
through Earth’s spheres?
Energy and Matter in the Earth System

The Earth system includes all of the matter, energy, processes, and cycles within Earth’s
boundary with space. Energy from the sun drives the cycling of matter in Earth’s
spheres and in the many ecosystems within those spheres. Producers use only about
one percent of the sun’s energy that enters Earth’s atmosphere.
Math Connection
Solar Radiation FIGURE 2: Earth’s atmosphere absorbs and reflects energy.
When solar radiation enters Earth’s atmosphere, about

23 percent is absorbed in the atmosphere and about 48
percent is absorbed at the surface.
Collaborate With a partner discuss these questions: 23%

If energy is conserved, what percent of the solar energy
should be reflected back into space? How do you think
Earth’s ecosystems would be different if more or less solar 48%
radiation was reflected by the atmosphere?
Like energy, matter in the Earth system cycles within and among Earths’ spheres: the
atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. A relatively small amount of
Image Credits: ©NASA Johnson Space Center
matter is lost into space from the very top of the atmosphere, but scientists generally
think of the Earth system as closed in terms of matter.
Matter also changes form as it cycles through the Earth system, but like energy,
it cannot be destroyed. For example, organisms metabolize food using chemical
reactions. These reactions break bonds and form new chemical bonds among the
same atoms to make new substances. The organism can use these new substances for
growth and cell processes. Some matter is excreted as waste, which is recycled in the
environment. The total amount of matter in the system remains unchanged.
Lesson 4 Cycling of Matter and Energy in Ecosystems 159

Using food webs and pyramid models, you can see matter cycles through different
FIGURE 3: The Earth system is
trophic levels in an ecosystem. As one organism consumes another, that matter is
closed.
transferred into higher trophic levels. When organisms die, their matter is cycled
back through lower trophic levels. In this way, no new matter is created, but matter
continually moves through and between ecosystems, as illustrated in Figure 3.
The Water Cycle

Scientists model specific chemical cycles in order to better understand the cycling of
matter in the Earth system. The hydrologic cycle, also known as the water cycle, is the
circular pathway of water on Earth from the atmosphere, to the surface, below ground,
and back into the atmosphere.
As shown in Figure 4, within the hydrologic cycle, water moves by different processes
between reservoirs, such as oceans or lakes. Reservoirs are any location where cycling
matter is stored. Water molecules might be stored in a reservoir for a long period of
time, such as in a glacier, or for shorter periods of time, such as in a cloud. Evaporation
and precipitation are examples of processes that move water between reservoirs.
Analyze If the total FIGURE 4: The hydrologic cycle transfers water molecules Explore Online
amount of water on Earth between reservoirs.
does not change, why are there
concerns about global shortages of
fresh water?
condensation (clouds)
precipitation
transpiration
evaporation
evaporation
runoff
lake ocean
groundwater
percolation into soil
In the hydrologic cycle, heat from the sun causes water to evaporate from reservoirs
such as the ocean and to evaporate from plant leaves through transpiration. As water
rises into the atmosphere it cools and condenses into clouds. Water then falls back to
Earth in the form of precipitation, such as rain, snow, or hail. Precipitation seeps in the
ground or flows into streams or rivers. Water ends up in a reservoir where it is stored
until the process starts again.
Explain Choose two reservoirs in the diagram and, for each location, explain how
water cycles through the system.

Biogeochemical Cycles Explore Online
Hands-On Activity
Many elements are essential for the functioning and growth of organisms. These
elements include oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Just like water, Winter Water Chemistry
these elements cycle through the Earth system, ecosystems, and organisms. Model summer and winter lake
conditions to determine how
A biogeochemical cycle is the movement of a particular chemical through the
surface ice affects the water
biotic and abiotic components of an ecosystem. The sun and heat from within Earth
chemistry of a lake.
provide energy that drives these cycles. Like the hydrologic cycle, the matter in
biogeochemical cycles flows between reservoirs where it is stored for a period of time.
In contrast to the water cycle, bonds are broken, and atoms are rearranged into new
molecules in biogeochemical cycles. The main biogeochemical cycles are the oxygen
cycle, the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, and the phosphorus cycle.
The Oxygen Cycle

Oxygen (O2) is released into the atmosphere as a product of photosynthesis. The
atmosphere serves as a reservoir for oxygen until it is taken in by an organism for use
in cellular respiration. Humans, and other organisms, also take in oxygen as part of
respiration, or breathing.
Collaborate With a
FIGURE 5: The oxygen cycle is driven by photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
partner, discuss how a
drought caused by a decrease
Photosynthesis Respiration in precipitation might affect
the oxygen cycle. Use evidence
O2 from previous lessons to support
your answer.
CO2
Some of the oxygen is incorporated into compounds that remain in the organism. Thus
the organism becomes a reservoir for the oxygen. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is released
back into the atmosphere as a byproduct of cellular respiration. Carbon dioxide is then
taken up by plants and used for photosynthesis, and oxygen is released back into the
atmosphere. Each cycle on Earth interacts with other cycles. For example, the water
cycle interacts with the oxygen cycle, because water is necessary for photosynthesis.
Gather Evidence In the Biosphere 2 project, oxygen concentration decreased over

time and carbon dioxide reached dangerous levels. Describe a possible solution to this
problem, and explain how it relates to processes in the oxygen cycle.

The Carbon Cycle
Gather Evidence Carbon is present in most chemical compounds that make up living things. Carbon
Without humans, could is also stored in abiotic components of the Earth system. For example, CO2 in the
carbon in these reservoirs be atmosphere, fossil fuels such as oil and coal, dead matter in the soil, and chemical
accessed? compounds in rocks are carbon reservoirs.
FIGURE 6: Processes such as photosynthesis and combustion drive the cycling of carbon. Explore Online
atmospheric CO2
photosynthesis
respiration
combustion
producers
exchange
consumers
decomposers
dissolved CO2
producers
burial
extraction
decomposers
consumers
fossil fuels
sedimentary rock sedimentation
Producers remove CO2 from the atmosphere through photosynthesis. Photosynthetic

organisms incorporate the carbon into carbohydrates to store in their tissues. When
consumers eat producers, they obtain the carbon, storing some of it in their tissues
and releasing some back into the atmosphere through cellular respiration. When the
Explore Online consumers die, decomposers break down the organic matter and release carbon back
into the atmosphere through cellular respiration. Carbon is also released into the soil.
Hands-On Activity
Some of the carbon in the organic matter may become fossilized. Under certain
Lungs of the Planet
conditions, the burial process stores that carbon in Earth’s crust where, over millions of
Why are rain forests called the years, it becomes fossil fuel. Since the 1800s, humans have extracted this carbon and
“Lungs of the Planet”? Investigate combusted it, releasing large amounts of carbon back into the atmosphere.
with Dr. Mike and Dr. Oberbauer to
Carbon dioxide diffuses into the ocean from the atmosphere. Oceans are carbon sinks
determine if this claim is valid by
that absorb and hold large amounts of carbon. Carbon enters the aquatic biotic cycle
measuring rates of photosynthesis
when algae and phytoplankton convert it during photosynthesis. Some dissolved
of rain forest plant life. CO2 is used in the processes of sedimentation and burial to form different types of
sedimentary rock. These processes are very slow, taking millions of years, but they
form extremely large carbon reservoirs.
Model Make a model illustrating the roles of photosynthesis and cellular respiration
in the cycling of carbon among Earth’s spheres. Be sure to include the inputs and
outputs for both processes in your model.

The Nitrogen Cycle
About 78% of Earth’s atmosphere is composed of nitrogen gas (N2). However, most
organisms are not able to use nitrogen in this form to build organic molecules. The
nitrogen must be fixed, or incorporated into other molecules that organisms can use.
Bacteria, which are involved in many steps of the nitrogen cycle, fix nitrogen into
ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, and other chemicals that organisms can use. As shown in
Figure 7, much of the nitrogen cycle takes place below ground.
FIGURE 7: The nitrogen cycle is made up of many processes that move nitrogen from the Explore Online
atmosphere to the biosphere and back again.
atmospheric nitrogen
nitrogen fixation
consumers
decomposers fertilizer factory
producers
soil
leaching
denitrification assimilation
ammonification
ammonia
nitrate nitrite ammonium
nitrification
Certain types of bacteria convert gaseous nitrogen into ammonia (NH3) through a
process called nitrogen fixation. Some of these bacteria are aerobic, which means Scale, Proportion,
they use oxygen. Other bacteria are anaerobic, which means they do not use oxygen. and Quantity
In aquatic ecosystems, this task is performed by a few types of cyanobacteria. Some Bacteria are microscopic organisms,
nitrogen-fixing bacteria on land live in small outgrowths, called nodules, on the roots but they are essential to life on
of plants such as beans and peas. Other nitrogen-fixing bacteria live freely in the soil. Earth. Using evidence from the
The ammonia released by these bacteria is transformed into ammonium (NH4+ ) by the nitrogen cycle, explain how the
addition of hydrogen ions found in acidic soil. Some ammonium is taken up by plants,
microscopic fixation of nitrogen can
but most is used by nitrifying bacteria as an energy source. These bacteria change
– have such a large impact on life.
ammonium into nitrate (NO3 ) through a process called nitrification.
Nitrates released by soil bacteria are taken up by plants through assimilation, which
converts them into organic compounds such as amino acids and proteins. Nitrogen
continues along the cycle as animals eat plant or animal matter. When decomposers
break down animal excretions or dead animal and plant matter, nitrogen is returned
to the soil as ammonium, in a process called ammonification. Denitrifying bacteria
use nitrate as an oxygen source, releasing nitrogen gas back into the atmosphere as a
waste product via denitrification.

Explore Online Nitrogen fixation can occur through biological processes carried out by special types
of bacteria, but it can also occur through industrial processes such as the production
Hands-On Lab
of fertilizer. Some nitrogen also enters the soil as a result of atmospheric fixation by
Nitrogen Fixation Investigate lightning. Energy from lightning breaks apart nitrogen molecules in the atmosphere.
the role of nitrogen-fixing bacteria Nitrogen recombines with oxygen in the air, forming nitrogen monoxide. The
by observing prepared slides of combination of nitrogen monoxide with rainwater forms nitrates, which are absorbed
legume root nodules. by the soil. Nitrates in the soil may be moved by water, eventually settling at the
bottom of lakes, swamps, and oceans in a process called leaching.
Analyze Organisms in a fish tank can become unhealthy if too much ammonium
from their waste builds up in the water. Explain why it is beneficial to add bacteria and
plants to a fish tank. Use evidence from the nitrogen cycle model to support your claim.
Energy and Matter
Rhizobia Bacteria
Gather Evidence FIGURE 8: Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in a pea plant nodule.

Legumes are often
planted and harvested as crops.
When this happens, the plants
are not left to decompose into
the soil. How does removing the
legumes from the ecosystem
affect the nitrogen cycle?
a Rhizobia bacteria (colored SEM) b Pea plant nodules
Image Credits: (l) ©Steve Gschmeissner/Science Source; (r) ©Dr. Jeremy Burgess/Science Source
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live symbiotically, or in close relationship, with certain
types of plants, particularly those in the legume family. Rhizobia bacteria live in the
nodules on the roots of legumes, as shown in Figure 8. The plant provides essential
nutrients to the bacteria and, in return, the bacteria fix nitrogen into ammonia,
which the plant absorbs. Most of the ammonia made by the bacteria is kept by the
plant and very little is released into the soil until the plant dies. Then, decomposers
convert the ammonia molecules into other nitrogen compounds and release some
of that nitrogen back into the atmosphere as nitrogen gas.
The Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus is an important element for living things. It is a component of phosphate
groups in ATP, DNA, and phospholipids in cell membranes. Phosphorus occurs in
the form of phosphate salts found in ocean sediments and rocks. Geologic processes
expose these rocks, and water and wind break them down, making them available to
plants and animals.

Explore Online
FIGURE 9: The phosphorus cycle interacts with the rock cycle through processes such as geologic
uplift and weathering.
phosphate mining phosphate rocks
weathering
fertilizer
soil leaching runoff
geological uplift
producers excretion and decomposition
consumers
dissolved phosphates
phosphate rocks
sedimentation
Collaborate
Analyze Which of Earth’s spheres is not part of the phosphorus cycle?
Discuss this question
with a partner: When the water at
As shown in Figure 9, weathering of phosphate rocks by rain releases phosphate Biosphere 2 became polluted with
compounds in soil and water. On land, plants can take up phosphate compounds from
too many nutrients, researchers
the soil and consumers gain phosphorus by eating the producers. Decomposers then
treated the water by running it
return phosphorus to the soil and water when they break down the organic matter
and wastes of the producers and consumers.
over mats of algae. Why did they
do this, and how does this action
Water can transport phosphorus to aquatic ecosystems through runoff and leaching. relate to the nitrogen and
Phosphorus compounds dissolve into phosphates where they can be taken up by phosphorus cycles?
algae and then consumed by other aquatic organisms. Some dissolved phosphates
settle at the bottom of oceans in a process called sedimentation, becoming phosphate
rocks over millions of years.
Certain geologic processes expose the phosphate rocks at the bottom of the ocean to
the atmosphere. The rocks then undergo weathering, releasing phosphate compounds
back into the ecosystem, and continuing the phosphorus cycle. Humans also introduce
phosphates into the ecosystem by mining them to make fertilizers and cleaners. Excess
phosphates from human activities can enter aquatic ecosystems through runoff and
leaching. Very little phosphate is naturally available in most bodies of water and any
increases can lead to significant changes in the ecosystem.
Explain How do the hydrologic cycle and the different biogeochemical cycles relate to
one another? How can a change in one cycle affect all of the other cycles?

EXPLORATION 2
Human Impact on Earth’s Cycles
Easter Island, located in the southeastern Pacific Ocean, was first inhabited between
FIGURE 10: Easter Island
400 CE and 700 CE. The human colony grew quickly over the next 1000 years, cutting
down the forests for lumber and for building boats. The forests were cleared faster
than they could grow back, and eventually the island was left with no trees. Without
trees, there was no wood for shelter or boats, the soil washed away, and habitat for
the island’s animal populations was lost. With no food and the island resources nearly
gone, the Easter Islanders disappeared. Today, a small population of people live on the
island. The stone monuments placed by the first inhabitants, shown in Figure 10, are a
major tourist attraction.
Predict What effect did the human population have on Easter Island? How did they
change the island’s natural cycling of matter and energy?
Air Pollution
Gather Evidence
As you read, record Without human activity, the cycling of carbon, phosphorus, and nitrogen in the Earth
evidence to support or refute the system would be in a relatively steady state. Each year humans add synthetic chemicals
idea that atoms are rearranged in and materials to Earth, and many of these chemicals cannot be integrated into normal
biogeochemical cycles. ecosystem functions. The harmful effect of these pollutants can be immediate or
delayed, but these effects may add up over time and can disrupt ecosystem functions.
FIGURE 11: Engine combustion The most common air pollution comes from the waste products produced by
contributes to air pollution. burning fossil fuels, such as gasoline and oil that contain carbon, nitrogen, and
phosphorus. Burning fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,
Image Credits: (t) ©Guido Cozzi/Atlantide Phototravel/Corbis; (b) ©Comstock Images/Jupiterimages/Getty Images
and other chemicals that pollute the air. Smog is a type of air pollution caused by the
interaction of sunlight with pollutants produced by fossil fuel emissions. The nitrogen
dioxide in smog reacts with oxygen to produce ozone, O3. The ozone produced by
reactions of nitrogen dioxide and oxygen tends to stay close to the ground, where
it can be harmful to human health and ecosystem functions. However, ozone also
exists naturally in the upper atmosphere. There, it acts as a shield protecting Earth’s
biosphere against harmful ultraviolet rays found in sunlight.
Algal Blooms
The production of fertilizers and detergents through industrial nitrogen fixation
and phosphate mining has increased greatly over the last few decades. When
these fertilizers are added to food crops or lawns, rain causes excess nitrogen and
phosphorus to run off into nearby streams or lakes. The addition of nitrogen to an
ecosystem alters the nutrient balance, which can lead to increases in producers such as
algae, causing what is known as an algal bloom.
Algal blooms affect the overall health of an ecosystem, and in the case of aquatic
ecosystems, deplete oxygen through a process called eutrophication. When algae die,
decomposers break down their bodies, consuming oxygen in the process. The lack of
oxygen harms aquatic organisms, and can even lead to major die-off events.

Cause and Effect
FIGURE 12: Eutrophication Excess Fertilizer

harms aquatic ecosystems.
In many cities, residents over-fertilize their lawns. The excess nitrogen and
phosphorus are washed into lakes, streams, and ponds and can lead to
eutrophication, as shown in Figure 12. Some cities make efforts to educate
their citizens about how to test their soil so they apply just the right amount
of nutrients when fertilizing their lawns.
Model Make a model describing how over-fertilizing leads to eutrophication.

Then use your model to suggest one possible solution to this problem.
Climate Change
Carbon dioxide emissions released from the burning of fossil fuels have led to a
substantial increase in atmospheric CO2, as shown in Figure 13. The rate at which
carbon dioxide enters the atmosphere as a result of human activities is much faster
than the rate at which it is removed by other processes. Combusting fossil fuels and
clear-cutting forests are two examples of human activities that lead to increased
carbon dioxide levels in Earth’s atmosphere.
Analyze As carbon dioxide is added to the atmosphere, Atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory
more carbon dioxide also enters the ocean through FIGURE 13: Atmospheric carbon dioxide levels have risen
diffusion. Carbon dioxide reacts with water to produce substantially since 1960.
Atmospheric CO2 at Mauna Loa Observatory
carbonic acid, which lowers the pH of the water. What
400
effects do you think this might have on marine life?
380
Carbon dioxide is one of several greenhouse gases. These
Parts per million
gases act in a similar manner to a greenhouse for growing 360

plants: They allow sunlight to pass through and provide
energy for plant growth, but keep infrared radiation, or heat, 340
from escaping. Increasing the amount of carbon dioxide seasonal fluctuations
average value
in the atmosphere has been linked to increasing global 320
temperatures, which has a devastating effect on ecosystems.
Some species have already been observed moving into new 300
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
areas because the changes in the climate make it difficult Year
for these species to continue living in their natural range. Source: Scripps Institution of Oceanography, NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory
Increased carbon dioxide concentrations have also caused
the polar ice caps to shrink and sea levels to rise as a result.
Image Credits: ©Lance Rider/Shutterstock
Explain Many scientists worry that the influence humans have on the biogeochemical
and hydrologic cycles will cause lasting damage to Earth. Make a list of the activities you
perform in a day that may impact one of these cycles. Explain how you are interacting
with the cycle and how that could be affecting your local ecosystem. What can you do to
decrease your impact?

Guided Research
Evaluating Solutions to Human Impacts
Scientists and engineers are working

FIGURE 14: These wind turbines capture energy from the wind and convert it to
to develop solutions to human impacts
electricity. Wind energy is an alternative to energy from fossil fuels.
on the hydrologic and biogeochemical
cycles. Burning fossil fuels for energy
has one of the largest impacts on these
cycles. Finding alternatives to fossil
fuel energy is key to decreasing human
impact and making lasting changes.
Currently engineers and scientists
are investigating solar, wind, water,
biological, and geothermal energies
as potential alternatives to fossil fuels.
You may have already heard of wind
and solar farms. Scientists must ask
many questions when they consider
implementing new energy sources such
as these, including:
• Costs - Is the solution cost effective?
Can a similar solution be reached
in a less costly manner without
losing quality?
• Safety - Is the solution safe for
humans and other living things?
• Reliability - Is the solution going
to hold up over time in the given • Environmental impacts - How Language Arts Connection
conditions? Will it need large does the solution impact the Choose an alternative energy
amounts of upkeep to be maintained environment? Are there any source and research how it impacts the
over time? concerns about these impacts?
biogeochemical and hydrologic cycles or
• Aesthetics - Does the solution add • Meeting criteria - Does the solution how it reduces human impact on these
to or detract from the natural visual solve the problem and meet the cycles. Write a blog entry detailing your
beauty of the area? needs of those who will use the new research. Explain how the alternative
• Social and cultural impacts - How energy source? energy source will work for human
Image Credits: ©Malcolm Fife/Photodisc/Getty Images
does the solution impact human • Evidence to support the solution - populations in terms of its trade-offs, such
societies and cultures? Are there any How well does the evidence provided as cost, reliability, and impact on society
concerns about these impacts? support the claims that are being and the environment. Gather evidence
made about this solution and how it from multiple sources and describe specific
will work? evidence from each source.
NITROGEN WINTER WATER Go online to choose one of

LUNGS OF THE PLANET
FIXATION CHEMISTRY these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU SOLVE IT?
FIGURE 15: Biosphere 2
The Biosphere 2 research center was originally built with five separate ecosystems: rain
forest, ocean, wetlands, grassland, and desert. Scientists thought that by replicating
Earth’s ecosystems they would be able to make a self-sustaining ecosystem in which
humans could live and grow their own food. Almost immediately, however, Biosphere
2 began suffering from a lack of oxygen and increased carbon dioxide concentrations.
Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook to explain how matter
changes form as it flows within the Biosphere 2 system. Use this information to help
you answer the following questions:
1. How do matter and energy change form as they cycle through ecosystems and
Earth’s spheres?
2. Why do you think researchers had problems with low oxygen in Biosphere 2?
3. How would you solve this problem?
The Biosphere 2 experiment never recovered. The scientists built CO2 scrubbers to try
to remove excess carbon dioxide from the air and eventually had to pump in oxygen
to stay alive. The ecosystems inside Biosphere 2 suffered and never flourished as
Image Credits: ©James Marshall/Corbis
scientists had hoped they would. The original purpose of the experiment failed: A
group of people could not survive in a self-sustained system. However, scientists did
learn that Earth’s ecosystems are extremely complex and there is much the scientific
community has yet to learn. Today researchers use Biosphere 2 as a place to study
Earth’s ecosystems to better understand carbon and oxygen cycles, water recycling,
and more.

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 5. Complete the sentence by filling in the correct substance
in each blank.
1. The steps of the carbon cycle are described below.
In the carbon cycle, the role of photosynthesis is to take
Place the steps in the correct order.
in , and the role of cellular respiration is to
a. Animals and plants release carbon dioxide and give off .
water as a result of cellular respiration.
b. Carbon dioxide is released by plants and animals 6. Recently, some areas in the United States have seen
and moves into the biosphere. an increase in trees due to reforestation efforts. Draw a
c. Plants use water and carbon dioxide from the “before” and “after” model to show how the carbon cycle
atmosphere to make sugar and oxygen through might be altered after a large-scale reforestation effort.
the process of photosynthesis.
d. Animals and plants use sugar and oxygen for the 7. Draw a diagram of the water cycle, labeling each process.
process of cellular respiration. Add arrows and labels to show how energy drives the
e. Cellular respiration transforms sugar and oxygen cycle and is transferred through it.
into carbon dioxide and water.
FIGURE 16: Biosphere model
2. Which statement describes a difference between the
nitrogen and carbon cycles?
a. The carbon cycle involves only plants.
b. The nitrogen cycle requires a process called fixation
that is carried out by certain bacteria.
c. The carbon cycle requires that temperatures be
above 27 °C (80 °F).
d. The nitrogen cycle occurs entirely in the ocean.
3. What are the potential effects of introducing too much

nitrogen and phosphorus into an aquatic ecosystem?
Select all correct answers.
a. Fish populations would increase.
8. How is matter changing form in the biosphere model
b. Aquatic organisms would die off.
shown in Figure 16? How many different types of matter
c. Water would become clearer. cycles do you think are being shown in the model?
d. Algae would grow out of control.
e. Oxygen levels would increase. 9. There is evidence that the increasing carbon dioxide
levels in the atmosphere are affecting phytoplankton,
4. Which of the following things are common to all of which are tiny photosynthetic organisms in the ocean.
the biogeochemical cycles? Select all correct answers. Explain how the carbon cycle might be affected if
a. reservoirs and processes phytoplankton were to decrease in number.
b. an atmospheric component
c. photosynthesis and respiration
d. living things as a reservoir
e. the sun as a source of energy
f. can be affected by human activities

f. Can be affected by human activities
10. Decomposers are an important part of many

biogeochemical cycles. Some carry out aerobic In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
respiration and some use anaerobic respiration as they supports the main ideas from this lesson:
break down organic matter. Explain why decomposers
Biogeochemical cycles are processes that move matter through
are so crucial for the cycling of matter in ecosystems. Cite
specific examples to support your answer.
and among Earth’s spheres. These cycles can be impacted by
human activity.
FIGURE 17: Rhizobia bacteria Remember to include the following information in your
study guide:
Consider how matter and energy transform, but are not destroyed,
as they move through and among ecosystems and Earth’s spheres.
11. Explain the crucial role bacteria, such as those shown

in Figure 17, play in the nitrogen cycle. What would
happen to the nitrogen cycle if the bacteria were no
longer present?
12. How might Earth’s biogeochemical cycles help scientists

to understand the early history of life on Earth?
13. Develop a model that explains how energy from Earth

drives the biogeochemical cycles.
Image Credits: ©Steve Gschmeissner/Science Source

A BOOK EXPLAINING
COMPLEX IDEAS USING
ONLY THE 1,000 MOST
COMMON WORDS
TREE
A tree and the living and
not living things around it
You know that a tree is a complex living thing. Trees
also provide important habitats for a large variety of
other living things, a biotic community. These symbiotic
components make up the ecosystem in a tree. Here’s RANDALL MUNR
OE
XKCD.COM
an overview in simple terms.

GROWING UP LEAVES
Trees grow taller only by making Trees make power from
the ends of their branches longer. the Sun’s light using
The spot where a branch joins leaves. The green stuff
the main part of the tree is never in leaves eats light
lifted higher. (and the kind of air we
breathe out) and turns it
into power (and the kind
of air we breathe in).
POINTY CAT
This animal
walks around
slowly, climbing
trees and eating
leaves and sticks.
It’s covered in GRAY
sharp points that TREE-JUMPER
can stick in your These little
skin, so most animals sleep
QUIET NIGHT animals don’t in big round
CATCHER bother it. houses made
These birds fly very of sticks and
BIRD HOLES
quietly and have big leaves high up in
Some birds
eyes to catch animals on the branches.
make holes, but
the ground in the dark. a lot of them just
People think of them as use holes other
knowing a lot of things, birds make.
although that may just
be because they’re quiet
and have big eyes. DRINK HOLES
These were made by a
head-hitting bird looking for
tree blood to drink.
TREE-EATING LOUD JUMPERS
FLOWERS These two kinds of
This flower makes tiny animals make loud
holes in trees and noises and are known for HEAD-HITTING BIRD
steals food and jumping. One has bones. This kind of bird hits trees with
water from inside its head, making holes in the
them. If the flowers wood with its sharp mouth.
STORM BURN
get big, they can kill They make holes to find things
When flashes of to eat, and some also make
the branches they’re
power from storms holes to live in.
growing on, or even
hit a tree, they
kill the whole tree.
can burn a line in
When people stand the wood.
under this flower at
a party, other people
tell them to kiss.

TREE
SKIN BURNER BROKEN BRANCH HOLE

These leaves have stuff on them that When a tree gets hurt,
makes your skin turn red. It gives you a like if a branch breaks
really bad feeling, like you need to rub off, the place where it got BIRD HOUSE
your skin with something sharp, but hurt grows differently, just
doing that only makes it worse. like when skin gets cut.
This leaf-flower grows in long lines Sometimes animals get in
across the ground or up trees. through these spots and
Sometimes it grows into the air like a make the hole bigger. FIRE HOLE
small tree of its own. Like many things, These holes are
its leaves come in groups of three. from fires long
DIRT BRANCHES ago. The leaves
Trees grow branches down and sticks on the
into the ground, like the ones ground burned,
in the air. The air branches and the wind blew
ANIMAL HILL get light from the Sun, while the fire against this
This is the dirt the walking the ground branches get side of the tree.
flies took out of the ground water and food from the The burned spot
while making their holes. dirt. They spread way out— grows in a different
often farther than the air way and can
DOOR branches—but usually not sometimes turn into
very deep. a large hole.
TINY
DOG
LONG-EAR
JUMPERS
WALKING FLIES LONG BITERS WITHOUT ARMS

LONG-HOLE
These tiny animals live in big OR LEGS (SLEEPING)
MAKERS
groups and make holes. Most of These long thin cold-blooded
them don’t have babies; each family animals don’t usually hang out
has one mother who makes all the together, and sometimes eat
new animals for the house. each other.
They usually don’t fly, and they’re During the winter, though, lots
not much like house flies. They’re of different kinds come together
in the same group with the kinds of and sleep all wrapped up
flies whose back end has a sharp together in big holes under the
point that can hurt you. ground where it’s warmer.

SKIN
Go online for more
The outer skin of trees is where growing
happens and where they carry food up
and down. Cutting off a ring of skin all the TALL AND WIDE TREES
way around a tree will kill it. The same kind of tree can grow tall or wide. If there
Trees grow by adding new layers, and are other trees around, they’ll grow mostly up, each
grow differently in different parts of the one trying to get above the others to reach the Sun’s
year. If you cut open a tree, you can see light. If a tree is growing alone in a fi eld, it will spread
old layers, and count them to tell how many branches out to the sides so it can catch more light.
years old the tree is.
OLD METAL
When people use metal to stick signs
to trees, sometimes the tree grows
around the metal and eats it up.
Then, many years later, if someone
needs to cut down the tree, their saw
can hit the metal and send tiny sharp FIELD TURNING INTO FOREST
pieces fl ying everywhere. When people cut down a forest, sometimes they
leave a few trees—to make a cool shadow area, or
TREE-FOOD STEALER because the tree looks nice—and those trees will
Instead of growing dirt branches of their grow out into the new space.
own, these fl owers grow onto the dirt If the forest grows back, the new trees—fi ghting
branches of other trees and steal food with each other as they grow—will be tall and thin.
from them. If you fi nd a forest of tall thin trees with one wide
Some of these little fl owers don’t even tree with low branches in the middle, it might
have green leaves and can’t make their mean the forest you’re in was someone’s fi eld a
own food from light. hundred years ago.
FOREST ABOVE WATER
LITTLE
HOLE-
MAKERS
BIG HOLE-MAKERS
Image Credit: ©Alexander Mazurkevich/Shutterstock
DIRT-BRANCH LIFE
Most trees and fl owers have life growing on
their dirt branches. This life helps them talk
to the other trees and fl owers around them.
They can even use this life to share food or
attack each other. DIRT BRANCHES
If something tries to eat one tree, it can tell
other trees through messages carried by
this ground life, and the other trees can start
making bad water and other things to make
themselves harder to eat.

UNIT CONNECTIONS
Engineering Connection FIGURE 1: Algae biofuel production.
Algae Biofuel Cars combust fossil fuels, releasing large amounts of carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide gas is one of the leading contributors to
greenhouse gases and increasing global temperatures. To counteract this effect on
the environment, engineers have been researching alternative fuels, such as algae
biofuels, that do not release greenhouse gas emissions. Algae trap, transform, and
store solar energy as oil through the process of photosynthesis. The oil can then be
processed into biofuel.
Using library and Internet resources, research algae biofuels. Write a blog entry
explaining the potential uses of algae biofuels. What impact could biofuels have on
human-driven greenhouse gas emissions?
Social Studies Connection FIGURE 2: Black-footed ferrets released

into the wild.
BFFs: Black-Footed Ferrets As European settlers moved into the Great Plains, they
converted prairie land into farmland. These farmers and ranchers found the prairie
dogs that lived on that land a nuisance and killed them off in large numbers. The
black-footed ferrets (BFFs), which feed almost exclusively on prairie dogs, were
Image Credits: (t) ©David Maung/Bloomberg/Getty Images; (c) ©Kathryn Scott Osler/The Denver Post/Getty Images; (b)©Neo Martinez/Science Source
nearly eradicated in the process. BFFs are a key species in the ecosystem, and their
health is a primary indicator of the overall health of that ecosystem.
The BFF population has undergone a large captive breeding program and is being
reintroduced to the wild, with great success. Using library and Internet resources,
research the story of the BFF and what its reintroduction into the ecosystem means. Make a
pamphlet to document the history of the BFF, and explain any possible implications for local
ranchers and farmers.
Computer Science Connection FIGURE 3: A complex ecosystem

network developed using network
Computational Ecology In recent years, advancements in computer modeling modeling computer software.
software and processing speed have allowed scientists to study the complexity of
ecosystems in new depths. Historically, food webs had been presented as images
of producers and consumers connected by a web of energy arrows. However, with
new software, scientists can now model hundreds of interactions between species
and build a complete ecosystem network, as shown in Figure 3.
With a partner or a small group, review the ecosystem network shown here. What are
the pros and cons of making such a computer model of an ecosystem? Do you think a
human could analyze this network without a computer? On your own, make a list of questions Producers Apex Consumer
that, if you were a scientist, you would ask based on this model. Share your questions with
your partner or group. Did you have similar questions?



PRACTICE AND REVIEW
2. The cell is a system in which processes such as

FIGURE 4: Energy transferred to electrons moves through the
photosynthesis and cellular respiration take place so that
light-dependent reactions.
the cell can survive. Although photosynthesis only occurs
in certain producers, how does this process contribute to
the survival of other organisms, including humans?
H+ H+ H+
H+ H+
thylakoid
H+ 3. Describe the relationship between cellular respiration
H +
H+
lumen photosystem II photosystem I ATP synthase and photosynthesis in terms of energy and matter.
H+
H+ H+
H2 O 2 H+ + ½ O2 H+
H+
e- 4. In a pyramid of numbers, the highest-order organism
thylakoid e- e- has the smallest number of individuals in an ecological
e- e-
membrane
e- e- community. What might happen if the population of
stroma this organism increased significantly? In your Evidence
NADP+ + H+ NADPH Notebook, develop a model explaining the effect
H+
ADP ATP this increase would have on other members of the
light energy light energy
community.
H+
Use the information in Figure 5 to answer Question 5.
1. Solar panels capture energy from sunlight and convert it 5. If 90% of the energy is lost FIGURE 5: Energy in
to electricity. As light hits the silicon atoms in a solar cell, as heat between trophic trophic levels.
the energy is transferred to electrons. The electrons are levels, approximately
emitted from silicon atoms, and an electric field organizes how much energy is
the electrons into an electric current. Compare the way a available to the secondary
solar cell works to the way a chloroplast works to capture consumers in this energy
and transfer energy. pyramid?
50 000 J

FIGURE 6: Matter and energy cycle through the Earth system. FIGURE 7: During strenuous or prolonged activity, athletes
must sustain the oxygen levels their bodies need.
10. In your Evidence Notebook, make a model to explain

how the energy content of food molecules can be traced
back to the sun.
6. Make a model in your Evidence Notebook to show how 11. A forest fire began after a group of campers failed to
a biogeochemical cycle is connected to the transfer of extinguish their campfire completely. Forest fires release
matter and energy through a food chain. In your model, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur that was
include media and text to convey the concepts of sequestered in the biomass of the trees back into the
producers, consumers, decomposers, and the cycling of atmosphere. In your Evidence Notebook, create a model
matter and energy. that shows how each of the carbon, phosphorus, and
nitrogen cycles in that area will be affected by the forest
fire. Then explain how the changes in the biogeochemical
7. An increase in energy can change the dynamics of a
cycle will affect the local ecosystem.
system. Explain how alterations to the carbon cycle result
in an increase in the amount of energy contained in the
Earth system. Discuss how this addition of energy would 12. Hydroelectricity is a form of renewable energy that
affect the cycling of matter in other biogeochemical cycles. involves building dams on rivers and streams. Upstream
of the dam, lakes are usually formed as the dam restricts
the flow of water. Downstream, the amount of water is
8. Why does the amount of energy in an ecosystem depend
usually reduced. How does this activity affect the water
on its producers?
cycle and the local ecosystems? Is hydroelectricity a
sustainable source of energy?
9. The nitrogen cycle relies on various organisms carrying
out very specific functions. One vital group is the
nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Which of the following explains UNIT PROJECT
Image Credits: (r) ©MCMXCV/Larry Dale Gordon/ Image Bank/ Getty Images
how the nitrogen cycle would be disrupted if there were a
sudden population explosion of nitrogen-fixing bacteria? Return to your unit project. Prepare your research and
a. A population explosion of nitrogen-fixing bacteria materials into a presentation to share with the class. In
would lead to a decrease in ammonium levels in the your final presentation, evaluate the strength of your
water. hypothesis, data, analysis, and conclusions.
b. A population explosion of nitrogen-fixing bacteria Remember these tips while evaluating:
would cause dissolved nitrogen levels in the water to
increase. • Look at the empirical evidence—evidence based
c. A population explosion of nitrogen-fixing bacteria on observations and data. Does the evidence
would cause dissolved oxygen and dissolved carbon support the explanation?
dioxide levels to decrease. • Consider if the explanation is logical. Does it
d. A population explosion of nitrogen-fixing bacteria contradict any evidence you have seen?
would cause ammonia levels to rise, which can be • Think of tests you could do to support and
detected by testing the ammonia levels in the water. contradict the ideas.

Analyzing Water Pollution

The small town of Lakeview is located on the shores of Piper
FIGURE 8: The fertilizer plant is upstream from Piper Lake.
Lake. The town relies on the lake for trout fishing, eagle
watching, and recreational activities. Recently, a fertilizer
plant, H.T.C. Fertilizers, was built upstream on Eagle River,
which feeds into Piper Lake. The town has noticed an increase Lakeview
H.T.C. Fertilizers
in algal blooms in the lake. They are concerned the fertilizer
plant is dumping too much nitrogen into the river and their
livelihood could be affected. Is the town right? Does the plant Eagle River
need to control the waste they put into the river?
Piper Lake
1. DEFINE THE PROBLEM
With your team, write a statement outlining the problem
about the problem and the information you need to solve it.
2. CONDUCT RESEARCH
With your team, investigate the cause-and-effect relationship
between nitrogen, algae blooms, and fish populations. Could
the fertilizer plant be responsible for the changes the town is
experiencing?
CHECK YOUR WORK
3. ANALYZE DATA A complete presentation should include

On your own, analyze the problem you’ve defined along the following information:
with your research. Make a model to show how excess
nitrogen cycles through the aquatic ecosystem. Your model • a clearly defined problem with supporting
should also show any effects the nitrogen may have on questions that are answered in the final
the ecosystem using a food web, energy pyramid, biomass presentation
pyramid, or pyramid of numbers. • a model of the effect of the fertilizer
runoff
• an explanation based on your analysis
4. COMMUNICATE of the runoff and whether or not it is
Present your findings to the town and the fertilizer company adversely affecting the lake ecosystem
explaining whether or not the runoff from the fertilizer plant • images and data that further support your
is adversely affecting the lake ecosystem. Your presentation claims
should include images and data to support your claims.

UNIT 4
and Change
Lesson 1: Population Dynamics . . . 182
Lesson 2: Ecosystem Dynamics . . . 196
Thing Explainer: How

Forests Come Back . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Unit Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Image Credits: ©National Geographic/Roy Toft/Getty Images
Populations are sensitive to changes

in their environments.
180 Unit 4 Ecosystems: Stability and Change

FIGURE 1: Pigeon populations can grow out of control.
Pigeons were domesticated and bred by people thousands of years ago. Pigeons were
often used as message carriers because of their ability to find their way home even
over long distances. Today, however, the pigeon population has boomed and the
birds are damaging buildings, statues, and landmarks. Cities often use wire and netting
to keep the birds out and off of buildings. These devices cause the birds to move to a
new location but don’t reduce the population. Some cities are looking into different
forms of birth control to reduce the population to more manageable numbers.
Predict How do you think changes in population size can affect the composition and
stability of an ecosystem?
DRIVING QUESTIONS
1. How do scientists measure population and changes in population?
2. What causes populations and ecosystems to remain stable or to change
over time?
3. What factors affect populations within an ecosystem?
4. How do modest or drastic changes in ecosystems affect ecosystem stability?
UNIT PROJECT
Wetlands at Your Service the Unit Project
Image Credits: ©Milkovasa/Shutterstock
Worksheet to help
plan your project.
Wetlands are ecosystems that have water at or near the soil surface at various times
of the year. Examples of wetlands include marshes and swamps. Wetlands often form
along the boundaries of water features, such as lakes or rivers. How do wetlands help
stabilize ecosystems and populations? Model your own wetland and investigate the
services wetlands provide for humans and the ecosystem. How might the destruction
of wetlands change the composition of populations and ecosystems?
Unit 4 Ecosystems: Stability and Change 181

4.1
Population Dynamics
Many different species CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?

inhabit the Greater
Yellowstone Ecosystem.
FIGURE 1: About 500 wolves live in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem today. When first
reintroduced to the ecosystem, there were only 31 wolves.
Gather Evidence
gather evidence for how
populations interact in ecosystems.
Image Credits: (t) ©Michael H Spivak/Moment/Getty Images; (b) ©SBTheGreenMan/iStock/Getty Images Plus
Yellowstone National Park, located primarily in northwest Wyoming, is at the heart
of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. The rugged terrain and abundance of prey
make this temperate ecosystem an ideal environment for wolves. However, due to
aggressive eradication efforts in the 1800s and early 1900s, wolves were hunted to
the point that they were no longer present in the park. By 1926, the last wolf pack in
Yellowstone had been eliminated. The effect of such a change on an ecosystem was
not well understood by scientists at that time.
In 1995, a program began to reintroduce wolves into Yellowstone National Park.
During the first several years in which the wolf population was restored, observational
studies reported that the diversity of plant species increased, certain songbirds
returned, and aquatic ecosystems within the park changed.
Predict How might the reintroduction of wolves into Yellowstone National Park
have caused both direct and indirect changes in populations of so many other species
within their ecosystem?

EXPLORATION 1
Population Density and Dispersion
If you have ever traveled from a rural area to a city, you may have noticed a change in
FIGURE 2: Cities have dense
population density. Cities have more dense populations, while rural areas have more
human populations.
widely dispersed, or scattered, populations. Species populations are measured in a
similar way. What can we learn from population data?
Population Density
You may be familiar with the term density in the context of matter. It is the amount
of matter in a given space. Population density is very similar: it is the number of
individuals living in a defined space. When scientists such as wildlife biologists observe
changes in population density over time, one of the things they study is whether the
causes are due to environmental changes or natural variations in the life history of the
species. The biologists use this information to decide whether it is necessary to make
changes to maintain a healthy population.
One tool that biologists can use to make this decision is to calculate the ratio of Collaborate With a
individuals living in an area to the size of that area. partner, discuss whether
Population density is calculated using the following formula: the area where you live has a dense
or dispersed population. Explain
number of individuals
__ = population density your reasoning.
area (units2)
To calculate this ratio for the deer herd shown in Figure 3, a biologist would first
determine the size of the herd’s territory. Then the scientist would count all of the
individuals in that population within the defined area.
FIGURE 3: Deer gather in a field to graze.

Image Credits: (t) ©Robert Harding/Wendy Connett/Getty Images; (b) ©Tim Graham/Alamy
Math Connection A scientist and her team counted 200 individual deer in an area
of 10 square kilometers.
1. What is the population density?
2. Ten years later, scientists return to the same area and find that the population
density has declined to 5 deer per square kilometer. What might a decrease in the
density of a deer population tell scientists about the habitat in the area?
Lesson 1 Population Dynamics 183

Population Dispersion
You may have noticed that people tend to separate themselves in different ways—
some hang out in large groups, some gather in twos and threes, while others prefer to
be alone. There are also patterns in the way different populations of other organisms
separate themselves. Figure 4 shows three main patterns of population dispersal:
clumped, uniform, and random.
Clumped dispersion occurs when resources are spread unevenly within an ecosystem.
Individuals gather into groups where resources are available. Clumped dispersion
helps protect individuals from predators and makes finding a mate easier. Uniform
dispersion occurs when individuals of the same species must compete for limited
resources and territory. Random dispersion is the least common pattern of distribution.
It occurs when resources are evenly distributed within an ecosystem. In plants, this
type of dispersion often occurs when seeds are scattered by wind or water, resulting
in seeds being dropped randomly. The seeds will only sprout if conditions are right,
which increases the randomness of the distribution.
FIGURE 4: Population Dispersion Patterns
Analyze Why might a

population exhibit uniform
dispersion? Think about why having
a defined space might be beneficial.
a Clumped dispersion b Uniform dispersion c Random dispersion
Image Credits: (l) ©Rich Carey/Shutterstock; (c) ©Moment/Stoneography/Getty Images; (r) ©Vilainecrevette/Shutterstock
Model Draw a diagram showing an overhead view of a population with each type of
dispersion: clumped, uniform, and random.
Measuring Population Size

Measuring population size over a large area may seem like an impossible task.
Sometimes, a complete count of every individual can be done, particularly if the
species lives in an enclosed area. However, what if you needed to count a very large
population over many square kilometers? In this case, biologists can use a variety of
sampling techniques to estimate the size of a population.
One method scientists use to measure the size of a population of animals is the mark–
recapture technique. Biologists capture individuals within a population, tag them, and
then release them. After a period of time, a second sample is captured, and biologists
look for and count the tagged individuals as well as any newly-captured animals.
They may also fit animals with radio collars or GPS devices to track their movements.
Another method is called quadrat sampling, in which ecologists use quadrats—
typically square or rectangular grids of a known size—to collect data about population
numbers in an ecosystem. Quadrat sampling works best with species that do not
move, such as plants and corals.

Hands-On Lab FIGURE 5: Quadrat sampling
Quadrat Sampling is most often used to survey

populations of plants.
Use a quadrat sampling method to collect data about population numbers.
Predict Does quadrat sampling provide an accurate estimated of a population size

within a defined area?
PROCEDURE
1. Obtain a quadrat frame. Measure, calculate, and record the area of the quadrat on a
piece of paper or in your notebook. MATERIALS
2. Stand at the edge of the area you will sample and randomly throw your quadrat. • calculator
Make sure your quadrat does not overlap with another. • meterstick
3. Count how many individuals of each species are in your quadrat. Record your data • quadrat
in a data table. Repeat this procedure three times.
ANALYZE
1. Combine your data with that of your classmates. Find the average number of each
species for all of the samples.
2. Obtain the area of the sampling plot from your teacher. Calculate how many
quadrats would fit in the area of the sampling plot. Multiply this value by the
average number of each species found in one quadrat to estimate the population
of each species.
Scale, Proportion, and Quantity

1. Calculate the density of each species. Which species had the highest density? Which
had the lowest? Why do you think that is? Compare your population estimates
to the actual population number that your teacher provides. Was your estimate
accurate? Why or why not?
2. How can you make sure that your estimate of population size will be as close to the
actual population size as possible?
3. Why do scientists only gather data for a part of the population, instead of the entire
population? How does this affect the accuracy of the final population count?
Image Credits: ©Martyn F Chillmaid/Science Source
Explain In Yellowstone National Park, scientists track and gather data on many
species to study population dynamics within the park, and to monitor the health of each
population. Describe the types of data that scientists would need to gather to study the
effects of reintroducing a population, such as wolves, on other populations in the park.

EXPLORATION 2
Population Growth Patterns
Predict What might Imagine you leave an apple in your locker over winter break. Upon your return to
happen to populations that school, you open your locker door to find a cloud of fruit flies. When you left school,
cannot get enough resources? the fly population in your locker was zero—now it’s at least 100! Your locker ecosystem
had a huge change in its fruit fly population. This, hopefully, is not a normal occurrence
in your locker, but changes in population sizes and densities in ecosystems are normal
responses to changes in resource availability.
Population Size
How might biologists track the population size of a species,
FIGURE 6: A population of elephants has both young and
old individuals. such as a group of elephants? To accurately track the
population over time, they would need to account for four
factors: immigration, emigration, births, and deaths.
Immigration and emigration have to do with individuals
entering and leaving a population. For example, if a
disturbance occurred in a nearby habitat, some elephants
might immigrate, or move into, a new population. Then,
competition could increase, causing some elephants to move
out of the population, or emigrate, to a new area.
Births and deaths also change a population size over time.
Individuals have offspring, which adds more members to the
population. Some individuals die each year, which reduces
the population.
Explain Which factors The growth rate of a population can be measured with an equation that takes into
lead to an increase in a account these four factors:
population, and which factors lead
r = (b + i) – (d + e)
to a decrease in a population?
In this equation, r = population growth rate, b = birth rate, i = immigration rate,
d = death rate, and e = emigration rate. We can apply these factors to our locker
ecosystem example. A small population of fruit flies immigrated into the locker in
search of food. The population increased due to the birth of a new group of fruit flies.
Those flies that did not die when you swatted them in surprise emigrated away from
the locker when you threw the apple away.
Image Credits: ©john michael evan potter/Shutterstock
Problem Solving As part of a long-term elephant study, biologists counted

individuals in a population of elephants each spring. In one year, there were 18 males
and 34 females. Over the following year, each female gave birth, from which 28
offspring survived. Predators killed 9 elephants. A construction project cleared 50 acres
of nearby forested land, causing 5 males and 19 females to immigrate into the study
area. Competition for females increased, resulting in the emigration of 10 males to a
new territory in search of mates. Calculate the growth rate of this population.

Survivorship Curves
Biologists are also interested in the reproductive strategy of a population. Reproductive
strategies include behaviors that can improve the chances of producing offspring or
behaviors that can increase the survivorship rate of offspring after birth. Parental care is
an example of a reproductive strategy. Parental care is especially important for species
that produce offspring that cannot take care of themselves. By protecting their young,
parents are better able to make sure their young stay alive until they can survive on
their own. A population’s reproductive strategies can be assessed using a survivorship
curve. Figure 7 shows the three types of survivorship curves.
Survivorship Curves
FIGURE 7: There are three main types of survivorship curves.
Survivorship Curves
120 Type I
Type II
100 Type III
Number of survivors
80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Percentage of maximum life span
A survivorship curve is a simplified diagram that shows the number of surviving Collaborate With a
individuals over time from a measured set of births. By measuring the number of partner, discuss which type
offspring born in a year and following those offspring through until death, survivorship of survivorship humans exhibit.
curves give information about the life history of a species.
Some species have a small number of offspring, and many of the offspring live long
enough to reach old age. Mammals and other large animals generally exhibit this Type
1 survivorship curve. Other species have a large number of offspring, but many of
these offspring do not survive long enough to reproduce. Many invertebrates, fish, and
plants exhibit this Type III survivorship. A fish may lay hundreds or thousands of eggs,
but only a small percentage of its offspring will survive to adulthood.
Between these two extremes is a third type of survivorship, in which the survivorship
rate is roughly equal at all stages of an organism’s life. At all times, these species have
an equal chance of dying, whether from disease or as a result of predation. Organisms
such as birds, small mammals, and some reptiles exhibit this Type II survivorship.
Analyze Can a survivorship curve be used to determine whether or not a species

cares for their young? Explain your answer.

539273_157a
Exponential and Logistic Growth
Population growth depends on the environment and available resources. The rate of
growth for a population is directly determined by the amount of available resources. A
population may grow very rapidly, or it may grow slowly over time.
Analyze According to
FIGURE 8: Exponential Growth
Exponential Growth
the graph in Figure 8, Almost any species that lives
during which time period is 1000
in ideal conditions of available
population growth occurring at the 800 resources, space, and other
Population size
fastest rate? factors will rapidly increase in
600 population. This type of growth,
400 called exponential growth, occurs
when a population size increases
200 dramatically over a relatively short
amount of time. As shown in Figure
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8, a graph of exponential growth
Year looks like a J-shaped curve.
Exponential growth may occur when a species moves into a previously uninhabited
area. A real-world example of exponential growth in a population occurred in 1859,
when an Australian landowner brought 24 rabbits into the country for sport hunting
and released them into the wild. With no predators, abundant space, and plentiful
resources, the rabbit population grew exponentially and spread across the country.
After many unsuccessful attempts to control the population, Australian officials
estimate today’s population to be between 100 and 200 million rabbits.
Analyze According to the

FIGURE 9: Logistic Growth
Logistic Growth
graph in Figure 9, when
4500 When a population is growing
would you expect competition exponentially, resources are
4000
among individuals to be the least?
Population size
3500 plentiful and there are no factors

2500 to interfere with survivability.
2000 However, most populations face
1500 limited resources and thus show
1000 a logistic growth pattern. During
500 logistic growth, a population
0 begins with a period of slow
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 growth followed by a period of
Year
exponential growth before leveling
off at a stable size. A graph of logistic growth takes the form of an S-shaped curve,
as shown in Figure 9. During the initial growth period, resources are abundant, and
the population is able to grow at a quick rate. Over time, resources are reduced, and
growth starts to slow. As resources become even more limited, the population levels
bi_cnlese539273_158a.ai off at a size the environment can support.
8-29-16
Leslie Kell Explain When wolves were reintroduced into Yellowstone National Park, the
populations of many other species began to change.
1. Which factors would scientists want to measure in order to learn how each population
changed over time?
2. How would scientists know if populations were increasing or decreasing over time?
3. How might the introduction of wolves change the growth patterns of other species?

EXPLORATION 3
Factors That Limit Population Growth
Because natural conditions are neither ideal nor constant, populations cannot grow
forever. Instead, resources are used up or an ecosystem changes, causing deaths to
increase or births to decrease within a population.
Carrying Capacity
The carrying capacity of an environment is the maximum population size of a species Explore Online
that a particular environment can normally and consistently support in terms of
Hands-On Activity
resources. As shown in Figure 10, once a population hits this limit, certain factors then
keep it from continued growth. These factors include availability of resources such as Modeling Carrying Capacity
food, water, and space, as well as competition among individuals. Model predation and the effects
The carrying capacity of an environment can change at any given time. For example, of environmental changes on a
sudden and rapid flooding could reduce the availability of food or shelter in an population and the environment’s
ecosystem. This change would lower the environment’s carrying capacity. As a result, carrying capacity.
fewer individuals would be supported by the environment. When conditions improve,
however, the carrying capacity would increase, and the environment would again be
able to support a larger population of that particular species.
2500 FIGURE 10:

An environment’s
carrying capacity carrying capacity
2000 limits the growth
of a population.
Population size
1500
1000
500
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Day
Predict How might this graph change if an ecosystem experienced drought conditions?
Limiting Factors
Many factors can affect the carrying capacity of an environment for a population
of organisms. A factor that has the greatest effect in keeping down the size of a
population is called a limiting factor. There are two categories of limiting factors—
density-dependent and density-independent.

Density–Dependent Limiting Factors
Density–dependent factors are factors that are affected by the number of individuals
in an area. The larger the population, the greater the effect. Density–dependent
limiting factors include the following:
Competition Both plants and animals compete among themselves for needed
resources. As a population becomes more dense, the resources are used up, limiting
how large the population can grow.
Predation The relationship between predator and prey in an environment is ongoing
and constantly changing. Predator populations can be limited by the number of
available prey, and the prey population can be limited by being caught for food.
Parasitism and disease Parasites are much like predators as they live off their hosts,
weakening them, and even sometimes killing them. Parasites and disease spread more
quickly through dense populations. The more crowded an area becomes, the easier it
is for parasites and disease to spread.
Data Analysis
Moose–Wolf Interactions on Isle Royale
For over 50 years, the wolf and moose populations on Isle Royale in Lake Superior
served as a classic example of how predator-prey interactions limit population
growth. As shown in Figure 11, changes in population size occur in an offset
manner. In other words, it takes some time for an increase or decrease in one
population to affect the other. Over time, the populations rise and fall in a pattern.
Density-Dependent Limiting Factors

FIGURE 11: Predator–Prey Interactions on Isle Royale
2500 50
2000 40
Moose population
1500 30 Wolf population
1000 20
500 10
0 0
1959 1967 1975 1983 1991 1999 2007 2015
Year
Moose Source: Vucetich, JA and Peterson, RO. 2015. Ecological Studies
Wolf of Wolves on Isle Royale, Annual Report 2014-2015.
Image Credits: (l) ©Rolf O. Peterson
Analyze Study the graph showing the moose–wolf interactions on Isle Royale.
1. Based on this graph, what is the most likely explanation for the increase in the
moose population between 1989 and 1995?
2. In 2016, the wolf population on Isle Royale declined to only two individuals. How
will the lack of wolves affect the moose population? Will the moose population
grow exponentially? Explain your answers.

Density–Independent Limiting Factors
Density–independent factors are factors that can impact a population regardless of its
density. These factors include things such as:
Weather Any weather-related event such as a drought, flood, frost, or severe storm
can wipe out a population or destroy their sources of food, water, or shelter.
Natural disasters Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunamis, and fires usually result in
a sudden decrease in population size.
Human activity Habitats, and sometimes entire ecosystems, are degraded or even
completely destroyed by human activities such as forest clearing, draining of wetlands
for land development, and habitat fragmentation by roads and fences.
FIGURE 12: Forest fires kill plants and animals and force animal populations to flee.
Explore Online
Limiting Factors
Go online to view an
animation of limiting factors
in an ecosystem.
Explain Why is fire considered a density–independent limiting factor?
Human activities have had a significant effect on populations. For example, the
introduction of nonnative species has caused population crashes in many parts of the
world where biodiversity is an important part of ecosystem stability. Nonnative species
are species that are brought into ecosystems in which they do not normally live. In
some cases, the nonnative species may outcompete one or more native species for
resources. Because of the complex network of ecosystems, such effects could alter the
ecosystem food web. In some extreme cases, the extinction of a species may occur.
Image Credits: ©Patrick Orton/Getty Images
Gather Evidence When wolves were reintroduced into Yellowstone National Park,
scientists noticed that the populations of elk and coyotes decreased. They also noticed
that populations of beaver and willow trees increased. Describe the factors that might
have led to these changes in the different populations, and explain how these factors
would affect the carrying capacity of the environment for each species.

Careers in Science
Biogeographer
Biogeographers are often involved
FIGURE 13: Biogeographers use digital tools such as geographic information systems
with the protection, conservation, and
(GIS) to study the distribution of plant and animal species.
management of natural resources.
Where plant and animal species
live, how they got there, and how
future conditions might affect their
populations are just a few of the topics
that biogeographers study.
Technology is an important part of
a biogeographer’s toolset. They use
a digital tool called geographic
information systems, or GIS, to make
data-rich maps. GIS can use any data
that is related to location such as
population size, land type, and the
location of human infrastructure such
as roadways, power lines, and building
locations. Biogeographers use GIS along
with statistical models to map and study
populations, habitats, ecosystems, and
ecological processes. Biogeographers often discuss the results
Language Arts Connection
A variety of job titles and work of their research in written technical
reports or in presentations given within A state wildlife management agency
settings are connected with this
career. Someone with a degree in their agency or to the public. Therefore, is considering reintroducing bobcats back
biogeography might work as a city a career in biogeography also requires into a forested area where they once
or county planner, as a mapping excellent writing and communication flourished. Imagine you are the agency’s
technician, or as a GIS specialist. skills, so a strong background in biogeographer. Using your knowledge
Biogeographers work for city, state, language arts is particularly useful. of population dynamics and carrying
or federal government agencies, for As our knowledge of climate change capacity, what questions would you ask
nonprofit and private organizations, or continues to grow, biogeographers will and investigate to determine whether
they might work in an academic setting play an important role in determining or not the area they have selected is
as university professors or researchers. how environmental changes will appropriate for this reintroduction? What
Biogeography uses knowledge from impact the global geographical kind of data would you need to collect?
a wide range of subjects. Along with distribution of populations of different Develop and record a plan for investigation
general geography and cartography, or species. The information gathered by and determine what questions you would
Image Credits: ©RosaIreneBetancourt 1/Alamy
map making courses, students may also biogeographers could be used to come need answered before the reintroduction
take classes in economics, computer up with solutions to help solve these could proceed.
science, history, mathematics, ecology, problems and to prevent species from
and evolutionary biology. going extinct.
POPULATION DENSITY CONTROLLING THE EXPONENTIAL Go online to choose one of

AND CARRYING CAPACITY GROWTH OF NONNATIVE SPECIES these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 14: Wolf reintroduction in Yellowstone National Park had a complex impact on
the ecosystem as a whole.
Wolf removal was one of many factors that changed the ecology of Yellowstone
National Park from 1926 until the early 1990s. Eliminating a predator helped the
elk population rise. Elk and beaver competed for some of the same food resources,
including willow trees. As willow trees were reduced by larger elk herds, fewer
beavers were able to survive in the park. Fewer beaver dams meant fewer marshy
environments, which are ideal willow habitat.
Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook to explain how the
reintroduction of wolves into the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem might have caused
both direct and indirect changes in the populations of so many other species within
their ecosystem. Write a short explanatory text that cites specific evidence from this
lesson about population dynamics to support your answer.
Interactions within any ecosystem, whether it be large or small, are often very
complex. All species within an ecosystem are connected. The impact and causes of
change in a system can be difficult to determine. The removal and later reintroduction
of wolves in Yellowstone definitely had the potential to cause change. But recent
Image Credits: ©SBTheGreenMan/iStock/Getty Images Plus
research has called into question how significant their impact really was. While at first
there was evidence that aspen and willow growth was occurring immediately after the
wolves were reintroduced, long-term studies indicate that this wasn’t actually the case.
Research by scientists at Colorado State University that focused on Yellowstone’s
willows found that the complete removal of wolves from the ecosystem had actually
caused permanent changes to the region. When the wolves were removed from the
system, elks removed nearly all of the region’s willow trees. Without willows to eat,
the beaver population decreased. No beavers meant no beaver dams, which caused
the once slow-moving waters to now cut deeply into the terrain. As a result, the water
table dropped far below the level where willows can survive. Even if the elk population
were drastically reduced by the newly reintroduced wolves, willow populations would
not recover.

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding Use the graph to answer questions 6–9.
1. Which of these abiotic factors would contribute to a FIGURE 15: Survivorship Curves
Survivorship Curves
clumped dispersion pattern in an ecosystem? Select all
120 Type I
correct answers.
Type II
a. unlimited water 100 Type III
b. limited water
Number of survivors
80
c. high temperatures
d. limited sunlight 60
40
2. A population of antelope has a negative population
growth rate. Which of these conditions must also be true 20
for the population growth rate to be negative?
0
a. births + deaths < immigrations + emigrations 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
b. births + deaths > immigrations + emigrations Percentage of maximum life span
c. births + immigrations < deaths + emigrations

d. births + immigrations > deaths + emigrations 6. A female salamander lays hundreds of eggs at a time.
However, after hatching, few of the larvae survive to
3. A population of warblers, a type of songbird, experiences adulthood. According to the graph, which type of
a period of exponential growth. Which of these factors survivorship does the salamander exhibit?
would be a density–dependent limiting factor that could a. Type I
decrease the carrying capacity of the ecosystem for this
b. Type II
population of songbirds?
c. Type III
a. a competing species moves into the forest
b. a period of lower than normal rainfall
7. A songbird has an equal chance of surviving at all
c. a builder removes trees for an office park stages of its life. According to the graph, which type of
d. high winds knock down a quarter of the trees survivorship does the songbird exhibit?
a. Type I
4. A population of deer is displaced by a massive flood in b. Type II
their habitat following a severe rainstorm. The flood is an
c. Type III
example of
a. a density–dependent limiting factor.
bi_cnlese539273_157a 8. Which survivorship type is associated with parental care?
b. carrying capacity. 8-29-16
c. a density–independent limiting factor.L.Kell 9. What is the connection between survivorship curves and
d. survivorship. reproductive strategies?
5. A population of rodents is introduced on a remote island 10. A herd of zebras has 9 males and 62 females. During a
due to a shipwreck. Eventually, the population reaches one-year period, 22 foals that are born survive and 25
the island’s carrying capacity. At this point, the birth and adults die. Six females join the herd. Three males and
death rates are 11 females leave the herd. Has the ecosystem reached
a. relatively equal. carrying capacity for the herd? How do you know?
b. crashing.
c. density independent. 11. Draw a graph of logistic growth. Label the point at which
the resources for the population are no longer abundant
d. density dependent.
enough to support exponential growth. Explain your
reasoning.

12. A sourdough bread starter is a colony of yeast that bakers

keep alive, sometimes for years. The bread is made by In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
removing a portion of the colony, which is replaced by supports the main idea from this lesson:
adding back an equal volume of a solution of water,
Populations grow in predictable patterns and are limited by
sugar, and flour. Is the starter a model for exponential
resource availability.
growth or logistic growth? Explain your reasoning.
13. Describe three advantages an individual organism study guide:
might have by living in a population with a clumped • Use examples that model main ideas.
dispersal pattern. • Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
14. A population of algae that lives in a pond is limited in include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions, and
size by the amount of sunlight that strikes the pond’s other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
surface. Is sunlight a density-dependent or density-
independent limiting factor for the algae population? Consider how ecological factors such as resource availability limit
Explain your answer. population growth.
15. What might cause exponential growth to occur only for

a short period when a new species is introduced to a
resource-filled environment?
Use the graph to answer Questions 16–18.

FIGURE 16: Predator–Prey Interactions
Density-Dependent onFactors
Limiting Isle Royale
2500 50
2000 40
Moose population
Wolf population
1500 30
1000 20
500 10
0 0
1959 1967 1975 1983 1991 1999 2007 2015
Year
Moose Source: Vucetich, JA and Peterson, RO. 2015. Ecological Studies
Wolf of Wolves on Isle Royale, Annual Report 2014-2015.
16. How does the wolf population on Isle Royale affect the
carrying capacity of the moose population?
17. Is there evidence from the data to suggest that the

wolf population crashed? What might have caused this
population crash?
18. Is there evidence from the data to suggest that the

moose population crashed? What might have led to this
population crash?

4.2
Ecosystem Dynamics
Lava flow from a volcanic

eruption can change an
ecosystem dramatically.
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 1: A young plant grows in a crack in a sheet of bare volcanic rock.

Gather Evidence
gather evidence for how
ecosystems maintain stability
over time.
Image Credits: (t) ©Westend61/Getty Images; (b) ©Design Pics/Getty Images
Molten lava flowing from a volcano burns everything in its path. When it cools, a
layer of solid rock is left behind. However, over time, a new ecosystem will become
established on this seemingly lifeless landscape.
Predict How do you think an ecosystem can be reestablished in an area after a

disturbance such as a volcano?

EXPLORATION 1
Interactions in Ecosystems
The ways in which flamingos interact with other organisms and their environment
FIGURE 2: Flamingos live and
are only a small part of the ecology of a tropical lagoon ecosystem. To understand
feed in large groups.
what individuals, populations, and communities need to survive, ecologists study the
interactions among and between species and their environment.
Habitat and Niche

Flamingos live in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. They prefer
environments that have alkaline lakes or saltwater lagoons and large mud flats. These
environmental features are examples of a flamingo’s habitat. A habitat includes all
of the biotic and abiotic factors in the environment where an organism lives. For a
flamingo, these factors include things such as the shrimp and other small invertebrates
that it eats, the water salinity, and the air temperature.
Model Draw a model of your habitat. Think of all the places that you regularly visit
and the people you interact with, and include those in your model.
Many species live in the same habitat, but each species occupies a different ecological
niche. An ecological niche contains all the physical, chemical, and biological factors
that a species needs to survive and reproduce.
The factors that make up a species’ niche include the following:
Explain How is a niche
Food sources The type of food a species eats, how a species competes with others for different from a habitat?
food, and where it fits in the food web are all part of a species’ niche.
Abiotic conditions A niche includes the range of conditions such as air temperature
and amount of water that a species can tolerate.
Behavior The time of day a species is active and where and when it feeds and
reproduces also are factors in the niche of a species.
An ecosystem is a collection of habitats. The organisms that occupy these habitats
have separate niches, but the niches have certain abiotic and biotic factors in common.
Think of a habitat as where a species lives and a niche as how the species lives within
its habitat.
Relationships in Ecosystems
Image Credits: ©Fabio Lamanna/Shutterstock
Each organism in an ecosystem interacts with other organisms as it goes about its
daily activities. The flamingos and other animals prey on the lagoon’s plankton,
invertebrate, and fish populations for food, and they in turn are food for larger
carnivores. Plants compete with one another for space, water, and nutrients. Still other
organisms form interspecies relationships to provide or gain shelter, get protection, or
find food. These interspecies interactions often benefit only one of the organisms in
the relationship, but sometimes both organisms benefit.
Lesson 2 Ecosystem Dynamics 197

FIGURE 3: The frog is the
Predation and Competition
predator in this relationship. Predation is the process by which one organism, the predator, captures and feeds
upon another organism, the prey. The frog in Figure 3 is the predator, and the insect
is its prey. However, if a snake slithered by, the frog might become its prey. Predation
is not limited to carnivores—herbivores that seek out and eat parts of living plants are
considered predators, too. The relationship between predator and prey is important
for energy transfer in food chains.
Analyze Are humans predators in their ecosystem? Explain your answer.
Competition occurs when two organisms compete for the same limited resource, be
it food, shelter, water, space, or any other biotic or abiotic factor that both organisms
need to survive. Whenever two organisms need the same resource in a habitat, they
must compete for it. Competition can occur between members of different species or
FIGURE 4: Two blue jays between members of the same species, such as the blue jays that are fighting over a
compete for a food source. peanut in Figure 4.
Collaborate With a partner, think of at least two reasons why an organism might
compete with another organism of the same species for a limited resource. Explain why
two organisms would compete for these limited resources rather than share them.
Competition for limited resources in an ecosystem can be like a game of musical

chairs—not enough chairs are available for everyone and each chair seats only one
person. When the music stops, one person will be competitively blocked from the
chairs by the remaining players.
In ecology, the principle of competitive exclusion states

FIGURE 5: These songbirds eat insects commonly found in
that when two species compete for the same resources,
spruce, pine, and fir trees.
one species will be better able to get the resources
in the niche. The unsuccessful species will be pushed
Image Credits: (t) ©Cathy Keifer/Shutterstock; (c) ©RooM/10kPhotography/Getty Images

into another niche or become extinct. The result is that
both species end up in distinctive niches so they do not
compete for the same limited resource.
Cape May
Blackburnian warbler
warbler
Analyze Use the diagram in Figure 5 to answer the
following questions.
1. What does this diagram show, and how does it relate
black-throated to the competitive exclusion principle?
green warbler
2. Suppose the tip of the spruce tree was broken off
myrtle
warbler during a wind storm. How might the birds be affected
bay-breasted
warbler by the loss of the uppermost niche in the tree?

Symbiosis
Symbiosis is a close ecological relationship between two or more organisms of
different species that live in direct contact with one another. There are three major
types of symbiosis: mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
FIGURE 6: Symbiotic relationships
Mutualism
Mutualism occurs when both species Gather Evidence
benefit from the relationship. Pollination, What do the shrimp and the
in which an insect pollinates a plant, is fish each gain from this ecological
a common example of mutualism. Other relationship? Why doesn’t the fish
examples of mutualism include species eat the shrimp?
providing food or shelter, aiding in
reproduction, or providing protection
for one another. A shrimp cleaning
the mouth of a fish, shown at left, is an
example of mutualism.
Commensalism
Commensalism is a relationship
between two organisms in which one
organism receives an ecological benefit
from the other, while the other neither
benefits nor is harmed. A commensal
relationship between two species
might involve one organism providing
transportation or a home for the other
without harm or benefit to itself. As
shown at left, an egret eating the insects
Image Credits: (t) ©John A. Anderson/Shutterstock; (c) ©Ernie Janes/Alamy; (b) ©iStock/leonikonst/Getty Images Plus
stirred up by a cow as it moves and feeds

on grass is an example of commensalism.
The cow neither benefits nor is harmed
by the actions of the egret.
Parasitism
Parasitism is a relationship in which one
of the organisms benefits while the other
one is harmed. Unlike a predator, which
kills and eats its prey, a parasite benefits
by keeping its host alive for days or even
years. The needs of the parasite are met
by the victim of the parasite, called the
host. The host’s health often suffers due
to blood or nutrient loss. Galls made by
insects on the leaves of plants are an
example of parasitism, as shown here.
Explain How might symbiosis help the stability of an ecosystem? How might it hurt
ecosystem stability?

EXPLORATION 2
Biodiversity in Ecosystems
Coral reefs make up a small percentage of marine habitats, but contain most of the
FIGURE 7: Coral reefs are marine
oceans’ species diversity. The more diverse an ecosystem is, the more likely it is to
ecosystems where many
different species live. remain stable over the long term. If a disturbance, such as pollution or a fire, affects an
ecosystem, recovery can happen more quickly if that ecosystem has more biodiversity.
Biodiversity
The complexity of an ecosystem indicates its biodiversity level. Biodiversity refers
to the variety of species within an ecosystem. Note that biodiversity measures the
number of different species, not the number of individual organisms living in an area.
An area with a high level of biodiversity, such as a coral reef, has a large assortment
of species living near one another. Biodiversity depends on many factors, such as
moisture and temperature. The complex relationships in ecosystems mean that a
change in a single biotic or abiotic factor can have a variety of effects, both small and
large, on many different species.
Data Analysis
FIGURE 8: Ecologists analyze species richness (left) and species evenness (right) to evaluate ecosystem biodiversity.
Species Richness Species Evenness: Area 1 Species Evenness: Area 2
Species
Species Richness
Richness Area 1Evenness:
Species
Species Evenness: Area
Area 11 Area 2Evenness:
Species
Species Evenness: Area
Area 22
40 Amphibians Amphibians
Number of species
40
40 Amphibians
Amphibians Amphibians
Amphibians
Area 1 Reptiles Reptiles
Number of species
30 Area
Area 11 2 Reptiles
Reptiles Reptiles
Reptiles
30
30 Area
Area
Area 22 Birds Birds
20 Birds
Birds Birds
Birds
20
20 Mammals Mammals
Mammals
Mammals Mammals
Mammals
10
10
10
0
00 Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals Total
Amphibians Reptiles
Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals
Birds Mammals Total
Total
a Species richness b Species evenness
Image Credits: (t) ©Photographer’s Choice/Georgette Douwma/Getty Images

There are many different ways to measure biodiversity in an area. Two factors that
ecologists often use are species richness and species evenness. Species richness
is the number of species per sample of an area. Areas with a high number of
different species have high species richness and therefore high biodiversity. Species
evenness measures the abundance of different species that make up the species
richness. Species evenness considers the relative distribution of the numbers of
species in an ecosystem.
Explain Use the graphs in Figure 8 to answer the following questions:

1. What might happen if a new bird species arrived in Area 1?
2. How could this affect the species richness and species evenness in Area 1?
3. What conclusions can you draw about species richness and species evenness
between the two areas?

Explore Online
FIGURE 9: Scientists have identified over 30 biodiversity hot spots around the world.
California Mediterranean Mountains of

Floristic Province Basin Southwest China
Tropical Andes Succulent Karoo Madagascar and

Sundaland New Zealand
Indian Ocean islands
A biodiversity hot spot is an area with a particularly high level of biodiversity. Figure
Analyze Biodiversity hot
9 shows a global map of biodiversity hot spots. These locations often contain species
spots are found around the
that are found nowhere else in the world. One hot spot located in North America is the
California Floristic Province, an area with a Mediterranean-like climate that is home to
world. Why can scientists not come
giant sequoia and coastal redwood trees. up with a single solution to protect
all of these areas?
Scientists are currently working to protect several biodiversity hot spots. Preserving
these areas helps to prevent species from going extinct and protects the ecosystem
as a whole. Maintaining as much biodiversity as possible makes the entire biosphere
healthier and provides a more stable habitat for plants, animals, and other species.
These areas also are important, because they may hold clues to new medicines and
new resources and may further our understanding of the biosphere.
Engineering
Building Artificial Coral Reefs FIGURE 10: Artificial reef
Earth’s coral reefs are critical for the stability of marine ecosystems. Unfortunately,
many are classified as threatened because of the effects of human activity. Living
corals depend on the limestone deposited by their predecessors to get the minerals
Image Credits: (b) ©Zoonar GmbH/Dieter Möbus/Alamy
necessary to build their own bodies. However, the limestone is being dissolved
from existing reefs due to increased ocean acidity caused by climate change. Marine
ecologists are now combating this destruction by sinking artificial reefs, such as
the one shown in Figure 10, which uses electrical currents to attract the limestone
deposits needed by growing coral.
Gather Evidence What is the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem

stability? How do artificial reefs affect a marine ecosystem’s stability?

Keystone Species
Sometimes a single species has an especially strong effect on an entire ecosystem.
This species is called a keystone species. Whatever happens to this species affects all
the other species in that ecosystem. For example, when the beavers shown in Figure
11 built their dam across a stream, it turned a terrestrial ecosystem into a freshwater
ecosystem. This killed existing plants and forced land animals to move to new
territories. The new pond’s inhabitants rely on the beavers to maintain the dam. If the
beavers are removed, the dam will eventually fail. The pond will drain and over time
the land will return to a terrestrial ecosystem, such as a meadow.
FIGURE 11: Beavers are a keystone species that make and maintain pond ecosystems.
Collaborate With a
partner, discuss why
protecting a keystone species can
formation of
protect a habitat as a whole. wetland
ecosystem
increased
waterfowl
population
keystone species
increased
fish
population
nesting sites
for birds
FIGURE 12: Many farmers use Factors That Affect Biodiversity

pesticides to control insects and
weeds to increase the amount Many factors can reduce biodiversity. Human activities can reduce it very quickly.
of harvested crops. Humans need food, and much of that food comes from plants, which requires large
areas of land to be cleared to make fields to grow crops. Developing agricultural land
removes most of the native plant and animal species in a region and replaces them
with one or only a few species that are managed as crops. In addition, pesticide use
can negatively affect any remaining native organisms. Biodiversity also is lost when
land is cleared for human housing and industrial sites.
Image Credits: (l) ©Federico Rostagno/Shutterstock
Introduction of new plants and animals into ecosystems is another serious issue. These
species can reduce biodiversity by preying on native species or outcompeting native
species for resources, such as food or shelter.
Explain How does a natural phenomenon, such as the eruption of a volcano on an

oceanic island, affect biodiversity? Will the biodiversity that returns to the island be the
same as it was before?

EXPLORATION 3
Disturbances in Ecosystems
An ecosystem is a complex web of relationships and interactions among organisms

FIGURE 13: A tsunami causes
in their environment. In general, an ecosystem can remain relatively constant over a
devastating flooding.
long time under stable conditions. However, a change in one or more of the biotic or
abiotic factors can disrupt the ecosystem and cause change. A change brought about
by a physical, chemical, or biological agent that impacts population size or community
structure is called a disturbance. Disturbances can occur over short or long time frames.
The type and size of the disturbance can affect how the ecosystem changes. For
example, a tsunami wave rapidly disrupts a coastal ecosystem by flooding habitats and
saturating soil with salt.
Analyze How might the carrying capacity of a coastal ecosystem change as the result
of a tsunami? Explain using one or more examples.
Natural Disturbances
Natural disturbances refer to the damage or destruction to ecosystems caused
by nature. Tornadoes, volcanic eruptions, and lightning-caused forest fires are all
examples of natural disturbances. These disturbances may affect only a small area. For
example, a tornado causes a natural disturbance in a relatively narrow path where it
touches down, while a forest fire or flood can cause natural disturbances that cover
many square miles.
Human-Caused Disturbances
People live in the environment, and many of our actions affect ecosystems.
Human-caused disturbances include human settlements, agriculture, air and water
Image Credits: (t) ©Agencja Fotograficzna Caro/Alamy; (b) ©Karin Hildebrand Lau/Shutterstock
pollution, clear-cutting forests, and mining. Like natural disturbances, human-caused

disturbances can affect both small and large areas. They destroy habitats, wipe out
producers, and contribute to a loss of biodiversity. However, some disturbances are
unique to humans, because the changes are more or less permanent. For example,
roads and highways can permanently fragment an ecosystem, changing the way
populations of species interact with their habitat and altering the way abiotic factors
cycle through an ecosystem.
FIGURE 14: Clear-cutting a forest means removing all the trees.
Collaborate With a
partner, discuss why
foresters might choose to clear-cut
a forest rather than use another
method to get wood for human
needs. What are the pros and cons
of clear-cutting?

Ecosystem Stability
Disturbances alter ecosystems, but if an ecosystem is relatively stable over time, it
can usually recover from a disturbance at a faster rate, adapting to or reversing any
changes. How well an ecosystem rebounds, however, is determined by two factors: its
resilience and its resistance.
Explore Online FIGURE 15: This old-growth forest has been stable for many years.
Language Arts
Connection
The Key(stone) to Ecosystem
Stability Prepare a presentation
describing the effects that your
chosen keystone species has on
ecosystem stability.
Analyze Old-growth forests have remained undisturbed for hundreds of years or more.
From what you see in Figure 15, what are some characteristics of a stable ecosystem?
Ecosystem Resilience
Explore Online Ecologists define ecosystem resilience as the ability of an ecosystem to recover after
it has undergone a disturbance. This means that even though the structure of the
Hands-On Activity
ecosystem is affected in some way, the ecosystem can recover quickly and return to
Simulating Fire in a Forest functioning as it did before the disturbance. For example, a grassland that has regular
Ecosystem Develop or use an fires is considered resilient, because the grasses quickly regrow and the animals return
already-existing simulation to very soon after a fire ends.
examine how fire affects forest The resilience of an ecosystem is determined in part by its level of biodiversity. A
species. How might prescribed complex ecosystem with many populations of species that perform the same function,
burns be used to manage the such as producers, is more resilient than one that has a limited number of species that
biodiversity in a forest, including perform each function. Consider two forests—one a single-species stand of mature
threatened or endangered species? pine trees and the other a multispecies stand of old and young conifers. If both stands
are impacted by identical severe wind events, the stand of mature pines will be more
severely affected by breakage and uprooting than the mixed stand. The mixed stand,
with its variety of wood characteristics and ages, will have more trees left after the
wind event. It will recover and continue to function as a forest much more quickly than
the singles-species stand of pines.
Image Credits: ©Zhukova Valentyna/Shutterstock
Biodiversity improves the resilience of an ecosystem, but only to a point. Genetic

diversity in each species in an ecosystem is also important. Human activities that alter
biodiversity or increase the rate of change, such as using pesticides and antibiotics,
fishing, and destroying rain forests, reduce genetic diversity. A reduction in genetic
diversity decreases the chance that populations can adapt to abiotic disturbances in
an ecosystem.
Predict What similarities would you expect to find in a highly resilient ecosystem?

Ecosystem Resistance
Resistance is the ability of an ecosystem to resist change from a disturbance. Some
ecosystems are highly resistant to change while others have little resistance. Highly
resistant ecosystems remain essentially unchanged when a disturbance occurs.
Even the most resistant ecosystem can be stressed beyond its ability to recover. In the
past, the forests along the ridges of the Appalachian Mountains have recovered from
repeated wind, snow, and wildfire damage but are now slowly dying from the effects
of acid rain.
Resistance and Resilience in Ecosystems

FIGURE 16: Resistant ecosystems remain unchanged after a disturbance occurs, while
a resilient ecosystem quickly rebounds. This graph shows a simplified version of
how ecosystem function might respond to disturbances in resistant versus resilient
ecosystems. Ecosystem Resilience and Resistance
Explain The concepts of
resistance and resilience
disturbance disturbance shown in the graph can be applied
resistant to other situations too. Thanks to
resilient
scientific advances and technology,
we now have many medicines to
Ecosystem function
treat diseases caused by pathogens.

Does this make humans more or
less resilient as a species? Does it
make humans more or less
resistant? Explain your reasoning.
Time
Resistant ecosystems initially show little impact caused by disturbances. However, if

disturbances become too intense, ecosystem structure and function may be severely
impacted. As shown in Figure 16, after a second disturbance, the example resistant
ecosystem is not able to recover as easily. A resilient ecosystem is often immediately
impacted by even low-intensity disturbances but can quickly recover structurally and
functionally to levels approaching the conditions before the disturbance occurred.
Image Credits: ©Dr. Jeremy P. Stovall
Gather Evidence Think back to the volcanic eruption on the island. Once the lava
cooled, plants began to grow. Is this an example of a stable ecosystem? Use evidence from
the discussion of resilient and resistant ecosystems to support your answer.
9273_167a

EXPLORATION 4
Ecological Succession
The area surrounding the Kilauea volcano on the island of Hawaii is a prime example
of what happens when an ecosystem undergoes a devastating disturbance. What
was once a lush tropical ecosystem is now covered in bare volcanic rock. Over time,
this new volcanic rock will undergo a series of changes. Ecological succession is the
sequence of biotic changes that restore a damaged community or create a community
in a previously uninhabited area. Two types of ecological succession occur: primary
and secondary.
Primary Succession
Analyze Where do Primary succession, shown in Figure 17, is the establishment and development of an
pioneer species come from? ecosystem in an area that was previously uninhabited, usually a bare rock surface.
Melting glaciers, volcanic eruptions, and landslides all begin the process of primary
succession. The first organisms that move into this area are called pioneer species.
These organisms, such as mosses and lichens, break down solid rock into smaller pieces.
Once pioneer species have made soil, plants such as grasses can begin to grow. Over
time, shrubs and trees replace the grasses to form a forest. This process continues until
a climax community is established.
Explore Online
Hands-On Lab FIGURE 17: It can take hundreds of years to establish a climax community. This diagram
shows the process of primary succession in a boreal forest.
Using GPS in Ecological
Surveys Perform a survey by
collecting and recording samples of
plant life from a given area of land.
Find and map their exact location
using GPS, and analyze the data.
a 0–15 years b 15–80 years c 80–115 years d 115–200

Moss, lichens, Shrubs, Transition to years
grasses cottonwoods, forest, alder, Hemlock-
alder thicket spruce spruce forest
Explain Do you think tall trees are the final stage of primary succession in every
biome? Explain your answer.

Secondary Succession
Secondary succession is the reestablishment of an ecosystem in an area where the Model Make a model
soil was left intact, such as after a fire or flood. Because soil is already present in the that shows the difference
ecosystem, secondary succession reaches the climax community stage more rapidly between primary and secondary
than primary succession. The process of regrowth is begun by the plants, seeds, and
succession. Make sure your model
other organisms that remain after the disturbance occurs.
explains how long each step takes
As with primary succession, biodiversity of the ecosystem typically increases as and why.
secondary succession progresses. One reason for increased biodiversity is the return of
animals as the plant population grows. In addition, animals bring in seeds from plants
in other ecosystems on their fur and in their waste, which will establish new plant
populations if conditions are favorable for growth.
Data Analysis
FIGURE 18: The amount of species richness in an ecosystem is related to its stage of succession.
Species Richness over Time
60
Number of woody plant species
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 50 100 150 200
Years
Analyze Think about how an ecosystem changes during secondary succession.

Refer to the graph in Figure 18 to answer the following questions.
1. When does species richness increase at the fastest rate? Why is this possible?
2. Why does the species richness not continue to rise over time? Explain.
Image Credits: ©Stephen Collins/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Succession is an ongoing process. Even after the climax community is reestablished,

changes continue to occur. Small disturbances, such as a tree falling, restart the
process. For this reason, an ecosystem is generally never really permanently
established—the processes of succession are always causing changes in an ecosystem.
Gather Evidence How does ecological succession affect biodiversity? Use evidence
gathered from this lesson to support your claims.
39273_169a

FIGURE 19: A specially designed air tanker drops a load of fire retardant to slow the progress of a California wildfire.
Should Forest Fires Be Suppressed? Just five years later, a series of fires burned 3 million acres
over a three-state region. The “Big Blowup,” as it was called,
changed national thinking about fire management. State
Forest fires can cause considerable damage to forest
and Federal forest officials decided the best way to protect
ecosystems; therefore, wildland firefighters work hard to
the national forests was to completely suppress any and
contain and put out forest fires. They use heavy equipment,
all wildfires. To that end, policies were enacted that were
such as bulldozers, to stop the spread of wildfires. Sometimes
designed to stop fires completely when possible and put out
airplanes and helicopters carrying water or fire retardant are
any fire that did occur as rapidly as possible.
also used to put out the fires, as shown in Figure 19.
At the time, conservationists and foresters did not understand
Fire is a natural part of many ecosystems. It cycles nutrients
fire’s ecological importance to a forest ecosystem. They
back into the soil from plants. In some forests, shrubs growing
believed all fire was bad, because it damaged timber, an
underneath the trees are naturally removed by cyclically
economically important resource. As a result, they banned
occurring fires. In most cases, these fires leave the trees and
the use of fire to clear underbrush and improve soil. They also
other organisms living in the ecosystem unharmed. With
constructed roads, watchtowers, and ranger stations to make
increased efforts to prevent and stop forest fires, shrubs and
it easier to detect and reach any forest fire quickly.
other understory species grow thick. When a fire does occur,
it burns extremely hot and catches the trees on fire. This can In the 1930s, a firefighter corps was established that could be
have a catastrophic impact on the forest as a whole. sent anywhere a forest fire occurred. As technology advanced,
Image Credits: ©Shari L. Morris/Getty Images
airplanes and helicopters were added to the ground

After major forest fires in the late 1800s, early conservationists
equipment to drop firefighters and fire-suppression chemicals
became concerned about the effect of wildfire on future
wherever they were needed. Today, the National Interagency
timber supplies. In 1905, they convinced the United States
Fire Center (NIFC) coordinates and supports the deployment,
government to establish the U.S. Forest Service. This agency
training, and certification of firefighters, equipment, and
developed fire protection practices in an effort to conserve
support staff nationwide.
what came to be known as national forests.

Through continued research, scientists found that fire can
FIGURE 20: Forest fires can cause significant economic damage to
actually be helpful to some ecosystems, and Forest Service cities and towns in their path.
officials began to realize that fire suppression led to a buildup
of fuel that made fires much more hazardous when they
did break out. This led to a change in policy that allowed for
prescribed burns to manage fuel loads in certain forests and
other wildlands, based on the ecological needs of the area.
How do officials decide where and when a wildfire should
be fought instead of being allowed to burn? Ecosystem
characteristics play a major role in these decisions. For
example, stands of Rocky Mountain lodgepole pines need
regular exposure to fires severe and intense enough to wipe
out the stand and allow a new one to grow in its place. Other
plants depend on fire as part of their reproductive strategies.
For example, the cones from sequoia trees need fire to open
and release their seeds. Fire also exposes bare soil where the
seeds can take root and opens the forest canopy, allowing
light to reach the seedlings, which helps them grow. On
the other hand, wildfires in zones near human populations
require active suppression to protect life and property. As
human development takes over what were once wild spaces,
the potential for widespread catastrophe increases.
Climate affects fire management policy as well. Naturally Some policymakers think that natural wildfires should be
occurring events such as the yearly Santa Ana winds that blow
allowed to burn or that controlled burns should be used as a forestry
along coastal Southern California and northern Baja California
management tool. Others argue that the risk of letting fires burn or
contribute to the outbreak and spread of wildfires. Lightning
starting controlled burns pose a hazard to the forests and people.
strikes, heat waves, and droughts also increase the occurrence
of wildfires. Climate change is beginning to increase the
Select a position on whether or not to allow controlled burns.
severity of weather phenomena that contribute to wildfires. Research to learn about the pros and cons of controlled burns.
These fire events increase the amount of stored carbon Gather information and write a one-page position paper. Your paper
released into the atmosphere. All of these factors require should discuss your viewpoint and cite evidence from your research
officials to be flexible in their policy decisions.
to support your claims.
Lastly, cost figures into the development of fire management
After completing your research and writing your position paper, you
policies. Fighting wildfires is expensive in terms of hours
will take part in a classroom debate. In the debate, you will have an
worked, transportation, and equipment costs. Wildfires also
cause economic damage to communities and endanger lives.
opportunity to state and defend your position using the information
Officials must weigh these factors when determining whether you gathered in your research. Be sure to listen to the students who
Image Credits: ©EyeEm/Rob Lind/Getty Images
to practice fire-suppression policies. agree with your position and those who disagree as you make your
own arguments.
CASE STUDY: SECONDARY SUCCESSION IN THE KEY(STONE) TO Go online to choose one of

SUCCESSION AT MT. ST. HELENS DIFFERENT ECOSYSTEMS ECOSYSTEM STABILITY these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 21: A lone seedling begins the process of colonizing a field of lava.
Volcanic eruptions play an important role in the formation of new ecosystems, but
the resulting lava flows leave behind a hard rock surface that cannot support life.
Nevertheless, living things will gradually begin to grow and thrive on this rock surface
as it undergoes chemical and physical weathering. Over time, the bare rock will no
longer be visible as it becomes covered in soil and plant life.
The Hawaiian Islands began to form more than 70 million years ago following volcanic
eruptions in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. As time passed, the process of succession
created unique tropical ecosystems. Succession from bare rock to highly diverse
vegetation takes a great deal of time. When new eruptions occur, the process of
succession begins again, and eventually a stable ecosystem returns.
Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook and use what you learned in
Image Credits: ©Design Pics/Getty Images
the lesson about succession to explain how a plant is able to grow in the middle of a
lava field.

CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 7. Ecosystem A and Ecosystem B have the same eight
species, but Ecosystem A has a more even distribution
1. Which of the following is a characteristic associated with of species than Ecosystem B. Which ecosystem is more
an organism’s niche but not with its habitat? diverse? Explain your reasoning.
a. climate
b. soil quality 8. Top predators are often keystone species in their habitat.
c. place in the food web Explain what happens to the biodiversity of an ecosystem
d. location within the ecosystem when a top predator is deliberately removed from the
ecosystem in which it lives.
2. Which of the following are factors in determining the
stability of an ecosystem? Choose all that apply.
a. the process by which it recovers after a disturbance
b. the ability to function during a disturbance
c. whether a disturbance is natural or human-made MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE
d. the rate of recovery after a disturbance
e. the level of biodiversity in the ecosystem In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
3. An epiphyte is a plant that grows on the surface of
another plant, such as a tree. It gets water and nutrients Within an ecosystem, organisms interact with each other
from the air and its surroundings instead of from the tree. and with their environment. The stability of the ecosystem
The tree is unaffected by the epiphyte’s presence. What is determined by its biodiversity, resilience, and resistance
type of relationship does the epiphyte have with the to change.
tree? Explain your reasoning.
study guide:
4. Whenever Paramecium aurelia and Paramecium caudatum
are placed into the same culture and given a constant
supply of food under constant conditions, P. aurelia will
always outcompete P. caudatum, which eventually dies • Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
off. What factors prevents P. caudatum from surviving in include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions, and
this situation? other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
Consider how ecosystem interactions can be used to analyze
5. Ecological succession after a disturbance usually takes
ecosystem dynamics and predict how conservation efforts will
hundreds of years in the Pacific Northwest. However,
affect the stability of these ecosystems.
succession after the Mount St. Helens eruption in 1980
has progressed much more rapidly, because some plants
and animals were in protected areas when the hot ash
and pumice fell. What conclusion can you draw about the
pace of succession from this example?
6. Use the following terms to complete the statement:

resilient, resistant
If an ecosystem is , it is generally stable
unless drastically changed by a disturbance. When a
disturbance causes a change, the ecosystem quickly
recovers when it is .

A BOOK EXPLAINING
COMPLEX IDEAS USING
ONLY THE 1,000 MOST
COMMON WORDS
HOW FORESTS COME BACK

How trees and flowers and animals fill
in the land again after a big change
After a disturbance in an ecosystem, biotic changes
regenerate the damaged community or create a new
community in a previously uninhabited area. Take a look RANDALL MUNR
OE
at this process of change and rebirth. XKCD.COM

THINGS THAT HAPPEN TO FORESTS
Sometimes, big things happen to forests that clear out lots of the old trees and
animals that live there. When these things happen, lots of new trees and fl owers
come in to fill in the space. After a while, big trees can grow back.
Here are a few of the things that can happen to forests:
FIRE PEOPLE WIND GETTING EATEN

In some forests, there are People cut down forests When there’s a really Most animals that eat
fires every so often that to make room for stuff or big storm, wind can trees get eaten by other
burn lots of the plants because they want to use push over lots of trees, things. If something that
and trees, along with the wood. Most of Earth’s especially if the storm eats trees moves to a new
dead sticks and leaves old forests have been cut happens when the trees part of the world where
lying on the ground. down over the years. have leaves on them. nothing eats it, it can eat
whole forests.
TREE-
EATING
ANIMAL
SMALL HOLES IN THE FOREST

Some forests have little animals that like to build their The water covers part When the water in the pool
houses in pools. If they can’t fi nd a pool to use, they of the forest, and the goes away, it leaves an
make a new one by cutting down trees and building trees that are covered open area among the trees.
a wall across the river. with water die. When the Over the years, this area
animals move away, the fills with green things and
wall falls apart. becomes a forest again.
RIVER
HOUSE WALL
WATER
BIGGER PROBLEMS
Life doesn’t just come from nowhere. When forests But if there’s a really big change, there might not be
are cleared and grow back, some of the new trees any life left in the area to grow back. Sometimes, on
grow from parts in the ground that are still alive. Other land out in the sea, hot fire comes out of the ground
green things move in from the edges or are carried by and the rocks get hot and run like water. If this
the wind or birds. happens, nothing grows back until new life is carried
there from across the sea.

A FOREST AFTER A FIRE
WHAT STARTS FIRES? SPACE ROCKS
Many forest fires are caused by people. Sometimes, people Big rocks falling from space can
drop burning things on the ground and forget about them, start fires, but that doesn’t happen
or they start fires to sit around and then don’t put them out. very often. As far as we know, there
Other fires start without help from people. Most of those are haven’t been any of these fires
caused by flashes of power from big storms, but some are caused since people started writing down
by hot rocks that come out of holes in the tops of mountains. things that happened.
FIRE STARTER
Fires aren’t usually started
by people who are bad at
fl ying space boats, but it
could happen!
If there are a lot of dry sticks or dead

branches on the ground, fires can get big
and hot. These fires can spread to the tops of
These small fires can trees and burn down forests.
be good for a forest,
Some fires burn the dead because they burn away If it goes a long time
leaves and sticks on the the leaves and sticks without raining, all the
ground but don’t really before too many of them dry stuff makes fires
bother the big trees. pile up. bigger and hotter.
BABY TREES
(INSIDE)
TREE EGGS Fires clear away the tall trees that block light from the
These things fall off ground. Some trees make tree eggs that stay closed
of trees. Then they open until there’s a fire, so they can get lots of light and
up and new trees grow grow quickly.
out of them. These tree eggs are covered in a layer of clear stuff
that keeps them from opening up. When a tree egg
gets hot in a fire, the clear stuff gets soft and falls off,
the egg opens up, and the tree starts to grow.
SOFT
STUFF
TREE EGGS
ON THE
GROUND

Go online for more
TREES THAT DON’T MIND FIRE GREEN THINGS RETURN

Some trees are good at living The first things to grow TREE FIGHTS
through fires. Their strong, thick up after a fire are grasses Some trees try to
skin keeps them safe from heat, and fl owers, like the be the first to grow
and some keep most of their things you pull up from up in the clear
branches near the top to keep your garden. They’re space after a fire.
their leaves away from the good at spreading and If a tree grows
burning stuff on the ground. grow very fast. taller than the ones
around it, it can
block the sun’s
BIRDS DROPPING HIDING TREES
light from the other
TREE EGGS AS THEY Some trees and green things live trees and keep
FLY AROUND through fire even if their top parts more light for itself.
burn down. They can grow back up
out of the parts left in the ground.
FAST TREES BIRDS THAT EAT SMALL ANIMALS

In the first twenty or thirty Some birds that eat small animals like to fl y over open fi elds like this or sit in trees
years after the forest is near the edge. When they see something running in the grass, they try to catch it.
cleared away, fast trees Since these birds like areas where forests meet open areas, they’re often spotted
grow up. They block the in trees by the side of big roads.
sun’s light from reaching
the ground, which makes BIRDS THAT EAT OTHER BIRDS (HIDING)
the grasses and small Different animals like different kinds of forest. In some areas, as the trees
plants die off. These are get bigger, different kinds of birds move in. Some birds are good at fl ying
young forests. through trees to catch other birds. Since these birds usually stay away
from the edges of forests, people don’t see them as often.
SLOW TREES OLD FORESTS

After the first trees grow up, new kinds Slow trees grow up and take the place of the fast trees.
of trees start to grow. These newer This takes a very long time—longer than a person’s life.
trees grow slowly, and they don’t need Forests that are many times older than the oldest humans
as much sun, so they can grow up in are special. They have different kinds of trees and
the shadows of the faster trees. animals than young forests have. Many of those older
forests have been cut down, and some people are trying
to save the ones that are left.

UNIT CONNECTIONS
Environmental Science Connection FIGURE 1: Feral hogs can change

ecosystems.
Feral Hogs Feral hogs are descendants of domesticated hogs that escaped
captivity. Feral hogs are able to survive in many ecosystems due to the lack of
natural predators and their diverse foraging habits. Feral hogs change abiotic
factors in ecosystems, such as soil structure and levels of erosion. They also change
biotic factors in ecosystems, such as disrupting native plant communities and
competing for resources with organisms in similar niches.
Using library and Internet resources, research the feral hog epidemic in the United
States. Create a public service announcement that will inform landowners about the
scale of the feral hog epidemic and the potential impacts to the environment, including
changes to populations and ecosystems.
Art Connection
Image Credits: (t) Photo provided by NASA/U.S. Dept of Agriculture (USDA); (c) ©National Geographic Magazines/RALPH LEE HOPKINS/Getty Images; (b) ©Diego Grandi/Shutterstock
FIGURE 2: This photograph could be
Conservation Photography Have you ever heard the saying, “A picture is worth a
used to highlight the impact of global
thousand words”? Conservation photographers embrace this statement when they
warming on polar bear populations.
use pictures to highlight environmental problems. Candid and staged images are
used to invoke a response in the public and to advocate for conservation outcomes.
When devastating changes in ecosystems are documented in visual ways, it can
strengthen public support and involvement in critical environmental issues.
What is the difference between nature photography and conservation photography?

Using library and Internet resources, research the field of conservation photography
and the work of a particular conservation photographer. Prepare a multimedia presentation
that explains the purpose of conservation photography and introduces a photographer you
researched, selections of his or her work, and explanations of the conservation issues that
the photographer highlights.
Social Studies Connection

Environmental History Human impacts on the environment during the last several FIGURE 3: Ruins of the Mayan
centuries have been extensively studied and documented. It is clear that humans Civilization.
have changed and destabilized many modern ecosystems. There is also evidence
that ancient peoples, such as the Maya, the Nazca, and the Rapa Nui of Easter
Island, changed the landscape in dramatic ways. These changes may not have
been on the scale of modern human impacts, but the changes may have resulted in
destabilization of ecosystems that led to the downfall of these civilizations.
Using library and Internet resources, research an example of an ancient society

whose collapse may be linked to human impacts on the environment. Write a report
that provides a brief background on the civilization and evaluates the claims and evidence
that the environmental changes led to the disappearance of the society. Include an
illustration of the potential impacts the society had on the environment with a model,
graph, map, or other method.



PRACTICE AND REVIEW
1. Over the course of a year, a population of 25 penguins 4. What is the relationship between population number and
gained 5 penguins through births and lost 3 penguins carrying capacity in a stable population?
to death. In addition, 10 adult penguins moved into the a. The population number matches the carrying capacity
population through immigration and 6 adult penguins exactly through births, deaths, immigrations, and
moved out of the population through emigration. What is emigrations.
the yearly growth rate of this population? b. The population number oscillates around the carrying
a. 19 capacity as resources and population growth rates
b. -8 change slightly over time.
c. -2 c. The carrying capacity and population number increase
d. 6 when resources are scarce and decrease when
resources are abundant.
2. Which of the following would result from the expansion d. Carrying capacity and population numbers are
of a species into a new habitat with no predators and inversely proportional. An increase in carrying capacity
evenly spaced resources? Select all correct answers. will be accompanied by a decrease in population
a. logistic growth numbers.
b. uniform dispersion
5. An invasive species moves into three niches that were
c. exponential growth
once occupied by three different native species and
d. type III survivorship
outcompetes the native species, producing larger
e. partial relief from density-dependent limiting factors population numbers than the three native species
combined. What happens to the biodiversity of the
3. Which type of interaction is most responsible for energy ecosystem?
transfer in a food chain? a. Biodiversity increases because the number
a. competition of individuals increases.
b. mutualism b. Biodiversity decreases because only native species
c. parasitism count toward biodiversity in an area.
d. predation c. Biodiversity remains the same because the same
ecological niches are still being filled.
d. Biodiversity decreases because the number of species
decreases.

Ecosystem A is resistant to periodic small-scale floods. 9. What type of ecosystem would be most affected by a
Ecosystem B displays resilience to small and large floods. A sequence of widespread, heavy rainfall that leads to
small flood occurred as a disturbance in both ecosystems, significant regional flooding over the course of several
followed by a larger flood. The graph indicates the general months?
reaction of the two ecosystems to the disturbances. a. resilient ecosystem
Use Figure 4 to answer Questions 6–8. b. resistant ecosystem
c. both resilient and resistant ecosystems
Ecosystem Resilience and Resistance d. neither resilient nor resistant ecosystems
FIGURE 4: Resistance and Resilience
Ecosystem Resilience inResistance
and Ecosystems
10. A limiting factor keeps population size down and can be
density-dependent or density-independent. Which of
disturbance disturbance
these is the best explanation for why a disease outbreak
resistant
resilient is considered a density-dependent limiting factor?
a. Disease will only affect population size if the
population has a very low density.
Ecosystem function
b. Disease will spread at the same rate throughout the

population, regardless of population density.
c. Disease spreads more readily in a population with
closely packed individuals.
d. Disease will not spread if individuals are evenly
dispersed in their environment.
Time
Source: ©Dr. Jeremy P. Stovall UNIT PROJECT
6. How does succession relate to the decrease in ecosystem Return to your unit project. Prepare your research and
function shown in the graph? materials into a presentation to share with the class. In
a. Decreases in ecosystem function represent the your final presentation, evaluate the strength of your
ecosystem being reset to an earlier successional state. hypothesis, data, analysis, and conclusions.
b. Decreases in ecosystem function represent the Remember these tips while evaluating:
ecosystem progressing through succession back
toward a climax community. • Was your hypothesis supported by your data?
c. Climax communities cause decreases in ecosystem • Look at the empirical evidence gathered from your
function as types of species and population numbers wetland model—evidence based on observations
stabilize. and data. Does the evidence support your claim
and reasoning regarding the impact of wetlands
d. Succession ends when ecosystem function decreases.
on populations and ecosystems?
• Consider if the evidence and explanation are
7. Which ecosystem would experience more periods of
_167a
logical. Does your research contradict any evidence
exponential growth after disturbances? Explain your
you have seen?
answer.
8. Which characteristics would make Ecosystem B more

stable? Select all correct answers.
a. resilient tertiary consumers
b. resilient primary producers
c. high level of biodiversity
d. early successional state

Analyzing Red Squirrel Population Dynamics

The Mount Graham red squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus
FIGURE 5: Average population estimates for Mount Graham
grahamensis) is an endangered red squirrel subspecies that is
red squirrels, 1987-2010.
endemic to the Pinaleño Mountains in southeastern Arizona.
Population data for this squirrel is shown in Figure 5. Use Average Average
this information and independent research to determine Year population estimates Year population estimates
population trends for the red squirrel. Investigate whether the
1987 242 1999 530
red squirrel habitat is declining and what natural or human-
caused disturbances may be responsible for fluctuations 1988 202 2000 484
in the red squirrel population. Based on your investigation,
1989 174 2001 270
decide whether you think the Mount Graham red squirrel
population is resistant or resilient to disturbance. 1990 275 2002 292
1991 391 2003 293
1. ASK A QUESTION
1992 332 2004 276
Develop a set of questions to help guide your research and
data analysis. Focus your inquiry on population trends for the 1993 375 2005 289
Mount Graham red squirrel, how those trends relate to habitat 1994 419 2006 285
loss, and how the causes of the habitat decline are affecting
the red squirrel population. 1995 407 2007 305
1996 381 2008 273
2. CONDUCT RESEARCH 1997 392 2009 259
Investigate the Mount Graham red squirrel population. Use
1998 566 2010 216
library and Internet resources to explore how this species has
fared over the last half-century. Source: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2011. Draft Recovery Plan for the Mount Graham Red Squirrel
(Tamiasciurus hudsonicus grahamensis), First Revision. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Southwest
Region, Albuquerque, NM. 85 pp. + Appendices A-D. [September 30, 2016] https://www.fws.
gov/southwest/es/arizona/Documents/SpeciesDocs/MGRS/MGRS_dRecov_Plan_Revision_Final_
3. ANALYZE DATA
May2011.pdf
Analyze your research and the population data provided.
Graph the population data in order to visualize the red
squirrel population trends. Is there evidence of disturbances, CHECK YOUR WORK
ecosystem decline, or the resilience or resistance of the
squirrel population?
4. CONSTRUCT AN EXPLANATION
Use your analysis to answer your questions and construct an
• guiding questions answered in the final presentation
explanation for the changes in the population of the Mount • a graph that shows the population of Mount Graham
Graham red squirrel and its habitat. red squirrels over time
• an explanation of the current status of the squirrel
and its habitat, a discussion of disturbances that
5. COMMUNICATE
affected the squirrel population, and if the squirrel
Present your findings about the Mount Graham red squirrel population has shown resilience or resistance to
and its habitat. Be sure to include whether you think the disturbance
squirrel population is resilient or resistant to disturbance. Your
• images and data that further support your
presentation should include images and data to support your
explanation
claims.

UNIT 5
Cells: Stability
and Change
Lesson 1: The Cell Cycle . . . . . . . . . . 222
Lesson 2: Mitosis and

Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Thing Explainer: Tiny Bags

of Water You’re Made of . . . . . . . . . . 248
Unit Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Image Credits: ©Dimarion/Shutterstock
These living cells are in various stages

of growth and division.
220 Unit 5 Cells: Stability and Change

FIGURE 1: This scanning electron micrograph of household dust shows skin flakes, fabric
fibers, part of a dead dust mite, and fungal spores.
Your skin comprises roughly 16 percent of your body weight. Skin cells are easily shed,
and as a result, we lose thousands of skin cells per hour. In fact, we lose so many skin
cells that they can be found in the dust in our homes.
Predict How do you think multicellular organisms such as humans replace lost cells?
DRIVING QUESTIONS
1. How do organisms balance the growth and division of their cells?
2. How do organisms replace lost or damaged cells?
3. Do all cells grow and divide in the same way? At the same rate?
4. How do organisms with many cell types develop from a single cell?
UNIT PROJECT
Image Credits: ©SCIMAT/Science Source
Cauliflower Cloning the Unit Project
Worksheet to help
plan your project.
Some plants, such as cauliflower, can regenerate whole plants from small pieces
of material. How does the plant make new cells and structures? Culture your own
cauliflower plant from a small cutting, and observe the growth over time. What
processes play roles in the formation of a new plant?
Unit 5 Cells: Stability and Change 221

5.1
The Cell Cycle
This frog began as a single

cell that repeatedly divided
to form this multicellular
organism.
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
Explore Online
FIGURE 1: A frog develops from a single cell. This cell divides into two cells, each of which divide
again and again, trillions of times. As this pattern continues, many different cells develop.
Gather Evidence All cells come from existing cells. This is easily observed in single-celled organisms, Image Credits: (t) ©Bill Byrne/Design Pics/Corbis; (bl) (bcl) (bcr) (br) ©Cytographics Pty Ltd./Image Bank Film/Getty Images
As you explore the lesson, such as bacteria, some of which can reproduce in as little as 20 minutes. Multicellular
gather evidence for how the cell organisms, such as a frog, begin as a single cell that repeatedly divides to form a
complex multicellular organism. Some organisms reproduce asexually, making
cycle is related to the growth and
genetically identical clones of themselves. Other organisms, like humans, reproduce
maintenance of organisms.
sexually. A sexually reproducing organism begins as a fertilized egg. A sperm cell and
an egg cell fuse to form a cell, called a zygote. The zygote divides trillions of times to
produce a complex, multicellular organism.
Predict Why aren’t all organisms made of just one cell? Why do cells divide, instead
of simply growing larger?

EXPLORATION 1
Overview of the Cell Cycle
Living systems go through cycles of stable conditions and changing conditions.

FIGURE 2: A dividing cell
For example, when conditions in your outside environment change, homeostatic
mechanisms in your body help restore internal stability. Cells also cycle between
phases of stability and change. Some cells stay in a relatively steady state, without
dividing, for long periods of time. Other cells are constantly dividing.
Stages of the Cell Cycle

The life cycle of organisms involves birth, growth and development, reproduction,
and eventually death. A cell also has a life cycle, and cell division is only one part of that
cycle. The cell cycle is the regular pattern of growth, DNA duplication, and cell division
Predict Describe a
that occurs in eukaryotic cells, or cells with nuclei. This pattern can be divided into
specific situation in which
stages that get their names from the earliest studies of cell division, when scientists’
an organism’s cells would need
observations were limited by the microscopes of the time.
to divide.
Because these scientists were unable to observe activity in cells that were not actively
dividing, they separated the cycle into two parts: a resting phase and a dividing phase.
The resting stage was named interphase, and the division phase was named mitosis.
Mitosis includes a final step for complete cell division called cytokinesis.
FIGURE 3: The Cell Cycle
INTERPHASE
G1 Checkpoint
Gap 1 (G1)
Cells grow, carry out
M Checkpoint CYT normal functions, and
OKI replicate their organelles.
NES
IS
Telophase
Anaphase Mitosis (M)

MITOSIS
Cell division
phase
Meta Synthesis (S)
se
pha DNA is replicated.
Pro Gap 2 (G2)
Additional
growth
G2 Checkpoint
Image Credits: (t) ©Dr. Torsten Wittmann/Photo Researchers, Inc.
occurs.
Over time, scientists developed techniques and tools that allowed them to detect
the copying of DNA (DNA synthesis). As a result, the description of the cell cycle was
revised to include the DNA synthesis stage. At the time, they were still unable to Analyze Why is it
observe activity between the stages of synthesis and mitosis, so the periods between important that DNA is
these two stages were labeled gap 1 (G1) and gap 2 (G2). Eventually scientists learned copied before the cell divides?
that cells in interphase undergo critical growth and preparation for cell division while
they carry out normal cellular functions.
Lesson 1 The Cell Cycle 223

Checkpoints in the cell cycle keep cells from moving to the next stage before certain
conditions are met. During G1, the cell must pass a critical checkpoint before it can
proceed to the synthesis stage. This ensures that DNA is relatively undamaged and can
be properly replicated. This checkpoint also allows other cells to signal the cell when
more cell division is needed. G2 has its own critical checkpoint. Everything must be
in order—adequate cell size, DNA correctly replicated—before the cell goes through
mitosis and division.
Collaborate If a cell has damaged DNA, what do you think happens during the G2
checkpoint?
Rates of Cell Division
FIGURE 4: Different cells divide All cells in your body undergo cell division, but the rate at which they divide is linked to
at different rates. your body’s need for that type of cell. In human cells, the S, G2, and M stages together
usually take about 12 hours. The length of the G1 stage differs the most from cell type
Approximate
Cell Type to cell type. The rate of cell division is greater in embryos and children than it is in
Life Span adults. Children have a shorter cell cycle, and many of their organs are still developing.
Skin cell 2–3 weeks But the rate of cell division also varies within different tissues of the adult body. For
example, the internal lining of the digestive tract receives a lot of wear and tear. The
Red blood cell 4 months cells of the lining also encounter toxins that enter the body through the digestive tract.
As a result, cells that line the stomach and intestine are replaced every few days. In
Liver cell 10–18 months contrast, cells that make up the rest of the intestine (mainly smooth muscle) and many
of the internal organs, such as lungs, kidneys, and liver, divide only occasionally, in
Intestine– response to cell injury or death.
4–5 days
internal lining
Intestine–
Analyze Why does a skin cell need to divide more frequently than a liver cell?
muscle and 16 years
other tissues
Source: Spalding et al., Cell 122:1
G Zero (G0 ) Stage
Not all cells need to divide regularly. Cells that divide rarely are thought to enter a
gap phase called G0. These cells continue to carry out everyday functions, but they do
not undergo any of the processes necessary to prepare for division. Some cells, such
as neurons, may remain in G0 permanently. Other cells enter this stage temporarily
until there is a need for them to divide. One such cell is a lymphocyte, which is a type
of white blood cell that helps fight infections. Lymphocytes can remain dormant for
years until they recognize an invading organism. Once the invading organism binds to
a lymphocyte receptor, the lymphocyte goes through a series of rapid cell divisions to
help fight infection.
Explain Make a claim for how the cell cycle relates to the growth and maintenance of
organisms. Discuss the stages of the cell cycle, mechanisms that regulate it, and how this
cycle is related to the growth and maintenance of organisms.

EXPLORATION 2
Factors Affecting Cell Growth
Many factors influence cell growth and division, including cell size. A typical animal cell
only grows to a size of 10–20 micrometers. Cell size is often expressed as a comparison
of two quantities: surface area and volume. A cell’s surface area-to-volume ratio is the
relationship between the surface area of a cell’s membrane and the inner
volume of a cell.
Problem Solving
Calculating Cell Size

A ratio is a comparison of two numbers. For example, suppose there are 25
students in a class—10 boys and 15 girls. The ratio of boys to girls is 10 to 15.
We can express this ratio in one of three ways:
10
__
10 to 15 10:15 15
A ratio can be reduced, just like any other fraction. Ratios are reduced by
determining the lowest common denominator. In the example above, the
greatest common factor is 5.
10
__
15
= __32 = 2:3
SAMPLE PROBLEM Study this sample problem for Cell A.
FIGURE 5: Cells are measured by their surface area and volume.
1 2 3
Calculate the surface area-to-volume ratio for Cell A.

1. Surface area = length × width × number of sides = 1 × 1 × 6 = 6.
2. Volume = length × width × height = 1 × 1 × 1 = 1.
3. Surface area-to-volume ratio = 6:1.
SOLVE Calculate the surface area-to-volume ratio for Cell B and Cell C.
1. Calculate the surface area of Cell B and Cell C.
2. Calculate the volume of Cell B and Cell C.
3. Calculate the surface area-to-volume ratio for Cell B and Cell C.
Explain Describe the pattern you observe in the surface area-to-volume ratios
as the cell gets larger.

Cell Size
Explore Online
Recall that oxygen, nutrients, and wastes move across the cell membrane, or the
Hands-On Lab surface of the cell. Some diffuse passively across the membrane, while others are
transported actively via specialized proteins. No matter how materials move across the
Modeling Cell Surface Area-
membrane, they must be transported in adequate amounts and with adequate speed
to-Volume Ratio Use model
to maintain homeostasis. If there is not enough surface area for materials to cross
cells to investigate how a cell’s
into and out of the cell, the cell may not be able to absorb materials or expel wastes
size affects its ability to transport effectively. To maintain a suitable cell size, growth and division must be coordinated.
materials across the membrane and
maintain homeostasis. Explain Make a claim for why cells must divide, rather than grow larger. Explain how
surface area and volume, as well as transport across the cell membrane, are related to
cell size and homeostasis.
Regulating Cell Division

Like other cellular processes, the cell cycle must be regulated. The cell cycle is
regulated by both internal and external factors that work together to control when
and how often a cell divides. Internal factors come from inside the cell and include
several types of molecules found in the cytoplasm. External factors come from outside
the cell, either from nearby cells or from another part of the organism’s body.
An external factor that regulates the cell cycle can be either a physical signal or a
chemical signal. One example of a physical signal—cell-to-cell contact—can be
observed in a single layer culture of mammalian cells. Individual cells will divide in
these cultures until they touch other cells. At this point, they stop dividing. Scientists
are not yet sure what causes this to happen. One hypothesis is that receptors on the
surfaces of neighboring cells bind to each other, causing the cell’s cytoskeletons to
form structures that can block growth signals. Many cells also release chemical signals
that can stimulate the growth of other cells. For example, growth factors are a broad
group of proteins that stimulate cell division.
When external factors bind to their receptors on a cell’s surface, they can trigger
internal factors that affect the cell cycle. Two well-studied kinds of internal factors are
kinases and cyclins. A kinase is an enzyme that, when activated, transfers a phosphate
group from ATP to a specific target molecule. This action typically increases the energy
of the target molecule, changes its shape, or both. Your cells have many types of
kinases, and they are almost always present in the cell. Those kinases that help control
the cell cycle are activated by cyclins. Cyclins are a group of proteins that are rapidly
made and destroyed at certain points in the cell cycle. These two factors help a cell
advance to different stages of the cell cycle when they bind to each other. This cyclin-
kinase interaction plays an important role in cell cycle checkpoints, ensuring that cells
start and stop dividing at appropriate times.
Model Create a graphic organizer to describe the different factors that influence cell
division. Include information related to the cell cycle, rates of cell division, cell size, and
internal and external factors.

Apoptosis FIGURE 6: In early stages of
Some cells are programmed to die at a predetermined time in their life cycle or after development, human embryos
a certain number of cell divisions. Programmed cell death is known as apoptosis, and have webbing between their
it occurs when internal or external signals activate genes that help produce self- fingers and toes.
destructive enzymes. Apoptosis may occur in cells with damaged DNA or in cells that
are harmful to, or simply no longer needed by, the body. Normally immune system
cells ignore other cells in the body, but some immune cells are specialized to recognize
apoptotic cells. These cells very tidily gobble up the apoptotic cell and recycle its
chemical parts for use in building other molecules. Apoptosis is also an important
process in normal embryological development in animals, including humans.
Collaborate Human embryos have webbed digits (fingers and toes) early in their
development. The cells between the digits undergo apoptosis during later stages of
development. With a partner, draw a model to show how apoptosis leads to changes in
the structure of digits during later stages of development.
Cancer
Cancer is the common name for a class of diseases characterized by uncontrolled cell
division. It arises when regulation of the cell cycle is disrupted. Because they do not
respond to factors regulating growth, cancer cells divide more often than healthy
cells. This results in the formation of disorganized clumps of cells called tumors. Some
tumors can be removed successfully if they remain localized. However, some cells
break away and are carried to other places in the body where they create new tumors
in a process called metastasis. Cancer cells are hazardous because they do not perform
normal cell functions. For example, in the lungs, cancer cells do not develop into
healthy lung tissue and do not properly carry out gas exchange.
Cells become cancerous when mutations occur in sections of DNA that code for
regulatory factors. Some mutations are caused by radiation or chemical exposure while
others are inherited. Substances that promote or produce cancerous growth are called
carcinogens. These include tobacco smoke and certain air pollutants. Some cancers
are inherited when the abnormal gene that causes the cancer is passed on from
generation to generation.
Image Credits: (t) ©Anatomical Travelogue/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (br) ©Girand/Science Source
FIGURE 7: Normal animal cells respond to external factors and stop dividing when they
touch each other. Cancer cells fail to respond to these factors. The cancerous growth
shown here is a form of skin cancer called melanoma.
formation of a tumor Explain Describe the

cancer cells normal cells
differences in the normal
dividing
cells and the cancerous cells shown
in Figure 7.
Analyze A sensory neuron serving the toe of a giraffe has an average length of nearly
4.6 meters. Use what you have learned about cell surface area and volume to explain how
this cell can function properly.

EXPLORATION 3
A Brief History of Cell Theory
In order to learn more about cells and how they function, scientists first depended on
simple instruments. Over time, advancements in science and technology resulted in
microscopes that allowed us to not only see cells, but to observe processes occurring
within them.
Before the 1600s, people had no idea that cells existed, and so had other explanations
for the basis of life. That all began to change after the English scientist Robert Hooke
first viewed cork under a microscope. He observed that cork is made of tiny, hollow
compartments. The compartments reminded Hooke of small rooms found in a
monastery, so he gave them the same name: cells. However, it took nearly 200 years
before scientists made the connection between biological cells and life.
Image Credits: (tl) ©Photo by SSPL/Getty Images; (tr) ©Omikron/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (bl) ©Ted Kinsman/Science Source; (br) ©UNIVERSITY OF DUNDEE/DR PAUL ANDREWS/Science Source
FIGURE 8: The cells viewed under Hooke’s microscope are from cork, dead plant tissue.
The cell viewed under the modern microscope is in the process of dividing.
Predict Advances in
which fields most likely
influenced changes in microscope
technology?
Cell Theory
Almost all cells are too small to see without a microscope. Magnifying lenses had
already been around for hundreds of years before Robert Hooke developed his
microscope, but their quality was limited by the lens-grinding technology of the times.
Therefore, even though Robert Hooke had designed a state-of-the-art microscope for
his time, he would most likely not have seen anything inside the cork cells when he
studied them, even if they had been alive. So how did scientists come to learn so much
about cells, and how long did it take?

FIGURE 9: A timeline of the study of cells
1595 Zacharias Janssen 1674 Antonie van 1855 Rudolf Virchow

Dutch eyeglass maker Leeuwenhoek German scientist who
who invented the Dutch tradesman who stated that all cells
compound microscope developed a more powerful come from other cells.
by placing two lenses in microscope. He observed He also described the
a tube. numerous single-celled microscopic structure
organisms swimming in a of cells such as nerve
drop of pond water, which cells.
he called “animalcules.”
1665 Robert Hooke 1838 Matthias Schleiden

English scientist who used a three-lens German botanist who used compound
compound microscope to examine microscopes to study plant tissue and
thin slices of cork from an oak tree
Image Credits: (tl) ©Photo by Universal History Archive/Getty Images; (b) ©Science & Society Picture Library/Getty Images; (tr) ©Universal History Archive/UIG via Getty Images
proposed that plants are made of cells.

(Figure 8). He called the tiny, hollow
compartments he saw “cells.”
1839 Theodor Schwann
German animal physiologist who noticed
structural similarities between plant cells and
the animal cells he had been studying. He
concluded that all living things are made of
cells and cell products.
Analyze Using the development of cell theory as an example, make a claim for how
science influences technology and technology influences science.
The cell theory is one of the first unifying concepts developed in biology. Theodor
Schwann, influenced by the work of Matthias Schleiden and other scientists, published
the first statement of the cell theory. Schwann’s theory helped lay the groundwork for
all biological research that followed. However, Schwann stated in his publication that
cells form spontaneously by free-cell formation. As later scientists studied the process of
cell division, they realized that this part of Schwann’s idea was wrong. The cell theory is
an example of a theory that changed over time as new discoveries were made.
The major principles of the cell theory are:
• All organisms are made of cells.
• All existing cells are produced by other living cells.
• The cell is the most basic unit of life.
Explain Before the cell theory was developed, many people claimed that spontaneous
generation was possible. In other words, that cells arose from nonliving matter, such as
dust or rotting meat. Respond to that claim using the principles of cell theory.

Hands-On Lab
Modeling Cell Surface Area-to-Volume Ratio
Cells must transport materials across their membranes in order to maintain

homeostasis. In this lab, you will use model cells to investigate the relationship
between cell size and homeostasis. Your model cells will consist of agar cubes of
different sizes. Agar is a gel-like material used as a growth medium for bacteria. The
agar has been soaked in an indicator that turns pink when exposed to a basic solution.
The indicator will allow you to measure how quickly materials diffuse across the model
cell’s membrane.
SAFETY
Sodium hydroxide is corrosive. Wear goggles and gloves, and dispose of chemicals as
instructed by your teacher.
PROBLEM
How does a cell’s size affect its ability to maintain homeostasis?
PREDICT
Make a prediction for how the diffusion of materials into the cell will change as the
model cell gets larger. Explain your reasoning.
MATERIALS PROCEDURE
• beaker, 250 mL
1. Make three model cells by using the knife to cut three cubes from the
• graduated cylinder, 100 mL phenolphthalein agar. Cell A should be 3 cm on each side, cell B should be 2 cm
• knife, plastic
on each side, and cell C should be 1 cm on each side. Use the ruler to make exact
measurements.
• metric ruler
FIGURE 10: The cube-shaped cells model what happens to the volume as surface area
• paper towel
increases. Cell Models
• phenolphthalein agar
• sodium hydroxide solution (1.0 M

HCl), 100 mL
• spoon, plastic 3 cm
• timer 2 cm
1 cm
3 cm 2 cm 1 cm
2 cm 1 cm
3 cm
Cell A Cell B Cell C

2. Calculate the total surface area of each cell. Record your data in a data table.
surface area of a cube = length × width × number of sides
3. Calculate the volume of each cell. Record your data.
volume of a cube = length × width × height
4. Calculate the surface area-to-volume ratio for each cell. For example, if the surface
2 3
area was 27 cm and the volume was 9 cm , the surface area-to-volume ratio would
be 3:1. Record your data.
5. Put the model cells in the beaker. Carefully cover them with sodium hydroxide
solution, which turns the agar pink.
6. Soak the cells in solution for four minutes. Use the spoon to turn the cells
repeatedly throughout that time.
7. Remove the cells from solution and gently dry them on the paper towel.
8. Use the knife to cut each cube in half. Measure the distance (in cm) from the
edge of the cell to the inner edge of the pink line. This shows how far the sodium
hydroxide diffused. Record your data.
ANALYZE
1. How does the surface area-to-volume ratio change as cell size increases?
2. Identify which cell turned pink in the greatest proportion, and explain how this
relates to cell size and diffusion.
EXPLAIN
Write an explanation that addresses each of the points below.
Claim How is a cell’s size related to its ability to maintain homeostasis by
transporting materials across the membrane? Was your prediction correct?
Evidence What evidence from your data supports your claim?
Reasoning Explain how the evidence you cited supports your claim.
REFINE
Explain whether the model used in this investigation provided an adequate level of
accuracy and how you would change the model for future investigations.
Precision and accuracy Did the model provide the level of precision needed to make
a valid conclusion?
Propose changes What changes would you make to this model if you were to carry
out this investigation again? Why would you make these changes?

MEASURING CELL DIVISION CELL BIOLOGIST: CANCER RESEARCH
these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
Explore Online
FIGURE 11: All plants and animals begin with a single cell. One cell divides into two, each of which will
then divide. This pattern continues until an organism is formed.
Cells have a life cycle made up of periods of rest, growth, and division. When a
multicellular organism develops, a single cell divides over and over to produce the
trillions of cells that make up the organism. Throughout the organism’s lifetime,
internal and external signals regulate cell growth and cell division. These factors
include physical and chemical signals, as well as limits on cell size.
Explain Refer to the notes in your evidence notebook to construct an explanation

for why cells divide instead of simply growing larger. In your explanation, address the
following questions.
1. How are the cell cycle and cell division related to the growth, development, and
maintenance of the organism?
2. How do different factors influence cell growth and cell division?
3. How has technology influenced our understanding of cells and cell division?
Image Credits: (l) (cl) (cr) (r) ©Cytographics Pty Ltd./Image Bank Film/Getty Images

CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 6. Imagine a cell has six sides, each measuring 4
micrometers (μm) in length. Use this information to
1. Which of these is not a principle of the cell theory? answer the following questions.
a. The cell is the basic unit of life. a. What is the surface area of the cell?
b. All living things are made of cells. b. What is the volume of the cell?
c. All organisms are made up of many cells. c. What is the surface-area-to-volume ratio for the cell?
d. All cells come from other cells. d. If this cell grew larger in size, how would the transport
of materials across the cell membrane be affected?
2. Which term describes the resting phase of the cell cycle? How does this relate to the cell’s ability to maintain
a. mitosis homeostasis?
b. interphase
c. prophase 7. Complete this statement using these terms:
d. telophase growth factors, cyclins, volume, surface area
Different factors regulate cell growth and division. Cells
3. Which of these best explains how advancements in are limited in size because they need a large _____ as
technology influenced the development of the cell compared to their _____. This ensures that materials can
theory? move into and out of the cell at adequate rates. The cell
a. Communication between scientists improved. cycle is also regulated by external factors such as _____
b. Microscopes enabled scientists to see cells. and internal factors such as _____. These factors work
together to make sure the cell enters the appropriate
c. Increased knowledge allowed scientists to make
phase of the cell cycle at the correct time.
predictions.
d. Printing increased the number of books about the cell.
8. Use an example to explain how apoptosis contributes to
the growth and maintenance of an organism.
4. In which of these situations would cells most likely
receive signals instructing them to enter the M phase of
the cell cycle? Select all correct answers.
a. A tissue needs repairing. MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE
b. Cells need to grow larger.
c. More cells are needed to defend the body. In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
d. Cells need to decrease in number during supports the main idea from this lesson:
development.
The cell cycle is a sequence of events in which cells grow and
5. Place these events in the correct order to illustrate the divide. Internal and external factors regulate the cell cycle to
sequence of events in the cell cycle. ensure that cells grow and divide at appropriate times.
a. Mitosis occurs, and one cell divides into two. Remember to include the following information in your
b. DNA is replicated to make two copies. study guide:
c. Organelles are copied, and the cell grows. • Use examples that model main ideas.
d. Additional growth occurs before the cell divides. • Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
Consider how models help scientists learn more about cells, the cell
cycle, and how cells maintain homeostasis.

5.2
Mitosis and Differentiation
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
HeLa cells, a line of cancer FIGURE 1: When planarians are cut into multiple pieces, each piece regenerates to form
cells used for research, can a complete organism.
divide indefinitely.
Image Credits: (t) ©Dr. Torsten Wittmann/Science Source; (b) ©Cristina González-Estévez, Leibniz Institute on Aging (FLI), Jena, Germany
Gather Evidence
Record observations
describing what happens to the
part of the planarian that was
amputated. How does this piece
change over time?
Planarians are free-living flatworms usually found in freshwater. They prefer the dark
and are often found on the undersides of rocks in streams and ponds. Within their
bodies are simple organ systems, including a digestive system, a reproductive system,
and a simple nervous system. The nervous system is made up of a small brain and
two long nerve cords that run along the body. Planarians are interesting to scientists
because they can regenerate. If a planarian is cut in half, both halves regenerate to
form a complete planarian. Each resulting organism will have a head, two eyespots,
and a full set of internal organs.
Predict How do you think organisms like the planarian regenerate parts of their
body? How could humans benefit from this knowledge?

EXPLORATION 1
Chromosomes
An important part of cell division is the replication and division of the cell’s genetic
material. In all organisms, DNA is the genetic material that contains information
that determines an organism’s inherited characteristics. This information provides
instructions for not only the growth and development of each cell, but also for the
organism as a whole.
Analyze What does this
FIGURE 2: DNA is the genetic material found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
model tell you about the
eukaryote prokaryote
structure and location of DNA in
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells?
DNA and Chromosomes

A chromosome is one long continuous thread of DNA that consists of many genes. Collaborate Describe to a
Your body cells have 46 chromosomes each. If stretched out straight and laid end to partner what happens to the
end, the DNA in just one of your cells would be about 3 meters (10 feet) long! How chromosome as the cell progresses
does it fit inside the nucleus of a microscopic cell? into mitosis.
FIGURE 3: Chromosome structure changes as the cell prepares for cell division.
Each double-stranded DNA wraps at regular Interactions between parts The DNA coils more and The condensed, duplicated
DNA molecule makes one intervals around proteins of the histones further com- more tightly around orga- chromosomes can be
chromosome. called histones, forming pact the DNA. nizing proteins, forming aligned and separated
chromatin. supercoiled DNA. during mitosis.
Interphase Mitosis
Lesson 2 Mitosis and Differentiation 235

During interphase, the combination of DNA and proteins is loose—you can think of it
FIGURE 4: A duplicated
like a plate of spaghetti. During this phase, proteins must access specific genes for a
chromosome is made up of two
sister chromatids held together cell to make specific proteins or to copy the entire DNA sequence. However, changes
at the centromere. start to occur in the structure of the DNA as a cell prepares to enter mitosis.
As a cell progresses into mitosis, chromatin condenses further. It continues to coil
telomeres
more and more tightly around organizing proteins, finally forming small, thick rods.
Recall that each chromosome has already been copied during the previous S stage.
Thus, the chromosome looks similar to an X in which the left and right halves are
two identical DNA double helixes. One half of a duplicated chromosome is called
a chromatid. Together, the two identical chromatids are called sister chromatids.
centromere
Sister chromatids are held together at the centromere, a region of the condensed
two (sister) chromosome that looks pinched.
chromatids
Model Create a model to illustrate the meanings of these terms: DNA molecule,
chromosome, chromatin, chromatid, and centromere.
Engineering
FIGURE 5: Lobsters are Can We Turn Back the Clock on Aging?

referred to as “immortal”
because they do not appear The ends of chromosomes form structures called telomeres, which are made
to die from old age. of repeating nucleotides that do not form genes. They prevent the ends of
chromosomes from accidentally attaching to each other, and they help prevent
the loss of genes. A short section of nucleotides is lost from a new DNA molecule
each time it is copied. It is important that these nucleotides are lost from
telomeres, not from the genes themselves.
The loss of telomeres over time has been linked to aging in organisms. However,
some organisms, such as lobsters, are able to regenerate their telomeres with
Image Credits: (t) ©Science Source/BIOPHOTO ASSOCIATES/Getty Images; (b) ©Andrew J. Martinez/Science Source
the help of an enzyme called telomerase. Therefore, lobsters are able to remain
“young” their entire lives, growing and maintaining a strong metabolism until they
die. Scientists are currently studying ways to control telomere length in humans.
These applications could be used to delay the aging process by preventing cell
death from telomere loss, or they could be applied to diseases such as cancer by
preventing the rebuilding of telomeres in cancer cells.
Analyze Scientists are currently studying ways telomerase could be used to slow
down aging and fight diseases like cancer. How might these studies influence society?
Explain Answer the following questions about DNA and cell division.
1. DNA must be coiled into special structures before a cell divides. Why do you think
it is necessary for the DNA to be structured this way before cell division occurs?
2. Every cell in your body originated from one cell. What does this mean about the
DNA in each of your body cells?

EXPLORATION 2
Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Cells spend most of their time in the interphase part of the cell cycle. Interphase
plays an important role in preparing the cell to divide. It provides critical time for the
duplication of organelles and DNA replication as well as cell growth. By the end of
interphase, the cell’s DNA and organelles have been replicated, and the cell is large
enough to divide.
FIGURE 6: The cell cycle is an orderly process that prepares the cell for division.
INTERPHASE
G1 Checkpoint
Gap 1 (G1)
OKI replicate their organelles.
NES
IS
Telophase

MITOSIS
Cell division
phas e
Meta Synthesis (S)
se
Pro Gap 2 (G2)
Additional
growth
G2 Checkpoint occurs.
Explain Do you think this model of the cell cycle is accurate for all cells? Explain
your answer.
After interphase, the cell undergoes the fourth stage of the cell cycle—mitosis. Mitosis
is the stage during which cell division takes place. At the end of mitosis, the process
FIGURE 7: Centrosomes contain
of cytokinesis divides the cell cytoplasm. The result is two daughter cells that are
structures called centrioles.
genetically identical to the original, or parent, cell. Spindle fibers are organized at
the centrosome.
Collaborate Discuss this question with a partner: How do you think the cell divides
centrioles
its DNA evenly to give each daughter cell an identical copy of the genetic material?
Specialized structures called centrosomes are involved in mitosis in animal cells.

The centrosome is a small region of cytoplasm that produces protein fibers called spindle
microtubules. Centrioles are cylinder-shaped organelles made of short microtubules. fibers
Before an animal cell divides, the centrosome, including the centrioles, doubles and nucleus centrosome
with DNA
the two new centrosomes move to opposite ends of the cell. Microtubules grow from
each centrosome, forming spindle fibers. These fibers attach to the DNA and help it
divide between the two cells.

The Cell Cycle in Detail
Explore Online The combined processes of mitosis and cytokinesis produce two genetically identical
Hands-On Activity daughter cells. Mitosis divides a cell’s nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei,
each with its own full set of DNA. This process occurs in all of your body
Animating Mitosis Make a cells—except sex cells, the cells that form eggs or sperm—and prepares them for
flipbook to model the stages of cytokinesis. Although mitosis and cytokinesis are continuous processes, scientists have
mitosis in action. divided them into phases to make them easier to understand and discuss. The four
main phases of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Cytokinesis
begins during late anaphase and ends in telophase.
Explore Online
Interphase Mitosis
The cell copies its DNA Mitosis divides a cell’s nucleus
and grows for division. into two nuclei, each with an
The DNA is loosely identical set of DNA.
organized during
interphase.
Prophase
Chromosomes condense.
The nuclear envelope
breaks down, centrioles
Analyze What begin to move to opposite
poles, and spindle fibers form.
mechanisms ensure that
each cell receives an identical set of
DNA during mitosis? Use evidence Metaphase
Spindle fibers attach to
from Figure 8 to support your Cytokinesis the centromere of each
answer. Cytokinesis divides chromosome. They
cytoplasm between align the chromosomes
the two daughter cells, along the equator.
each with a genetically
identical nucleus. The
cells enter interphase
and begin the cycle
again.
Telophase Anaphase
Nuclear membranes start Chromatids separate to opposite
to form, chromosomes sides of the cell. Cytokinesis
begin to uncoil and the usually begins in late anaphase
spindle fibers fall apart. or telophase.
Use the model of the cell cycle shown in Figure 8 to answer the following questions.
1. Human cells have 46 chromosomes. How many chromosomes should be present
during the G2 phase of the cell cycle? How many should be in each daughter cell after
cytokinesis? Explain your answers.
2. How would you describe the phases of mitosis in your own words?

Asexual Reproduction
Reproduction is a process that makes new organisms from one or more parent
organisms and can occur in one of two ways—sexually and asexually. Sexual
reproduction involves the joining of two specialized cells called gametes (eggs and
sperm cells), one from each of two parents. Sexual reproduction requires two parents
and takes longer, but it produces offspring that are genetically unique because they
have a mixture of genes from both parents.
Asexual reproduction can occur relatively quickly, and the offspring are genetically
identical to the parent organism. Prokaryotes and some eukaryotes reproduce
asexually. Remember that prokaryotes do not have a nucleus. This typically allows
prokaryotic cells to divide much faster. Because prokaryotes are single-celled, the
resulting daughter cells are new single-celled organisms. The offspring that result are,
for the most part, genetically identical to each other and to the original single-celled
parent.
Predict Although bacteria and other single-celled organisms can produce genetically
identical offspring, they sometimes still exchange DNA by passing it from bacterium to
bacterium. What might be the advantage of exchanging DNA in this way?
Binary Fission and Mitosis

Prokaryotes, such as bacteria, lack not only a nucleus but also membrane-bound FIGURE 9: In binary fission, the
organelles and spindle fibers. Prokaryotes also have much less DNA than most original cell divides into two
eukaryotes have. The DNA of most bacteria is in the form of a single circular genetically identical cells.
chromosome, instead of the linear chromosomes found in your cells.
Bacteria reproduce through a process called binary fission, which differs from mitosis
in several ways. Binary fission starts when the bacterial chromosome is copied. Both
chromosomes are attached to the cell membrane on opposite sides of the cell. As the
cell grows and gets longer, the chromosomes move away from each other. When the
cell is about twice its original size, it undergoes cytokinesis. The membrane pinches
inward, and a new cell wall forms between the two chromosomes, which completes
the separation into two daughter cells.
FIGURE 10: Models of binary fission and mitosis
binary fission mitosis
DNA is replicated
cell begins to divide

Image Credits: (r) ©Photo Researchers, Inc.
cytokinesis divides
the cytoplasm
Two daughter Model Construct a Venn

cells are formed
diagram comparing binary
fission and mitosis.

Mitotic Reproduction
Some eukaryotes also reproduce asexually through mitosis. Have you ever grown
a new plant from a stem cutting? Or seen a new sea star growing from the arm
of another one? These new organisms are the result of mitotic reproduction and
are therefore genetically the same as the parent organism. Mitotic reproduction is
especially common in simpler plants and animals. It occurs in both multicellular and
unicellular eukaryotes. Mitotic reproduction can take several forms depending on
the organism. Types of mitotic reproduction include budding, fragmentation, and
vegetative reproduction.
FIGURE 11: Forms of mitotic reproduction
Budding A new genetically identical Vegetative Reproduction Multicelled Fragmentation A piece of an organism

individual cell forms on the body of the structures from an organism develop into grows into a new genetically identical
parent cell. a new genetically identical organism. organism.
Both sexual and asexual reproduction are utilized in farming, industry, and scientific
research. Food crops such as strawberries and almonds are pollinated by bees.
These and other pollinators help plants carry out sexual reproduction and produce
Collaborate If you fruit. Horticulturists and home gardeners can use fragmentation and vegetative
wanted to grow a food reproduction to produce new plants. For example, a piece of a leaf from an African
Image Credits: (l) ©SPL/Science Source; (c) ©Olena Ukhova/Shutterstock; (r) ©Ecostock RF/Lawson Wood/age fotostock
crop for human consumption, violet plant can grow into a new African violet plant. Potato plants can be grown by
which do you think would be best planting a piece of potato that contains an “eye” in the garden.
for the plant to use—sexual or Binary fission and budding are also widely used in industry. Many drugs, such as
asexual reproduction? Write your vaccines and insulin, are produced by growing colonies of bacteria that have been
argument and explain it to a genetically modified to produce the drug. Millions of people with diabetes use
partner. synthetic insulin, which is produced by genetically modified bacteria or yeast.
Model Develop a model to illustrate how mitosis results in two genetically identical
daughter cells. Include chromosomes in your model, and use different colors, materials, or
symbols to show how the cell duplicates, organizes, and separates chromosomes during
interphase and mitosis.

EXPLORATION 3
Cell Differentiation
A skin cell can divide to make a new skin cell, or a single bacterium can generate
FIGURE 12: A sperm and egg
another bacterium. But how does a complex organism like you develop? Your body
fuse during fertilization, and a
began as a single fertilized egg, or zygote. If the egg simply divided to make lots of zygote is formed.
identical cells, it would not form a baby.
Development of Multicellular Organisms

Embryonic development begins with the fertilization of an egg by a sperm, producing
a zygote. The zygote undergoes a series of divisions to produce a mass of cells that
then become specialized. Cell differentiation is the process by which a cell becomes
specialized for a specific structure and function during the development of a
multicellular organism.
FIGURE 13: Cell differentiation in a plant and an animal
seed leaves apical cell
apical cell
basal cell
zygote adult
Image Credits: (t) ©Thierry Berrod, Mona Lisa Production/Science Source
zygote adult
A cell’s location within an embryo helps determine how it will differentiate. In plant
cells, the first division of a fertilized egg is unequal, or asymmetric, as shown above.
The apical, or topmost, cell forms most of the embryo, including the growth point for
stems and leaves. The basal cell provides nutrients to the embryo and serves as the
growth point for the roots. Plant cells cannot easily migrate because of their cell walls, Explore Online
but they adapt to changing conditions and continue to develop throughout their Hands-On
Hands-On
Lab Lab
lifetime. As the plant grows, new cells continue to differentiate based on their location
in the plant. Modeling Induction in
Embryos Design a model to
Analyze Compare the model of cell differentiation in plants to the model of cell
show how inducing chemicals
differentiation in animals. What are the differences, and what are the similarities? trigger cell differentiation in a
developing embryo.

In animals, an egg undergoes many divisions after it is fertilized. The resulting cells
migrate to a specific area and begin to differentiate, forming a hollow ball. As the
embryo develops, part of the ball folds inward, forming an inner layer called the
endoderm. An opening is formed in the outer layer, called the ectoderm. Some
animals, such as jellyfish, develop from only two cell layers. Vertebrates, including
humans, develop a third layer of cells, called the mesoderm, between the inner and
outer layers. This standard model of development varies from species to species.
FIGURE 14: Each cell layer in the gastrula of a human embryo produces cells that will form different tissues and organs.
ectoderm
mesoderm
Image Credits: (tcl) ©ANDREW SYRED / SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY/Photo Researchers; (tcr) ©Science Photo Library/Susumu Nishinaga/Getty Images; (tr) ©Susumu Nishinaga/Science Source
endoderm
a The gastrula is the embryo b The ectoderm develops c The mesoderm develops d The endoderm forms the
stage that develops into the skin and the into bone, muscle, blood, lining of organs in the
three layers of cells: the nervous system. It also and connective tissue. It digestive, respiratory, and
ectoderm, mesoderm, and forms the lining of organs also forms organs such as excretory systems. It also
endoderm. such as the mouth. the kidneys. forms some glands.
Explain Like the cell cycle, the process of cell differentiation is highly regulated. Write
an argument for why regulation of the cell differentiation process would be especially
important during the early stages of development.
Stem Cells
Specialized cells develop from a type of cell known as a stem cell. Stem cells are a
unique type of body cell that can develop into a variety of specialized cells through
differentiation. Stem cells are able to divide and renew themselves by mitosis for long
periods of time, remaining undifferentiated until they are needed. When needed, they
divide to form one new stem cell and one specialized cell.
Predict Describe a FIGURE 15: Stem cells can develop into any type of cell.
scenario in the human body
stem cells
in which a stem cell would need to stem cells
divide into a new stem cell and a

specialized cell.
stem cell
stem cell
specialized cells
specialized cells

Stem cells are classified by their potential to develop into differentiated cell types of
different tissues. In general, the more differentiated a stem cell already is, the fewer
the types of cells it can form. Stem cells are also classified by their origin, as either
adult or embryonic. Adult stem cells are partially undifferentiated cells located near
the specialized cells of many organs and tissues. Their primary role is to maintain and
repair the specialized cells in tissues and organs, and the variety of specialized cell
types they can produce are limited. Adult stem cells are found in small numbers all
over the body in adults and children, as well as in umbilical cord blood.
Embryonic stem cells can form any of the 200 cell types of the body. They may Analyze Scientists are
be obtained from donated three-to-five-day-old embryos that result from in vitro now able to convert human
fertilization. In vitro fertilization is a process in which eggs are fertilized outside a skin cells to embryonic stem cells.
woman’s body and go through several divisions in a culture. Scientists have also How might this technology influence
developed methods for converting differentiated cells, such as human skin cells, to science and society?
embryonic stem cells.
Researchers are studying ways to use stem cells to treat many different medical
conditions. Because stems cells can differentiate into other types of cells, they offer
the potential to repair or replace damaged tissues or organs. For example, stem cells
in bone marrow produce red and white blood cells. Bone marrow transplants have
been used for many years to treat leukemia and lymphoma, cancers that affect white
blood cells. Scientists are also studying the use of stem cells to repair the pancreas of
people with type I diabetes so that they will produce normal amounts of insulin. A
patient with a damaged heart could potentially have stem cells injected into the tissue
to repair the damage and grow new capillaries, thus restoring normal heart function.
However, there are many technical problems with these treatments that future
research needs to solve.
Collaborate Write a list of the tradeoffs you might consider when deciding whether
to use stem cell treatments or traditional treatments to treat a disease like diabetes.
Compare your list to a partner’s list and mark the common items.
Gene Expression and Cell Differentiation

Virtually every cell in your body contains the same set of DNA, but every cell is not
the same. How is this possible? A gene is a segment of DNA that stores genetic
information. While almost every cell in your body has a full set of genes, each type of
cell expresses only the specific genes it needs to carry out its function.
When a gene is expressed, or “switched on,” the instructions within that segment of
DNA are used to make proteins that carry out specific functions within the cell. When a
gene is “switched off,” or not expressed, its instructions are not used to make proteins.
During development, genes are expressed differently in different types of cells. The set
of genes expressed is determined by the type of cell and its location in the embryo or
organism. By expressing some genes and not others, each cell generates the proteins it
needs to take on its specific structure and function within the organism.
Model Make a model to illustrate how an organism develops from a zygote to a fully
grown adult. In your model, include media and text to explain fertilization, cell division,
and cell differentiation.

Guided Research
Studying Limb Regeneration
In the beginning of this lesson, a planarian was shown cut

FIGURE 16: Salamanders such as this axolotl (Ambystoma
in half and then regenerating its body. Regeneration is
mexicanum) can regenerate lost limbs.
the regrowth of a lost body part. This is common in some
complex organisms, but as organisms become more complex,
the ability to regenerate body parts becomes more rare. For
example, humans do not have the ability to regenerate lost
body parts. However, scientists think that by studying species
that can regenerate and applying this knowledge to humans,
we may someday be able to regrow lost limbs.
One species currently being studied is the Mexican axolotl,
a type of salamander. This species is unusual in its ability
to regenerate multiple structures such as limbs, skin, jaws,
and even its spinal cord. In addition, the axolotl is incredibly
resistant to developing cancer and it remains in its juvenile
form for its entire life. As a result, this species is the focus of
several scientific studies on limb regeneration and possible
treatments for human diseases.
Perform your own research to find out how scientists are Make a webpage or blog to explain the latest advancements
approaching this problem. Use the following questions to
in limb regeneration. You may choose to focus on a specific species or
guide your research.
line of research. Use audio, visual, and interactive elements to
• What types of questions are scientists asking about limb add interest and make the concepts you are explaining
regeneration? easy to understand. Include a list of sources in the format
• How are these questions being investigated? specified by your instructor.
• What types of advances are scientists hoping to make? A multimedia presentation combines text, sounds,
• What have scientists been able to achieve so far? and images. A successful multimedia presentation
includes the following:
• What controversies has this type of research caused?
• How might this research be used to benefit humans? • clear and consistent focus
• ideas that are presented clearly and logically
As you conduct your research, evaluate your sources carefully
• graphics, text, music, video, and sounds that support key points
to be sure they are reliable. Do they present verifiable facts?
Are the opinions those of an expert or experts in this field? • organization that is appropriate to its purpose and audience
Image Credits: ©Paul Starosta/Corbis Documentary/Getty Images
Is there enough evidence to show that reported successes
are viable?
CYTOKINESIS IN PLANT MITOSIS UNDER MODELING INDUCTION Go online to choose one of

AND ANIMAL CELLS THE MICROSCOPE IN EMBRYOS these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 17: A planarian can regenerate removed body parts or their entire body.
Scientists study organisms that can regenerate parts of their body or their entire
body, such as planarians, newts, and salamanders. Scientists have discovered that
planarians have stem cells throughout their body. One of the reasons planarians are
of such interest to scientists is that, even though they are a very simple organism,
they have a centralized nervous system that they can restore to full function during
the regeneration process. They can even regrow brain tissue from stem cells! The size
of the planarian fragment does not matter. Even a piece that is 1/279 of the original
animal can be restored to a full-sized planarian, which would be similar to growing
Image Credits: ©Cristina González-Estévez, Leibniz Institute on Aging (FLI), Jena, Germany
another human from someone’s cut-off nose.
Explain Construct an explanation for how cell division and differentiation help
organisms such as planarians to regenerate parts of their body. Your response should
answer the following questions.
1. What is the role of mitosis in regenerating tissues?
2. How are stem cells involved in the process of regeneration?
3. What is the role of cell differentiation in the development of the organism?
4. How could knowledge of this process be used to help humans?

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS

FIGURE 18: Phases of the Cell Cycle
1. Which of these statements can be INTERPHASE

used to describe a chromosome?
G1 Checkpoint
a. A chromosome is a long, Gap 1 (G1)
continuous strand of DNA. Cells grow, carry out
b. Histones are proteins that are OKI replicate their organelles.
NES
IS
only present during mitosis. Telophase
c. Chromosomes are tightly Anaphase Mitosis (M)
MITOSIS
Cell division
phas e
packed during mitosis. Meta
se Synthesis (S)
d. Chromosomes float freely pha DNA is replicated.
Pro Gap 2 (G2)
around the cell of eukaryotes. Additional
growth
e. Telomeres are chromosome G2 Checkpoint occurs.
regions that lack genes.
f. Each chromosome contains
only one gene.
2. Place these steps in order to 4. Identify the phase of mitosis 7. Use Figure 18 to construct an
describe the changes that described in each step, and then explanation for how the cell
occur in the organization of the put the steps in the correct order. prepares for cell division. Which
chromosome as the cell progresses a. Cell membrane pinches inward, events take place before mitosis,
into mitosis. dividing the cytoplasm and its and how do these prepare the cell
a. The chromosome coils more contents. to divide?
and more tightly, forming b. Nuclear membrane reforms and
supercoiled DNA. chromosomes uncoil. 8. Use the following terms to
b. Condensed, replicated c. DNA and histones condense; complete the statement:
chromosomes attach at a nucleus begins to break down. endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm
pinched region called the d. Chromatids separate and move As an embryo begins to organize,
centromere. to opposite sides of the cell. it first develops into a hollow ball
c. DNA is wrapped around histones e. Chromosomes line up along cell with a flattened cluster of cells
at regular intervals, forming equator; spindle fibers attach to at one end. The outer layer is
chromatin. each chromosome. called the ____ and will become
d. Interactions between parts of an organism’s skin and nervous
histones compact the DNA. 5. Which events take place during system. The cluster of cells forms a
mitosis but not during binary tube through the center of the ball
3. In which of these scenarios would fission? Select all correct answers. that will become the inner lining
the rate of mitosis most likely of the digestive tract and other
a. duplication of organelles
increase? Select all correct answers. organs. This layer is known as the
b. division of the cytoplasm
____. As the tube forms, some cells
a. A tissue is damaged and requires
c. separation of chromosomes from the cluster migrate into the
repair.
d. formation of a mitotic spindle cavity of the embryo to become the
b. A tissue needs to decrease in size
____. This layer will become muscle
during embryonic development.
6. Explain the relationship between and bone and organs such as the
c. A person has a “growth spurt” embryonic cell layers, gene kidneys.
and grows taller. expression, proteins, and cell
d. A tissue loses a large number of differentiation.
cells due to wear and tear.

9. Draw a diagram showing how mitosis produces a

multicellular organism. Explain how differentiation In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
completes the organism’s development. supports the main ideas from this lesson:
Chromosomes are long strands of DNA that condense as the
10. What would happen if mitosis took place in a cell
cell prepares for cell division.
but cytokinesis did not?
Mitosis and cytokinesis result in two daughter cells with
11. Draw a model to illustrate how the steps of mitosis identical genetic material.
ensure that each daughter cell receives an identical
Cell differentiation is a process in which cells take on
set of chromosomes. In your model, include at least
specialized roles within the organism. Different genes are
three sets of chromosomes and add color or shading to
differentiate the different sets of chromosomes. Include
expressed in different types of cells.
text explaining how each step of mitosis contributes to Remember to include the following information in your
the process of separating the duplicated chromosomes study guide:
in an orderly manner. • Use examples that model main ideas.
12. Use these terms to complete this statement about
stem cells and cell differentiation:
genes, neuron, proteins, differentiate
Stem cells are a unique type of body cell that can _____
into a variety of specialized cell types. A stem cell can Consider how models of the cell cycle can be used to illustrate the
either divide into two new stem cells or it can can divide process that allows one cell to divide into two genetically identical
to produce one stem cell and one specialized cell, such daughter cells.
as a _____. New advancements in science have allowed
researchers to convert human skin cells to embryonic
stem cells. This requires altering segments of DNA called
_____. When these segments of DNA are expressed, the
cell produces _____, which carry out specific functions
within the cell.
13. Refer to Figure 19 to explain why stem cells are of great

interest to researchers studying therapies for human
diseases.
FIGURE 19: Stem cells can differentiate into a variety of cell types.
stem cells
stem cells
stem
stem cell
cell
specialized
specialized cells cells

A BOOK EXPLAINING
COMPLEX IDEAS USING
ONLY THE 1,000 MOST
COMMON WORDS
TINY BAGS OF WATER

YOU’RE MADE OF
The very tiny parts of people
and other animals
You’ve learned that a cell is the basic unit of life. Organisms
are made of one or more cells, need energy for all of their
RANDALL MUNR
functions, respond to their environment, and reproduce by XKCD.COM
OE
passing their genetic information to offspring. Here’s a

description of animal cells in simple language.

SIZE
These bags are almost always
too small to see. In fact, they’re
almost as small as the waves of
light we see with:
BLUE
GREEN
RED
LITTLE ANIMALS LITTLE ANIMAL

These are living things (not
really “animals”) that got stuck
in our bags of water a long time
ago, like the green things in tree
leaves. Now we can’t live without
each other. They get food and air
from our bodies and turn them
into power for our bags.
INFORMATION
The information for how
to make different body
parts is stored here.
READERS
These machines read
the information about
how to make parts
and write it on little
notes, then send them
out through the holes
in the wall.
Image Credit: ©Bill Longcore/Photo Researchers, Inc.
MACHINE MAKER
This part makes the little
machines that sit outside
the control area.

TINY BAGS OF WATER YOU’RE MADE OF
OUTSIDE WALL GETTING IN AND OUT
The water bags that make up animals Some things can go through the bag’s
have soft walls. The bags in trees and wall on their own. Other things can only
fl owers, which don’t need to move go through if the bag helps them, either
around as much as us, have a less by letting them through an opening, or by
soft outside layer. making part of the wall into a new bag to
hold them.
BAG FILLER
This machine fills little
bags with stuff and then
sends them out into the
water. Some stuff gets
sent out of the big bag to
another part of your body.
The machine also fills bags
with death water, marking
them very carefully before
sending them out so
they don’t get used in
the wrong place.
STRANGE BAGS OF DEATH WATER

BOXES These little bags are full of a kind of water that breaks BAG SHAPERS
There are lots things into tiny pieces. If something is put inside them, The space between bag parts is
of these little the water breaks it down into whatever it’s made of. full of lots of very thin hair-like
boxes in our If something goes wrong, these little bags tear open lines. These are like bones for the
water bags. and all their bad water falls out. That makes the whole bag; they help hold its shape, and
We don’t know bag around it fall to pieces and die. do some other things.
what they do. “Bags falling to pieces” sounds bad, since bags Some of these shapers also have
are what you’re made of. But if a bag was having holes down the middle, and can
problems, it could hurt you. The death water helps carry things from one part of
clear it away so your body can make a new one. the bag to another.

Go online for more
EMPTY POCKETS
This part of the bag has pockets to hold
stuff that it might need later. It also makes
a few things.
One of the things it makes is that stuff
that helps your arms and legs get
stronger. Sometimes, people who want to
run or ride fast will put bottles of that stuff
into their body and then lie about it.
CONTROL AREA
This area in the middle holds information
about how to make the different parts of
your body. It writes this information in notes
and sends them out into the bag.
Bags make more bags by breaking in half.
When this happens, the control area also
breaks in half, and each half gets a full set w
of the bag’s information.
Not all bags have these control areas. THINGS THAT MAKE YOU SICK
The bags in human blood don’t (which
These tiny things can get into your bags and take
means blood can’t grow) but the bags in
control of them. When they do that, they use the
bird blood do.
bag to build more of them.
This control area may have once been a
When the kind shown here gets into you, your
living thing on its own, just like the green
body gets hot, your legs hurt, and you have to lie
things in leaves.
down. Your whole body feels bad, and it makes
you hate everything. You feel like you’re going to
CONTROL AREA HOLES die but usually don’t.
Notes and workers go out We say all life is made of bags, but these things
through these openings. aren’t. They also can’t make more of themselves;
they have to get a bag to make them. So we don’t
know if it makes sense to say they’re “alive.”
LITTLE BUILDERS
They’re more like an idea that spreads itself.
This area is covered in little building
machines that build new parts for the bag.
The builders sit just outside the control area,
reading the notes from inside that tell them
what to build.
After the builder makes a part, the part falls
away into the bag. Each part has a job to
do. Maybe its job is to tell another part it’s
time to stop working. Maybe its job is to
turn one kind of part into another. Maybe it
makes another part do something different.
Or maybe it has a job, but waits until it sees
another part before it starts working.
The strange thing is, no one tells the part
Image Credit: ©Dr. Steve Patterson/Science Source
where to go. It just falls out into the room

with all the other parts, and hangs around
until it runs into whatever part it’s supposed
to grab. (Or until another part grabs it!) This
sounds strange, and it is! There are so many
parts, and they’re all grabbing each other
and stopping each other and helping each
other.
The insides of these bags are harder to
understand than almost anything else in the
world.

UNIT CONNECTIONS
Life Sciences Connection FIGURE 1: A cell undergoing apoptosis.
Modeling Apoptosis When infected with pathogens such as bacteria or viruses,

our bodies mount an immune response to fight the invaders. Part of this response
includes generating and activating a large number of immune cells specifically
to counteract the current threat. But once the bacteria or viruses have been
eliminated, the remaining immune cells must be destroyed, too.
Using library and Internet resources, research how the body destroys excess immune
cells after a successful immune response. Draw a model based on evidence to show
the role apoptosis plays, and predict possible outcomes if too many or too few immune cells
respond to apoptotic signals.
Art Connection
Virtual Agar Art Since 2015, the American Society of Microbiology has sponsored FIGURE 2: An Example of “Agar Art”
a public competition called “Agar Art.” Scientists from around the world submit
artworks created by culturing one or more bacterial or fungal species in nutrient
agar on Petri dishes. The rate and color of the growth depend on the species,
competition, and nutrients in the agar. With careful planning, the growth can result
in an intricate work of art.
Using library and Internet resources, research art pieces made using agar. Make a
poster or other presentation of your “agar art.” Include multiple colors and indicate,
Image Credits: (t) ©Eye of Science/Science Source; (c) ©Microbial Art/Gregory Lab/Science Source; (b) ©Asa Thoresen/Shutterstock
based on your research, which species would contribute each color. Also explain how growth
and reproduction contribute to the work, and identify factors you would need to consider in
growing multiple species together.
Medical Science Connection

Heart Regeneration In your body, some cell types—such as skin—can regenerate
FIGURE 3: Heart Muscle
through cell division to replace lost or dead cells. Many other cell types lack this
ability, however. Research suggested for many years that heart muscle is unable to
regenerate after damage, and that heart cells lose the ability to divide at a young
age. Recent studies have challenged this idea, hinting that some heart muscle cells
may be able to divide following tissue damage, though at a very slow rate.
Locate and read at least three sources describing heart regeneration research, with
at least one on either side of the debate. Summarize your findings in a report, and
using evidence from the sources, give your opinion on whether heart muscle cells can
regenerate in adult humans.



PRACTICE AND REVIEW
1. In adults, the liver does not normally grow larger or 6. Telomeres are strings of repeating nucleotides that
regenerate cells. Based on this knowledge, most adult provide a “cap” on the ends of chromosomes. Though
liver cells would be expected to: telomere sequences do not contain genes, why might
a. regularly undergo mitosis they be important during an organism’s life span?
b. have highly condensed chromosomes a. Telomeres allow sister chromatids to join together.
c. often replicate the cells’ DNA b. Telomeres prevent loss of genes when chromosomes
d. be in the interphase, or resting phase are replicated.
c. Telomeres regulate the expression of other genes on
2. As cells grow larger, what happens to the surface area- the chromosome.
to-volume ratio? How does this affect the cell’s ability to d. Telomeres increase the rate of cell division.
grow further? Use Figure 4 to answer question 7.
3. Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is triggered during FIGURE 4: The Cell Cycle
which biological processes? Select all correct answers.
a. DNA damage suffered by a cell INTERPHASE
b. a lymphocyte responding to an active infection G1 Checkpoint
c. differentiation of a stem cell into a specialized cell

Gap 1 (G1)
d. removal of certain tissues during embryonic M Checkpoint
CYT normal functions, and
development OKI replicate their organelles.
NES
IS
Telophase
4. Explain the connection between the cell cycle and cancer Anaphase Mitosis (M)
MITOSIS
Cell division
phas e
development. Meta Synthesis (S)
se
Pro Gap 2 (G2)
Additional
5. Cyclins are proteins produced in cells only briefly, at growth
specific stages of the cell cycle. These cyclins regulate the G2 Checkpoint occurs.
activity of kinase proteins, which help to move the cell to

the next cell cycle phase. If regulation of cyclins or kinases
is disrupted, the cell division process can go awry. In your
Evidence Notebook, predict what might happen if cyclins
were produced constantly throughout the cell cycle.

7. Must the cell cycle always proceed in the same direction, c. Each cell type is determined by messages sent from
or is it possible for the cycle to proceed in the opposite the brain, which directs development.
direction? Explain your reasoning. d. Both types of cells have the same DNA, but each cell
uses only part of the DNA message.
8. Which of these best explains why stem cells can be used
to treat some diseases such as leukemia, a cancer of white 12. Use the terms below to complete this statement
blood cells? explaining how mitosis produces two genetically
a. Stem cells do not age, and they can divide indefinitely. identical cells.
b. Stem cells can differentiate into any type of cell. condenses, spindle fibers, nuclear membrane, chromatin,
c. Stem cells are able to adhere to damaged cells and cytokinesis, duplicated
initiate a repair sequence. During interphase, DNA is in a loosely arranged form
d. Stem cells contain a full set of chromosomes, unlike called ____. Before a cell divides, each chromosome is
other cells in the body. ____ so that each daughter cell will have a complete set
of DNA. As a cell progresses into prophase, the cell’s DNA
9. What are some of the advantages for organisms that ____ to form tightly coiled chromosomes. In addition,
undergo mitotic reproduction, as opposed to sexual the ____ breaks down, and centrioles begin to move to
reproduction? Select all correct answers. opposite poles of the cell. In metaphase, chromosomes
a. Mitotic reproduction can occur without a partner. align along the cell equator, and ____ attach to each
chromosome. The chromosomes are separated in
b. Mitotic reproduction leads to offspring with greater
anaphase. In telophase, chromosomes begin to uncoil,
genetic diversity.
and nuclear membranes begin to form. Finally, ____
c. Mitotic reproduction is faster than sexual
divides the cytoplasm, producing two genetically identical
reproduction.
daughter cells.
d. Mitotic reproduction can allow a new organism to
grow from a fragment of another.
UNIT PROJECT
10. Suppose an organism normally has 24 chromosomes.
If a cell in this organism divides by mitosis, how many Return to your unit project. Prepare your research and
chromosomes should each daughter cell have after cell materials into a presentation to share with the class. In
division occurs? Explain your answer. your final presentation, evaluate the strength of your
hypothesis, data, analysis, and conclusions.
11. Unlike stem cells, most body cells cannot form different
types of cells. For example, skin cells can only make
skin cells, and nerve cells only make nerve cells. Which • Was your hypothesis supported by your data?
statement best explains why skin cells would not become • Look at the empirical evidence—evidence based
nerve cells? on observations and data. Does the evidence
a. Each type of cell gets a different message from the support your claim regarding the processes
central DNA, which is stored in DNA cells. involved in the formation of a new plant?
b. Each type of cell has only the part of the DNA • Consider if the explanation is logical. Does your
necessary for making that type of cell. research contradict any evidence you have seen?

Comparing Normal Cells and Cancer Cells

Cancer arises in cells due to abnormal genetic changes
FIGURE 5: For each tissue sample, the number of cells in each phase
and can lead to other genetic, structural, and molecular were counted and recorded.
alterations. Typically, the cell cycle of cancerous cells is
disrupted compared with that of normal cells from the same Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3
tissue. The data shown here are from six different tissue Interphase 33 34 34
samples. The samples were collected to determine whether
the tissue in question contains cancerous cells. In this activity, Prophase 2 2 1
your task is to analyze the data and make a claim for which Metaphase 1 3 2
samples are most likely to contain cancerous cells.
Anaphase 2 2 2
1. PLAN AN INVESTIGATION Telophase 1 3 1

With your team, formulate a plan for analyzing the data.
Decide how you will compare the data, what calculations you Sample 4 Sample 5 Sample 6
will need to perform, and which type of graph would be best Interphase 35 33 35
for displaying these data. You may want to make multiple
graphs or sets of calculations to compare the data in multiple Prophase 3 3 3
ways. Metaphase 1 2 2
Anaphase 0 2 4
2. ANALYZE DATA
Telophase 1 3 3
On your own, show the work for the calculations performed.
Construct the necessary graph(s) based on what your group
decided. You may use a computer program if necessary.
3. EVALUATE DATA
Based on your findings, which samples are more likely to CHECK YOUR WORK
contain cancerous cells? Compare your findings with the
group. Are there any other patterns you can identify? A complete presentation should include
4. COMMUNICATE
• a clearly defined plan for analyzing and
Write a report explaining your conclusions, including a evaluating the data
claim, evidence, and reasoning. Your claim should state • a clear conclusion based on evidence and
which samples are most likely to contain cancerous cells,
supporting analysis
and you should explain, in detail, how your analysis of the
• one or more graphs displaying the data you evaluated
data supports your claim. In addition, describe some of the
factors that might have caused the cancerous cells to become
in your investigation
cancerous. How is the cell cycle related to the development • an explanation of which cells are most likely to be
of these types of cells? How is a person’s genetic material and cancerous cells using evidence to support your claims
external environment related to the development of cancer?

UNIT 6
The Structure and

Function of DNA
Lesson 1: DNA Structure
and Replication . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Lesson 2: Protein Synthesis . . . 272
Lesson 3: Gene Expression

and Regulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Unit Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Image Credits: ©Science Photo Library/MOLEKUUL/Getty Images
DNA is an essential molecule for all

living things.
256 Unit 6 The Structure and Function of DNA

FIGURE 1: Malformations in frogs may be linked to mistakes in the genetic code.
All living things use DNA to pass genetic information to the next generation. Genetic
information directs the development and homeostasis of organisms through a
process of translating the genetic code into proteins that have specific tasks. There
are checks and balances built into the genetic system to ensure information is copied
and interpreted properly. When the system malfunctions, it can result in disease,
malformations, or even death. For example, some malformations in frogs can be
linked to faulty genetic information. However, not all mutations have a negative effect.
Alterations in DNA may be neutral or be beneficial to an organism. Over time, the
mutation may lead to evolution of a population.
Predict How could altering the flow of information from DNA affect an organism?
DRIVING QUESTIONS
1. How did scientists determine the structure of DNA?
2. How does the information in DNA get transferred into observable traits?
3. How is the flow of information from DNA regulated?
UNIT PROJECT
Image Credits: ©Suzanne L & Joseph T Collins/Science Source
Case Study: Malformed Frogs the Unit Project
Worksheet to help you
plan your project.
The malformation and decline of amphibians has been widely discussed since the 1990s,
when hot spots of malformations in the United States were first brought to national
attention. Scientific studies since then have linked the malformations and decline of frog
populations to a number of factors. Combinations of these factors may cause the trends
in malformations seen in frog populations. Research malformations in frogs and explore
how DNA controls the structure, function, and regulation of proteins. Can you explain
how genes and proteins are related to the trend of malformations in frogs?
Unit 6 The Structure and Function of DNA 257

6.1
DNA Structure and

Replication
This baby goat literally gets

its looks from its mother,
thanks to cloned DNA.
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
Gather Evidence How can you make conclusions about something you cannot see? This has been a
As you explore the lesson, challenge throughout the history of science. Sometimes scientists must use indirect
gather evidence to explain how evidence.
scientists determined the function
FIGURE 1: Each of these images shows a sample of DNA at a different level of detail.
and structure of DNA.
(bc) ©Professor Stanley N. Cohen/Science Source; (br) ©Professor Enzo Di Fabrizio, IIT/Science Source
Image Credits: (t) ©Yawar Nazir/Getty Images (bl) ©Volker Steger/Science Source;
Understanding the structure and function of DNA is one such case in biology. Early
biologists recognized that characteristics were passed from one generation to the
next, but the molecules responsible for this phenomenon were too small to be seen
using early microscopes. Remarkably, biologists pieced together evidence about the
structure of the molecule responsible for the unique characteristics of each organism.
Over time, scientists built on the work of others, and, at the same time, technology
continued to improve. Today, we have a much more clear understanding about DNA—
the molecule that contains the code for life.
Predict Based on the images shown in Figure 1, how would you describe the
appearance of DNA?

EXPLORATION 1
The Function of DNA
You are one of a kind and like no other—unless you are an

FIGURE 2: Unique traits are observable among humans.
identical twin, of course! How is it that you are so unique?
You have a set of traits, or distinguishing characteristics, such
as hair color, eye color, face shape, and body type, that are
passed from one generation to the next. Early scientists made
these same observations. But a question remained: How are
traits passed from one generation to the next?
Analyze As you can see in Figure 2, humans have many

observable traits that set us apart from each other. What
are some traits you have?
Codes for Proteins

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule that stores the genetic information for
all organisms. DNA is heritable, which means it can be passed from parent to offspring.
This explains why offspring may look like their parents and why individual organisms
within a species share many of the same characteristics. Scientists understood that
traits were heritable long before they identified DNA and its key role in inheritance.
DNA does not act alone to pass on genetic information. The information from DNA
is used to build another nucleic acid called RNA, or ribonucleic acid, and RNA in turn
builds proteins. This concept is known as the central dogma of molecular biology.
Recall that proteins play a crucial role in body functions. Enzymes help regulate
chemical reactions. Other proteins provide structural support for cells. Proteins in the
cell membrane transport nutrients across the membrane in response to changing
conditions inside or outside the cell. Each protein has a unique structure and function
in the cell, so proper coding is critical for building each protein.
Predict Kinesin is a motor protein that transports organelles and proteins around a cell.
The structure of kinesin is crucial for its function. What might happen to the structure of
kinesin if the DNA code was damaged?
Mechanism for Heredity
Genetics is the study of biological inheritance patterns and variation in organisms.

Image Credits: ©MBI/Stockbroker/Alamy
Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, was an early contributor to our understanding of

genetics. Mendel’s revolutionary experimentation with breeding pea plants identified
factors that controlled traits. He correctly predicted that traits can be inherited as
discrete units passed from parents to offspring. However, it would take the work of
several different scientists over many years to discover DNA and explain how it codes
for the inheritance of individual traits. Results from experiments led by these scientists
supported the conclusion that DNA is the molecule of inheritance.
Lesson 1 DNA Structure and Replication 259

Griffith’s Experiments
In 1928, the British microbiologist Frederick Griffith was investigating two types of
pneumonia-causing bacteria. One type, called S, has a smooth outer coating made
from carbohydrates. The other type, called R, has a rough outer surface. As shown in
Figure 3, when Griffith injected mice with both types of bacteria, only the S–type killed
the mice. When Griffith injected mice with heat–killed S bacteria, they were unaffected.
However, when he injected the mice with a combination of heat–killed S bacteria
and live R bacteria, the mice died. Even more surprising, he found live S bacteria in a
blood sample taken from the dead mice. Unable to identify the factor that transformed
harmless R bacteria into disease-causing S bacteria, Griffith called the mystery material
the transforming principle. This mystery would be a question for other scientists to
explore.
FIGURE 3: Griffith’s Experimental Design
live S bacteria live R bacteria heat-killed heat-killed

S bacteria S bacteria + live
R bacteria
Collaborate With a
partner, discuss what
further questions you would ask
based on Griffith’s experimental
results.
mouse dies mouse lives mouse lives mouse dies
Analyze What evidence suggested that there is a transforming principle?
Avery’s Experiments
Oswald Avery and his fellow scientists were intrigued by Griffith’s transforming
principle. Avery’s team worked for more than 10 years to answer the question of
what transformed the R strain. The scientists started with heat–killed S bacteria cells.
They used a detergent to break down the bacteria, which resulted in an extract that
contained only protein, DNA, and RNA molecules. Initial experiments showed that this
extract contained the transforming principle.
Avery’s team then used enzymes to break down each of the molecules separately.
Once degraded, each sample was mixed with R-strain bacteria to test for
transformation to S-strain. The results of this work are shown in Figure 4.

FIGURE 4: Avery’s Experimental Design
Explain Why did Avery’s
group destroy each type of
protein-destroying molecule before adding it to the
solution
containing enzyme added add R bacteria; solution containing R bacteria? What
heat-killed S S bacteria appear
bacteria and
can you conclude from the results?
protein, DNA,
and RNA
RNA-destroying
enzyme added add R bacteria;
S bacteria appear
DNA-destroying
enzyme added add R bacteria;
no S bacteria appear
Avery and his group performed a chemical analysis of the molecule determined to be
the “transforming principle.” The table in Figure 5 shows the percentage of nitrogen
and phosphorus and the ratio of nitrogen to phosphorus for four samples.
Data Analysis
FIGURE 5: Chemical analysis of the transforming principle
% Nitrogen (N) % Phosphorus (P) Ratio of N to P
Sample A 14.21 8.57 1.66

Sample B 15.93 9.09 1.75
Sample C 15.36 9.04 1.69
Sample D 13.40 8.45 1.58
Known value
15.32 9.05 1.69
for DNA
Analyze How does the data in the table support the claim that DNA is the
transforming principle?
Avery’s group also performed standard chemical tests that showed DNA was present
in the extract and protein was not. They also used enzymes to destroy different
molecules such as lipids and carbohydrates. Each time a molecule was destroyed, the
transformation from R to S bacteria still occurred—until they destroyed DNA. When
DNA was destroyed, the transformation did not occur.
In 1944, Avery and his group presented the evidence to support their conclusion that
DNA must be the transforming principle, or genetic material. However, the scientific
community remained skeptical as to whether the genetic material in bacteria was the
same as that in other organisms. Despite Avery’s evidence, some scientists insisted
that his extract must have contained protein. Further testing remained to be done.

Hershey and Chase Experiments
In 1952, two American biologists, Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase, were researching
different viruses that infect bacteria. These viruses, called bacteriophages, are made up
of a DNA core surrounded by a protein coat. To reproduce, the bacteriophages attach
themselves to bacteria and then inject material inside the cell. Hershey and Chase
thought up a clever procedure that used the chemical elements found in protein
and DNA. Protein contains sulfur but very little phosphorus, while DNA contains
phosphorus but no sulfur. The researchers grew phages in cultures that contained
radioactive isotopes of sulfur or phosphorus. Hershey and Chase then used these
radioactively tagged phages in two experiments.
In the first experiment, bacteria were infected with phages that had radioactive sulfur
atoms in their protein molecules. Hershey and Chase then used a kitchen blender
and a centrifuge to separate the bacteria from the parts of the phages that remained
outside the bacteria. When they examined the bacteria, they found no significant
radioactivity.
In the second experiment, Hershey and Chase repeated the procedure with phages
that had DNA tagged with radioactive phosphorus. This time, radioactivity was clearly
present inside the bacteria.
FIGURE 6: Hershey and Chase’s Experimental Design
Analyze Why did the

Hershey and Chase
experiments support the idea that
DNA is the transforming principle?
1 Protein coats of the phages 2 Phages infect the bacteria. 3 No radioactivity
are radioactively labeled. enters the cell.
1 DNA of the phages is 2 Phages infect the bacteria. 3 Radioactivity

radioactively labeled. enters the cell.
Explain
1. Draw a table to summarize each experiment. Include information on how the

experiments relate to one another, key data, and questions that remained after
each experiment.
2. Develop an argument for why the data from each experiment either supported
or did not support the conclusion that DNA is the molecule of inheritance.
3. Scientists often build on, and improve, the work of other scientists. This process
may cover a long period of time. Explain how advances in technology affect this
process of building scientific knowledge.

EXPLORATION 2
The Structure of DNA
Once Hershey and Chase completed their experiments with bacteriophages, it was
clear that DNA was responsible for the inheritance of traits. What scientists did not yet
understand, however, was how DNA stored genetic information. To understand this,
they first needed to understand the molecular structure of DNA.
Nucleotides
Scientists have known since the 1920s that the DNA molecule is a very long polymer,
FIGURE 7: Nucleotide Structure
or chain of repeating subunits. The subunit, or monomer, that makes up DNA is called
a nucleotide, shown in Figure 7. phosphate
One molecule of human DNA contains billions of nucleotides. However, if you were group
to divide all of those nucleotides into groups of identical nucleotides, you would
end up with just four groups. The nucleotides that make up DNA differ only in their
nitrogen–containing, or nitrogenous, bases. The bases are cytosine (C), thymine (T),
adenine (A), and guanine (G). The letter abbreviations refer both to the bases and to nitrogenous
the nucleotides that contain the bases. deoxyribose base
(sugar)
FIGURE 8: The four nucleotides that make up DNA
PYRIMIDINES
PYRIMIDINES
PYRIMIDINES
PYRIMIDINES PURINES
PURINES
PURINES
PURINES
PYRIMIDINES
PYRIMIDINES
PYRIMIDINES
PYRIMIDINES PURINES
PURINES
PURINES
PURINES
Name
Name of
of
Name
Name of base
base
of base
base Structural
Structural
Structural
Structural formula
formula
formula
formula Model
Model
Model
Model Name
Name of
of
Name
Name of base
base
of
base Structural
base Structural formula
formula
Structural
Structural formula
formula Model
Model
Model
Model
Name
Name
Name
Name of
of
ofof
base
base
base
base Structural
Structural
Structural
Structural formula
formula
formula
formula Model
Model
Model
Model Name
Name
Name
Nameof
ofofof
base
base
base Structural
base Structural
Structural
Structuralformula
formula
formula
formula Model
Model
Model
Model
OO
OO NN
NN NH
NH
NHNH
222 2
OO O HC
HCHC NN NC CNH
HC NHNH
22 2
CC
CC NH
NH
NHNH HC
HCHC CC C CC C
thymine
thymine
thymine
thymine CC C NHNH
NH
TTT T adenine
adenine
adenine
adenine HNHN C CC C CC CN
thymine
thymine
thymine
thymine CH
CH C
33 3 C CC
C C OO adenine
adenine
adenine
adenine HN
HN AA A
TT T AA
CHCH3 CC OO HNHN C
HN CC NN N
CHCH
CH CC
33 3 C CC C OO O CC C NN N AA
HC
HC
HCHC NH
NH
NHNH NN CH
HCHC
HC NHNH
NH N N CH
CHCH
NN N CH
CHCH
NN
NN OO
OO
NHNH
NH
NH 222 2
HC
HCHC NN NC C OO O
HC
NH
NHNH
22 2 HC
HCHC CC C CC C
CC
CC NN
NN HNHN C CC C CC C
HN
cytosine
cytosine
cytosine
cytosine
cytosine CC C NN N CC C guanine
guanine
guanine
guanine
guanine HN
HNHN C CC NH
NH
NHNH
CC
HC HN G
cytosine
cytosine
cytosine HC
HCHC CC
C C OO
OO CC guanine
guanine
guanine CC C NH
NHNH G
G G
HC
HCHC CC C OO O N C
NN N CC C G
GG
HCHC
HC
HC NHNH
NH
NH NN N CC C
HC
HCHC NH
NHNH NH
NH
NHNH
222 2
NH
NHNH
22 2
Explain Use the information in Figure 8 to answer the following questions.

1. How do the structures of purines differ from the structures of pyrimidines?
2. Which base is most similar in structure to thymine?
Determining DNA Structure

For a long time, scientists assumed that DNA was made up of equal amounts of the
four nucleotides and that the DNA in all organisms was therefore exactly the same.
That assumption made it difficult to convince scientists that DNA was the genetic
material. They reasoned that identical molecules could not carry different instructions
across all organisms. However, in 1950, Erwin Chargaff conducted a set of experiments
that challenged this assumption.

Chargaff’s Experiments
Chargaff changed the thinking about DNA by analyzing the DNA of several different
organisms. He found that the same four bases are found in the DNA of all organisms,
but the proportion of the four bases differs from one organism to another.
Data Analysis
FIGURE 9: Nucleotide ratios leading to the formulation of Chargaff’s rules
Adenine to Thymine to Adenine to Guanine to Purines to

Source
Guanine Cytosine Thymine Cytosine Pyrimidines
Human 1.56 1.75 1.00 1.00 1.00
Chicken 1.45 1.29 1.06 0.91 0.99
Salmon 1.43 1.43 1.02 1.02 1.02
Wheat 1.22 1.18 1.00 0.97 0.99
Yeast 1.67 1.92 1.03 1.20 1.00
E-coli k2 1.05 0.95 1.09 0.99 1.00
Analyze
1. The numbers shown in the table are ratios. For example, the ratio of
adenine to guanine in humans is 1.56 to 1, or 1.56:1. The 1 is assumed,
and not shown. What do you observe about these ratios?
2. How does Chargaff’s work support the idea that DNA is the molecule
of inheritance?
FIGURE 10: X-ray Evidence Franklin’s X-Ray Crystallography

In the early 1950s, British scientist Rosalind Franklin was studying DNA using a technique
called x-ray crystallography. When crystallized DNA is bombarded with x-rays, the atoms
diffract the x-rays in a pattern that can be captured on film. Franklin’s x-ray photographs
of DNA showed an X surrounded by a circle. The pattern and angle of the X suggested
that DNA consists of two strands, spaced at a consistent width apart and twisted into
a helical shape.
Image Credits: (c) ©Science Source/Getty Images; (b) ©Omikron/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Collaborate Rosalind Franklin’s results made her think that the DNA molecule was
a Rosalind Franklin a helical, or spiral, shape. With a partner, discuss what questions about the structure of
DNA were not answered by her results.
Watson and Crick’s Model of DNA

At about the same time that Franklin was working with x-ray crystallography, American
geneticist James Watson and British physicist Francis Crick were also studying DNA
structure. Their interest was sparked by the earlier work of Hershey, Chase, and
Chargaff as well as biochemist Linus Pauling. Pauling discovered that the structure of
some proteins was a helix, or spiral. Watson and Crick hypothesized that DNA might
also be a helix. Franklin’s crystallographs, along with her calculations, gave them the
clues they needed to develop models like the one shown in Figure 11.
b X-ray crystallography

Watson and Crick began working with their model to determine the structure of
FIGURE 11: James Watson
DNA. They knew they had to be able to twist their model to account for the evidence
(left) and Frances Crick (right)
provided by Franklin’s x-rays. They placed the sugar-phosphate backbones on the used a model to figure out the
outside and the nitrogenous bases on the inside. At first, Watson reasoned that A structure of DNA.
might pair with A, T with T, and so on. But the bases A and G are about twice as wide as
C and T, so this made a helix that varied in width. This arrangement was not supported
by Franklin’s data, which showed that the width of the molecule was constant. Finally,
Watson and Crick found that if they paired doubled-ringed nucleotides with single-
ringed nucleotides, the bases fit like a puzzle.
In April 1953, Watson and Crick published their DNA model in the journal Nature.
Working from Franklin’s data, they built a double-helix model in which the two strands
were complementary—that is, if one strand is ACACAC, the other strand is TGTGTG.
The pairing of bases in their model supported Chargaff’s results. These A–T and C–G
relationships became known as Chargaff’s rules.
Analyze By building a
Current DNA Model physical model, Watson and
Crick were able to see that adenine
As technology has advanced, our understanding of DNA has continually improved. fit with thymine and guanine fit
The current model represents DNA nucleotides of a single strand joined together by with cytosine. How do Chargaff’s
covalent bonds that connect the sugar of one nucleotide to the phosphate of the next results support Watson and Crick’s
nucleotide. The alternating sugars and phosphates form the sides of a double helix, or model?
the sugar-phosphate backbone of the molecule. The DNA double helix is held together
by hydrogen bonds between the bases in the middle. Individually, each hydrogen
bond is weak, but together, they maintain DNA structure.
FIGURE 12: Model of DNA
This ribbon-like
part represents the
phosphate groups
and deoxyribose
sugar molecules Predict Look at the
that make up the G C hydrogen bonds between
DNA’s “backbone.”
T A
the base pairs in Figure 12. Which
The nitrogen- base pairs do you think are held
containing bases are
held together by hydrogen
more tightly together?
bonds in the middle of
hydrogen bond covalent bond the molecule.
As Watson and Crick’s model showed, the bases of the two DNA strands always follow
Image Credits: (t) ©A. Barrington Brown/Science Source
Chargaff’s rules for base pairing: thymine (T) always pairs with adenine (A), and cytosine
(C) always pairs with guanine (G). These pairings occur because of the sizes of the
bases—a purine is always paired with a pyrimidine—and the ability of the bases to form
hydrogen bonds with each other. As an example of base pairing, if a sequence of bases
on one strand of DNA is CTGCTA, the matching DNA strand will be GACGAT.
Model Describe the structure of DNA using a ladder as an analogy. What makes up the
rungs, or steps, of the ladder? What makes up the sides? How is the ladder shaped?

EXPLORATION 3
DNA Replication
The process by which DNA is copied during the cell cycle

is called replication. This process takes place in the nucleus
INTERPHASE during the S phase of the cell cycle. After the two strands of
G1 Checkpoint DNA are separated, each strand becomes a template for a new
strand of DNA. The order of the bases is preserved, so DNA
Gap 1 (G1)
M Checkpoint
Cells grow, carry out is replicated accurately each time. Replication ensures that
CYT normal functions, and
OKI
NES
IS
replicate their organelles. every cell has a complete set of identical genetic information.
TTelophas
e
MITOSIS
Cell division
phase
M e ta
pha
se Synthesis (S)
DNA is replicated.
DNA Process for Replication
Pro Gap 2 (G2)
Additional
growth
G2 Checkpoint occurs. DNA stores genetic information; however, it does not copy
itself. Enzymes and other proteins do the work of replication.
Some enzymes start the process by breaking the weak
hydrogen bonds that hold the base pairs together. This
“unzips” the DNA molecule into two separate strands. Other proteins hold the strands
Explain The word apart while each strand serves as a template. Nucleotides that are floating free in the
synthesis comes from a nucleus can then pair up with the nucleotides of the templates on each strand of
Greek word meaning “to put the separated DNA. A group of enzymes called DNA polymerases are involved in this
process. DNA polymerase binds the new nucleotides together. When the process is
together, or combine.” Why is the S
finished, the result is two complete molecules of DNA, each exactly like the original
phase called the synthesis phase?
double strand.
DNA Unzips
An enzyme called helicase binds to the DNA molecule and unzips the strands. This
occurs at many places along the chromosome, called the origins of replication. The
hydrogen bonds connecting base pairs are broken, the original molecule separates,
and the bases on each strand are exposed. Other proteins, called stabilizing proteins,
bind to and stabilize the separated strands. The process of unzipping DNA proceeds in
two directions simultaneously, rather like unzipping a suitcase.
Explore Online
Structure and Function FIGURE 14: DNA unzipping.
The name of an enzyme can

explain its function. The suffix
-ase indicates that a protein is an
enzyme. The root word before the
suffix indicates which molecule is
the substrate for this enzyme. One helicase
enzyme involved in DNA replication
is called helicase. stabilizing proteins

Nucleotide Pairing
Once the DNA is unzipped, the process of adding nucleotides to the single-stranded
templates begins. An enzyme called primase makes an RNA primer, a short nucleotide
segment that begins the synthesis process. The RNA primer segment is necessary
because DNA polymerase can only add nucleotides to an existing strand.
Similar to the unzipping process, replication takes place at both forks simultaneously.
One by one, free nucleotides pair with the bases exposed as the template strands
unzip. Starting at the primer, DNA polymerases bond the nucleotides together and
form new strands using DNA nucleotides that are complementary to each template.
Because the two strands of the DNA molecule are positioned in opposite directions,
there are differences in how each strand is copied. On the leading strand, highlighted
in the top image in Figure 15, DNA replication begins at the primer and proceeds
in one direction as DNA polymerase III adds new nucleotides. On the lagging strand,
highlighted in the bottom image in Figure 15, replication occurs in a discontinuous,
piece-by-piece way in the opposite direction. On the lagging strand, primers attach at
multiple locations so multiple molecules of DNA polymerase III can add nucleotides to
each primer at the same time.
FIGURE 15: DNA polymerases bond nucleotides together to form the new strands. Language Arts
Connection Use an
primase
analogy to explain the sequence of
events in the replication of DNA.
stabilizing proteins Cite evidence from the diagram to
support your explanation.
DNA polymerase III RNA primer
helicase
stabilizing proteins
helicase
DNA polymerase III DNA polymerase I DNA ligase
Once the open regions on both strands are filled in, an enzyme called DNA polymerase I
removes the RNA primers from both strands and replaces them with DNA nucleotides.
primase
On the lagging strand, the fragments are then bound together by an enzyme called
ligase.
stabilizing proteins
When replication is complete, there are two identical molecules of DNA. Each molecule
contains one strand of DNA from the original molecule andIIIone new strand. This type Model Make a model of a
DNA polymerase RNA primer
of replication is called semiconservative because each new molecule of DNA conserves, DNA molecule to explain
or keeps unchanged, one strand of DNA from the original molecule. semiconservative replication.
helicase
DNA polymerase III DNA polymerase I DNA ligase Lesson 1 DNA Structure and Replication 267
Fast and Accurate Replication
In every living thing, DNA replication happens repeatedly, and it happens remarkably
FIGURE 16: Replication Origins
fast. In human cells, about 50 nucleotides are added every second to a new strand
of DNA at an origin of replication. But even at this rate, it would take many days to
1
replicate a molecule of DNA if the molecule were like a jacket zipper, unzipping one
2
tooth at a time. To speed the process along, replication takes place at hundreds of
origins of replication along the DNA molecule. This allows replication to be completed
3
in only a few hours rather than days.
4
For the most part, replication proceeds smoothly. Occasionally, though, the wrong
nucleotide is added to the new strand of DNA. This is called a base substitution, which is
a type of point mutation—a mutation that occurs at a single location in the sequence
of nucleotides. However, DNA polymerase can detect the error, remove the incorrect
nucleotide, and replace it with the correct one. In this way, errors in DNA replication
are limited to about 1 error per 1 billion nucleotides. If the substitution is not repaired,
it may permanently change the organism’s DNA. Sickle-cell anemia is an example of a
genetic disorder that results from a base-substitution point mutation.
Predict Why is it important for DNA polymerase I to proofread the new strands of DNA
before the cell divides?
Engineering
FIGURE 17: Folded DNA Model The Art of DNA Folding
The human body has a knack for packing. It fits about eight meters of large and
small intestines into the abdomen and jams about 100,000 kilometers of blood
vessels, large and small, into the body. It should come as no surprise that the
tiniest unit of the human body, the cell, has the same astonishing capability.
There are about 3 billion DNA base pairs in the human genome. If stretched
out, the strand would be about 180 meters. This must fit into an area the size of
a pinpoint. To make that happen, DNA must be tightly folded over and again,
without becoming a tangled mess. The problem is solved by the formation of
about 10,000 precise, non-overlapping loops like the ones in a bow. Instead of
knots, the loops are held together by special proteins. The loops are crumpled to
conserve space and are coated with chemical tags. The loops are then organized
into groups by tag.
Image Credits: (b) ©A. Sanborn and E.L. Aiden
Explain How does the structure of DNA aid in its replication?

Hands-On Lab
Extracting DNA FIGURE 18: Strawberries

have eight copies of each
While scientists use DNA extraction kits available from biotechnology companies, you chromosome in their cells.
can actually extract DNA using common ingredients found in your own home. During
a DNA extraction, a detergent is used to burst open cells so that the DNA is released
into solution. Then alcohol is added to the solution to cause the DNA to precipitate
out. In this activity, you will extract DNA from a strawberry. Unlike human cells, which
contain two copies of each chromosome, a strawberry has eight copies of each
chromosome in its cells.
Predict What will DNA extracted from a strawberry look like?
PROCEDURE MATERIALS
1. Place the alcohol in a freezer 24 hours before beginning the lab. • cheesecloth
2. Place the strawberry in a plastic zipper bag. Zip the bag closed. • funnel
3. Gently crush the strawberry by squeezing it inside the closed bag for 2 minutes. • isopropyl alcohol (91%)
4. C
arefully open the bag and add 1 teaspoon water, 1 teaspoon liquid dish soap,
• dish soap, liquid
and a pinch of salt. Zip the bag closed. Knead for 1 minute.
• salt
5. P
our the strawberry mixture into a cheesecloth-lined funnel that is set into a test
tube to filter out the solids. • strawberry (1 per student)
6. R
emove the alcohol from the freezer. Open the test tube lid and tilt it in your • teaspoon
hand. Very slowly, pour a small amount of alcohol down the inside of the test tube
• test tube with stopper
just until there is a thin layer floating on top of the solution.
7. O
bserve the test tube. You should see a band of white, gooey material forming • water
just beneath the layer of alcohol. Gently put the skewer into the test tube and twirl • wood skewer
it in the white material in one direction only. Wind the material around the skewer,
• zipper bag, plastic, quart size
then carefully draw it up and out of the test tube.
8. Record your observations.
ANALYZE
Explain Use your results from this activity to answer the following questions.
1. Describe the appearance of your DNA sample.
Image Credits: ©Tatiana Volgutova/Shutterstock
2. How is your DNA sample similar to and different from Watson and Crick’s model?
3. The sample of DNA came from many strawberry cells. Do you think you would have
been able to get the same result from your experiment if you had extracted DNA
from a single cell?
EVIDENCE FOR DNA STRUCTURE Go online to choose one of

TELOMERES AND AGING
AND FUNCTION these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 19: With advanced technology, we can directly observe DNA.
The photos shown here represent images of DNA at different scales. Current models of
DNA include specific details about the shape and chemical makeup of this molecule.
How do we know what DNA looks like if even our best technology to date gives us
limited images?
What we know about DNA today is the result of multiple scientists building on
each other’s work. At each step in the process, scientists made observations, asked
Image Credits: (l) ©Volker Steger/Science Source; (c) ©Professor Stanley N. Cohen/Science Source; (r) ©Professor Enzo Di Fabrizio, IIT/Science Source
questions, tested ideas, and shared data. Advances in technology let scientists expand
on discoveries, adding new information to our body of knowledge. For example,
Frederick Griffith’s discoveries led to questions Oswald Avery wanted to answer.
Avery’s work, in turn, provided valuable information that helped Alfred Hershey and
Martha Chase prove definitively that DNA is the molecule of inheritance. James Watson
and Francis Crick built on Erwin Chargaff’s base-pairing rules and evidence from Linus
Pauling to propose DNA’s helical structure. The work of Rosalind Franklin was critical to
the confirmation that DNA did indeed have a twisted, helical shape.
Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook to explain how you would
describe the structure of DNA. Use evidence and models to support your explanation, and
address the following questions in your explanation:
1. How did the research of scientists such as Chargaff, Franklin, Watson, and Crick help
advance our understanding of the structure of DNA?
2. What other methods can you think of that could be used to further study the
structure of an object, such as DNA?

CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 9. How do the base-pairing rules explain how a strand of
DNA acts as a template during DNA replication?
1. What is the complementary DNA strand for a strand with
the nucleotide sequence AACCCGGTTT?
a. GGAAATTCCCT MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE
b. TTAAACCGGG
c. TTGGGCCAAA
d. CCGGGTTAAT
2. What did Avery’s work on the identification of DNA codes for proteins and is responsible for an
transforming factors prove? organism’s traits.
a. DNA is made of four different nucleotides.
b. The DNA molecule is a double-stranded helix.
study guide:
c. Genetic information is contained in DNA.
d. Bacterial DNA is interchangeable between species. • Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
3. Replication is a critical process during the cell cycle. In
which phase of the cell cycle does replication take place?
a. G1
b. G2 Consider how the unique structure of DNA allows it to be copied
c. S
and to transmit traits from parent to offspring.
d. M
4. What knowledge did scientists gain based on the x-ray

crystallograph taken by Rosalind Franklin?
a. The sequence of nucleotides
b. How nucleotide bases form a template
c. The role of DNA in genetic mutations
d. The double-helix structure of DNA
5. How does the central dogma connect DNA, RNA,

and proteins?
6. What do you predict would happen to the length

of a human pregnancy if there was a single origin
of replication on each chromosome?
7. What is the function of the proofreading step

of replication? What might happen if this step
were skipped?
8. What process did Watson and Crick use to develop their

model of DNA, and how did it differ from the controlled
experiments used by Griffith, Avery, and Hershey and
Chase?

6.2
Protein Synthesis
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
Like computers that use FIGURE 1: In some ways, computer programming is similar to protein synthesis.
codes to do tasks, DNA uses
codes to make proteins.
Image Credits: (t) ©hiyusuke9/Fotolia; (b) ©E+/Steve Debenport/Getty Images

Gather Evidence In order to use technology, humans often have to “talk to” computers. This requires
As you explore the lesson, special programming languages. Rather than using words to communicate, computers
gather evidence for how DNA code have their own language made up of 1s and 0s, which represent the states “on” and
“off.” This language system is referred to as binary code. Programming languages help
is translated into the language of
people translate between the person and the computer’s language.
proteins.
Binary code uses only two values: 0 and 1. However, computers can be programmed
to carry out millions of different tasks. DNA also uses a code, and it contains only four
components, which are represented by the letters A, T, G, and C. However, using this
“four-letter code” allows cells to produce thousands of different proteins.
Predict How do you think a code consisting of so few characters can encode the
instructions for building thousands of different proteins?

EXPLORATION 1
Introduction to Protein Synthesis
You have learned that DNA determines traits and codes for proteins, but how does
the language of DNA translate to the language of proteins? Protein synthesis is
basically a two-step process in which information flows from DNA to RNA to proteins.
The Central Dogma

Soon after discovering the structure of DNA, Francis Crick defined what he called
the “central dogma” of molecular biology. Crick stated that information flowed from
DNA to proteins, but not in the other direction. This flow of information from DNA to
proteins is referred to as protein synthesis. Crick proposed that in the first step of this
process, information flowed from DNA to an intermediate molecule of RNA. In the
second step, information was transferred from the RNA to a protein molecule.
Recall that in addition to providing the template for protein synthesis, the DNA code
can also be copied. Replication is the process during the cell cycle in which DNA is
copied, so that when cell division occurs, each new cell receives a full set of DNA.
Model Create a flow chart to illustrate the flow of information in both protein synthesis
and DNA replication.
Genes Code for Proteins

Each protein is coded for by a section of DNA called a gene. A gene is a piece of DNA
that provides instructions for a cell to make a certain protein. Humans have around
19,000 protein-coding genes. However, the number of genes is not necessarily
related to the complexity of the organism. For example, grape plants are fairly simple
organisms, but they have over 30,000 genes according to the most recent count.
Genes are the most basic unit of heredity. They determine the traits of an organism
because the proteins they code for carry out the work of the cell. Some proteins give
cells structure, while others catalyze reactions or act as chemical messengers.
FIGURE 2: A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a certain protein.
Explain Imagine that a

chromosome was compared
to a novel. What could a gene be
compared to?
gene
gene
Lesson 2 Protein Synthesis 273

Proteins are the connection between DNA and traits. Proteins carry out most of the
tasks in the cell, and as a result, greatly influence the cell’s structure and function.
Whether they are catalyzing chemical reactions, transporting molecules, or helping
fight infections, proteins are essential components of the cell system.
FIGURE 3: Proteins have many different functions.
Function Examples
Storage Albumin (a protein found in egg whites)
Transport Globin (a protein found in red blood cells)
Hormones (chemical messengers)
Maintaining Homeostasis Antibodies (components of the immune system that help defend
the body from bacteria and viruses)
Myosin (motor protein involved in muscle movement)
Movement
Kinesin (a motor protein that transports materials inside cells)
Parts of the cytoskeleton and muscle fibers
Structure
Keratin (a protein that makes up hair, nails, feathers, and horns)
Catalyzing Reactions Enzymes such as catalase, maltase, and lactase
Gather Evidence Record evidence to explain why proteins are called the
“workhorses” of the cell.
Structure and Function
Protein Modeling
Each protein has a specific structure, which is coded for by a gene or set of genes.
Image Credits: (b) Image of PDB entry 3L4V created with Chimera (http://www.rbvi.ucsf.edu/chimera/)
FIGURE 4: This computer
The image in Figure 4 is a computer model of a protein called maltase that catalyzes
model can be used to study the
enzyme maltase. chemical reactions. As the name suggests, maltase breaks down the carbohydrate
maltose into molecules of the simple sugar glucose.
A protein’s structure helps it carry out a specialized function. The structure of maltase
allows it to catalyze particular chemical reactions properly. If the structure of
the protein is altered, it may not be able to carry out its function. Scientists are
particularly interested in protein structure because proteins are involved in almost
every cell process. Scientists use different types of technology to determine the
structure of a protein to help them make a model using computer modeling
software. This gives scientists a tool for experimenting with errors in protein
structure to determine how these errors affect the protein’s function. For example,
scientists discovered that some human diseases result from a malfunctioning
protein. Computer modeling technology has allowed research on proteins to
advance greatly in recent years.
Explain What types of questions could a researcher investigate using a computer

model of the enzyme maltase?

Stages of Protein Synthesis
The process of constructing proteins based on the DNA code has two main stages:
transcription and translation. Transcription is the process of copying a sequence of
DNA into an intermediate molecule called mRNA, or messenger RNA. mRNA is like
a disposable copy of the DNA message. During translation, the mRNA message is
converted into a polypeptide. One or more polypeptides make up a functional protein.
Predict Why do you think a “disposable copy” of the DNA code is necessary for protein
synthesis?
Recall that a prokaryotic cell does not have a nucleus; instead, DNA “free-floats” within
the cell. Thus, in these cells, transcription and translation all occur in the cytoplasm at
approximately the same time. The translation of mRNA begins while the mRNA is still
being transcribed.
In eukaryotic cells, however, DNA is located inside the nuclear membrane, so these
processes are separated in both location and time. Transcription occurs in the nucleus
of the cell, whereas translation occurs in the cytoplasm. The separation of transcription
and translation in eukaryotic cells allows for additional processing of the mRNA before
it is translated into a protein.
FIGURE 5: Protein synthesis includes the processes of transcription and translation.
eukaryotic cell Collaborate Imagine

that the DNA code was
cytoplasm compared to a recipe in a cookbook.
nucleus What could RNA be compared to?
DNA Write your answer, and then
compare it with a partner’s answer.
transcription
mRNA
export
mRNA
translation
protein
Analyze Identify the starting and ending materials for transcription and translation.
The RNA in eukaryotic cells goes through a processing step before it can be
exported out of the nucleus. Before translation occurs, mRNA is “spliced” into a new
combination of nucleotides. This extra modification of the mRNA code allows for the
production of different proteins from a single gene. Thus, the mRNA transcript can
be edited before it is translated.

Comparing DNA and RNA
RNA acts as a messenger, carrying information from DNA in the nucleus to protein
synthesis in the cytoplasm. RNA is like a temporary copy of DNA that is used and
then broken down. A molecule of RNA is similar to a molecule of DNA, but with some
distinct differences. Figure 6 illustrates how the structures of these molecules compare.
For example, DNA contains a sugar called deoxyribose, whereas RNA contains a sugar
called ribose.
FIGURE 6: DNA and RNA have some similarities in their structures.

Language Arts
DNA RNA
Connection Human deoxyribonucleic acid ribonucleic acid
Immunodeficiency Virus, or HIV, cytosine cytosine
is a retrovirus. Retroviruses contain NH2 NH2
RNA instead of DNA as genetic C N C N
material. When HIV infects a cell, HC C O HC C O
an enzyme called reverse HC NH HC NH
transcriptase uses the RNA code to sugar-
sugar-
guanine phosphate
phosphate guanine
make a strand of DNA. This enzyme backbone
N O backbone N O
is not very precise, making lots of
HC HC
mistakes, allowing the virus to C C C C
HN C NH HN C NH
mutate rapidly. Using Internet
resources, research HIV and reverse N C N C
base
basepair
pair
transcriptase. Prepare a report NH2 NH2
comparing protein synthesis in adenine adenine
human cells to the process this
N NH2 N NH2
retrovirus uses to transcribe its HC
C C
HC
C C
genetic material. HN C N HN C N
N CH N CH
thymine uracil
O O
C NH C NH
CH 3 C C O C C O
HC NH HC NH
replaces thyminein in
replaces thymine RNARNA
nitrogenous bases
nitrogenous bases nitrogenous bases
nitrogenous bases
As you can see, RNA has one nitrogenous base, uracil, that differs from one of the bases
found in DNA. This base is similar in structure to thymine, allowing it to form base pairs
with adenine. RNA’s unique single-stranded structure also allows some types of RNA to
form complex three-dimensional shapes. As a result, some RNA molecules can catalyze
reactions similar to the way in which protein enzymes do.
Explain Why is RNA necessary for protein synthesis?

EXPLORATION 2
Transcription
In order to translate the DNA code into a protein, a temporary copy of the code is Predict Transcribe means
needed. This first stage of protein synthesis is called transcription. Transcription is to write. Why would we use
the process of copying a sequence of DNA to produce a complementary strand of the word transcribe to describe the
RNA. In eukaryotes, transcription occurs in the nucleus of the cell.
process of making a complementary
RNA sequence from a DNA template?
Steps of Transcription
During the process of transcription, a gene–not an entire chromosome–is transcribed
into an RNA message. Transcription is catalyzed by RNA polymerases, enzymes that
bond nucleotides together in a chain to make a new RNA molecule.
Explore Online
FIGURE 7: In transcription, enzymes use the DNA template to make a complementary strand of RNA.
template strand transcription complex

DNA 1 In eukaryotic cells, a large transcription
initiation complex consisting of
RNA polymerase and other proteins
assembles on the DNA strand and
begins to unwind a segment of the DNA
start site molecule. The complex assembles at a
nucleotides specific sequence of nucleotides along
the DNA molecule called a promoter.
2 RNA polymerase, using one strand

of DNA as a template, strings together
a complementary strand of RNA
nucleotides. RNA base pairing follows
the same rules as DNA base pairing,
except that uracil, not thymine, pairs
RNA polymerase with adenine. So, U pairs with A and G
moves along the DNA pairs with C. The growing RNA strand
hangs freely as it is transcribed, and the
DNA helix zips back together.
3 Transcription continues until an entire

gene has been converted to RNA. The
RNA strand detaches completely from
the DNA.
RNA
Structure and Function Explain how the structure of the DNA molecule
determines the structure of an RNA molecule during transcription.

Transcription can produce hundreds or thousands of copies of mRNA depending
FIGURE 8: These growing RNA
on the cell’s needs. Transcription enables a cell to adjust to changing demands by
strands are being transcribed
from a single DNA strand. making a single-stranded complement of only a segment of DNA, and only when that
particular segment is needed. Many RNA molecules can be transcribed from a single
gene at the same time to help produce more protein. Once RNA polymerase has
transcribed one portion of a gene and has moved on, another RNA polymerase can
attach itself to the beginning of the gene and start the transcription process again. This
process can occur over and over again.
Analyze Why is the ability to produce multiple RNA transcripts at the same time
useful in maintaining homeostasis in a cell?
Transcription produces three main types of RNA molecules, each with a unique
function. Only one, mRNA, actually codes for proteins. Once mRNA is bound to
ribosomal RNA (rRNA) in a ribosome, it is read by transfer RNA (tRNA) molecules
that carry amino acids to bind to the developing protein.
FIGURE 9: Transcription produces three main types of RNA.
Type of RNA mRNA rRNA tRNA
amino
large acid
subunit
ribosome tRNA
binding
Model sites
small
subunit
anticodon
Carries, or "transfers" amino acids to

An intermediate message that is Forms subunits of ribosomes, which are
Function the ribosome to help make the growing
translated to form a protein. the cell’s protein factories.
protein.
Model Write a complementary mRNA sequence for the DNA sequence below.
Remember that RNA contains uracil instead of thymine.
DNA sequence: TCA GGT ACG CTT
Image Credits: (t) ©PROFESSOR OSCAR MILLER/Science Photo Library

The next main stage of protein synthesis—translation—can begin once transcription
is complete. However, the RNA strand must be processed before it can exit the nucleus
in eukaryotes. This step occurs during, or just after, transcription. We will examine RNA
processing in another lesson.
Explain Transcription and DNA replication are often compared to one another because
they have many similarities. However, they do not have the same functions. Make a
graphic organizer to compare and contrast DNA replication and transcription in terms of their
functions, inputs, and final products.

EXPLORATION 3
Translation
In order to complete protein synthesis, the language of mRNA must be translated Collaborate In
into the language of proteins. How does a language consisting of only four everyday language,
characters translate into a language of 20 amino acids? Just as letters are strung translation means to express words
together in the English language to make words, nucleotides are strung together in another language. Give an
to code for amino acids.
example of a message that would
So far, you have learned that transcription uses DNA to produce a complementary need to be translated.
strand of RNA. In eukaryotes, this stage of protein synthesis occurs in the nucleus.
Once the RNA is processed and leaves the nucleus through pores, it enters the
cytoplasm. This is where the process of translation decodes the mRNA to produce a
protein. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Ribosomes
Once it is in the cytoplasm, the mRNA binds to organelles called ribosomes, which are
made of rRNA and proteins. In plant and animal cells, ribosomes may be found floating
free in the cytoplasm of the cell, or they may be attached to an organelle called the
rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER). As proteins are being made, they enter the
rough ER. Once inside, the proteins fold into their three-dimensional shapes, and some
are modified by the addition of carbohydrate chains.
FIGURE 10: Animal Cell
rough
nucleus endoplasmic
reticulum
ribosome
Model Draw a flow chart

to show the flow of RNA
Golgi apparatus and proteins through the cell
during protein synthesis.
vesicle
From the ER, proteins generally move to the Golgi apparatus to be processed, sorted,
and delivered. Some packaged proteins are stored within the Golgi apparatus for
later use. Others are transported to different organelles within the cell. Still others are
carried to the membrane, where the vesicles carrying the proteins merge with the cell
membrane, releasing the protein outside the cell through exocytosis.

Codons and Amino Acids
The translation of RNA into protein is similar to what happens in a computer code.
The information encoded in the nucleic acids of an mRNA molecule is “read” in groups
of three nucleotides called codons. This is similar to the way a computer interprets
FIGURE 11: A codon is a the zeroes and ones of binary code strings into a program you can use. A codon is a
sequence of three nucleotides three-nucleotide mRNA sequence that codes for an amino acid. Amino acids are the
that code for an amino acid. subunits, or monomers, that make up polypeptides. One or more polypeptides make
codon codon up a protein.
for arginine for tyrosine
Math Connection Suppose an mRNA molecule in the cytoplasm had 300

C G A U A C mRNA nucleotides. How many amino acids would be in the resulting polypeptide?
amino
Scientists have determined what each combination of nucleotides in RNA code for in a
Arg Tyr
acids protein and used this information to develop codon charts. A codon chart is used to
identify which mRNA codons code for which amino acids. To read a circular codon
chart, begin in the center and work outward. Start with the first letter of the codon,
and pick the correct letter in the middle of the circle. Next, select the second letter of
the codon, then follow to the third letter of the codon, and select the appropriate amino
acid. Notice that many amino acids are coded for by more than one codon.
FIGURE 12: A codon chart shows which mRNA codons code for which amino acids.
Analyze There is one
ALA = Alanine
start codon, AUG, which ALA = Alanine
ARG = Arginine
ARG = Arginine
identifies where translation will GLY PHE
LEU ASN = Asparagine
ASN = Asparagine
begin. Which amino acid GLU
SER ASP = Asparticacid
ASP = Aspartic acid
A G U C A
ASP U C G CYS = Cysteine
corresponds to the start codon? A G U
C CYS = Cysteine
U
C
G U A
G TYR GLN
GLN = Glutamine
= Glutamine
ALA
A
G A C U
GLU = Glutamic
GLU = Glutamic acidacid
C Label C for use whenC off S
A artwork
U C A G
GLY = Glycine
GLY = Glycine
G U
CYS HIS
G U HIS = Histidine
= Histidine
VAL A C
C U G A
G
S
TRP
ILE = Isoleucine
ILE = Isoleucine
U LEU
LEU = Leucine
Leucine
G U
LYS
LYS = Lysine
Lysine
G
A C U
ARG A C
C A LEU MET Methionine
MET = Methionine
SER U G
G
A
A C C
U PHE = Phenylalanine
PHE Phenylalanine
PRO = Proline
Explore Online LYS C A
PRO Proline
U C A G PRO SS== Stop
Stop
Hands-On Activity ASN
G
A
C
U G A
C
U
SER =
SER = Serine
Serine
U G
G A U HIS THR == Threonine
Modeling Protein Synthesis THR C U G A C THR Threonine
GLN TRP == Tryptophan
TRP Tryptophan
MET
and Mutations Model ILE ARG TYR =

TYR = Tyrosine
Tyrosine
transcription and translation VAL = Valine
VAL = Valine
by analyzing a DNA sequence and
writing the corresponding mRNA
The genetic code is shared by almost all living organisms, as well as viruses. That
codons and amino acid sequence.
means, for example, that the codon UUU codes for phenylalanine when that codon
Then, build a model of the protein occurs in an armadillo, a cactus, a yeast, or a human. The common nature of the genetic
and fold it into its final shape. code suggests that organisms arose from a common ancestor. It also means that
Finally, introduce a mutation and scientists can insert a gene from one organism into another organism to make a
use your model to determine functional protein. For these reasons, we say that the genetic code is nearly universal.
how the mutation affects the There are, however, a few exceptions to the genetic code. For example, in one species
protein’s structure. of bacterium, UGA codes for tryptophan instead of functioning as a stop codon.

nucleus amino acid
nucleus amino acid
Explore Online
Steps of Translation ribosome
tRNA
ribosome
tRNA
FIGURE 13: Translation converts an mRNA transcript into a polypeptide to build a protein.
nucleus
nucleus amino
amino acidacid 1 Before translation begins, a small
ribosomal subunit binds to an
ribosome
ribosome tRNA
tRNA
mRNA strand in the cytoplasm. Then
a tRNA with methionine attached
binds to the AUG start codon. This
binding signals a large ribosomal
subunit to join. The ribosome pulls
the mRNA strand through itself one
codon at a time. The tRNA acts as
cytoplasm mRNAa translator between mRNA and
cytoplasm mRNAamino acids.
cytoplasm
cytoplasm
mRNA
mRNA
leucine peptide bond

peptide bond
leucine
leucine
leucine Met
Met peptide
peptidebond
bond
Leu
methionine
methionine Leu Met
methionine Leu
incoming
tRNA
U A C
incoming
incoming
incoming
tRNA
A U G mRNA
tRNA
tRNA
start codon U A CC
U A
U A C
A U
A U G
G mRNA
A U G mRNA
mRNA
start codon
start codon
start codon
2 TheMetexposed codon in the Cys
first site attracts a complementary
Met 3 The ribosome helps form a peptide bond between the two
tRNA molecule
Leu carring an amino acid. The tRNALeu pairs with amino acids and breaks the bond between the tRNA and its
Cys
the mRNA codon, bringing it very close to the other Cys tRNA Met amino acid.
Arg
molecule.
Cys
Met
Met Cys
Met
Met Leu Leu
U A G
Leu
Leu Cys Met
stop codon Leu Cys
Cys Met
Cys Arg
Arg
U A
U A G
G
U A G
stop
stop codon
codon
stop codon
4 The ribosome pulls the mRNA strand along the length of 5 The ribosome continues to translate the mRNA strand,
one codon. The first tRNA is shifted into the exit site, where attaching new amino acids to the growing protein, until it
it leaves the ribosome and returns to the cytoplasm to pick reaches a stop codon. Then the ribosome lets go of the new
up another amino acid. The first site is empty again, exposing protein and breaks apart.
the next mRNA codon.
Explain An adapter can be thought of as a tool that converts an input to a new or

modified use. Explain how the structure of the tRNA molecule helps it function as an
adapter to translate the mRNA code into a sequence of amino acids.

Mutations and Proteins
Sometimes a mutation changes the sequence of nucleotides in an organism’s
DNA. Mutations that occur during replication can be classified as point mutations
and frameshift mutations. In a point mutation, one nucleotide is replaced with a
different nucleotide.
Structure and Function
Explain Determine the amino acid sequence that would be formed before and
FIGURE 14: Mutations alter
nucleotide sequences. after two point mutations. Complete the following:
1. Two DNA sequences are shown in Figure 14. Write the complementary mRNA
Original DNA Sequence sequence for each DNA sequence, and then use the codon chart to translate the
mRNA code into a sequence of amino acids.
TAC AGA GGC CGT
2. Based on the amino acid sequences you wrote, does a point mutation always
Mutated DNA Sequence result in a change to the amino acid sequence? Support your answer with
evidence.
TAC AGT GAC CGT 3. Suggest a specific scenario in which the DNA sequence could be mutated, but
the structure and function of the resulting protein would not change.
Nucleotides must be correctly arranged for the protein to have the correct amino
acid sequence. This order is called the reading frame. A change in the reading frame
is called a frameshift mutation. A frameshift mutation involves the insertion or deletion
of a nucleotide in the DNA sequence.
Analyze Could there be
In an insertion mutation, an extra nucleotide is added into the DNA sequence. In a
a frameshift mutation that deletion mutation, a nucleotide is deleted from the DNA sequence. Because mRNA
would not affect the structure and is read in groups of three nucleotides, the insertion or deletion of a nucleotide can
function of the resulting protein? affect the entire resulting amino acid sequence. For example, if an extra “a” is inserted
Explain your answer. into the sentence, “The cat ate the rat,” the sentence becomes, “The caa tat eth era t.”
FIGURE 15: Frameshift mutations change the reading frame, which results in changes in the sequence of amino acids.
normal frameshift mutation (insertion)
DNA G A T C T C A G G C T A DNA G A T C T T C A G G C T A
mRNA C U A G A G U C C G A U mRNA C U A G A A G U C C G A U
added
base
protein Leu Glu Ser Asp protein Leu Glu Val Arg
Explain Summarize what you have learned so far to begin constructing an explanation
for how the “language” of DNA is translated into the “language” of proteins. Construct
a graphic organizer to compare the two phases of protein synthesis in terms of their
function, where each process occurs in the cell, and final products.

Making Synthetic Cells

What is the smallest number of genes an organism needs Venter and his group finally designed a synthetic cell called
to survive? This is the question that a group of scientists Syn3.0, which contained just 473 genes. Most of the genes
in California set out to answer when they made the first with known functions were involved in expressing the DNA
synthetic cells. Led by biologist Craig Venter, the team wanted code. They were necessary for transcription, translation,
to build a full set of genes, or genome, and ‘install’ it in a new protein folding, RNA modification, and RNA regulation. A
cell, much like installing new software on a computer. smaller percentage were involved in DNA replication, cell
division, and related functions. These genes allowed Syn3.0 to
At first, the group sequenced the genome of a bacterium
sucessfully replicate itself.
called Mycoplasma genitalium. This tiny microbe has the
smallest genome of any known free-living organism. Its About a third of the genes had unknown functions. Some of
DNA holds the instructions to make only 485 proteins. these are found in other organisms like humans, and scientists
The scientists then inactivated genes one at a time to hope to use Syn3.0 to study these genes and their functions.
determine which genes were necessary for life. As a result of Synthetic cells could also be used to make products such as
these tests, the researchers proposed that 375 genes were medicines and fuels. However, there are still many challenges
essential for life. to overcome and ethical issues to consider.
To test the hypothesis that an organism could survive with
FIGURE 16: Mycoplasma genitalium has the smallest genome
only these genes, Venter and his team started building a
of all known free-living organisms.
complete genome by linking together segments of DNA. The
segments of DNA were produced chemically by adding one
of the four nucleotides (A, T, G, and C) to a chain of DNA in a
certain order. Enzymes then linked the segments together.
The group had built a complete genome. They also included
watermarks in the non-protein-coding sections of the DNA.
The watermarks used the genetic code to spell out words and
phrases. The watermarks also signified that the genome was
synthetic and not found in nature.
The slow growth rate of M. genitalium led the team to switch
to a new species of bacteria called Mycoplasma mycoides.
The scientists synthesized the new species’ genome and
implanted it into a different species of bacterium. They had
Language Arts Connection Prepare for a discussion
reached their goal of making a synthetic cell. However, the
by searching for information about synthetic cells. What are
genome was based on a copy of an existing genome, and it
still contained more than 1 million DNA bases.
some of the possibilities and concerns with using synthetic cells in
research? Record evidence statements related to this question, and
The team carried out further tests to determine the genes that record the source for each statement. When you are ready, follow
were absolutely necessary for life. They mixed and matched
your teacher’s guidelines for participating in the discussion. When
different segments of DNA to see which combinations
you speak, give evidence to support your claims, and cite the
resulted in viable cells. This helped the researchers decide
Image Credits: ©SPL/Science Source
sources of your evidence.

which genes to include in their design.
MODELING PROTEIN SYNTHESIS EXPLORING PROTEIN Go online to choose one of

AND MUTATIONS CRYSTALLIZATION these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 17: Computer programmers develop coded instructions that a computer uses to
perform a task. Similarly, DNA is the genetic code that cells use for protein synthesis.
You have explored the cellular process that produces proteins from DNA code. In
many ways it is similar to the way that humans translate our language into a language
that computers can understand. The binary code that computers understand is
made up of zeroes and ones, sometimes called machine code. However, computer
programmers do not typically write programs directly in this binary code. Instead,
they use programming languages, such as C++ or JavaScript, which act as translators
between the programmer and the computer.
Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook to answer the following
questions to explain how the language of DNA is translated to the language of proteins
and how this process compares to computer programming.
1. How does the four-letter DNA language encode instructions for making thousands
of different proteins?
2. Which molecules act as the translators in the process of protein synthesis?
Image Credits: ©E+/Steve Debenport/Getty Images
3. How is the process of protein synthesis similar to the process of programming a

computer? How is it different?

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 6. Which flow chart best summarizes the process of protein
synthesis?
1. A student is planning to draw a model of DNA and a a. rRNA → DNA → mRNA
model of RNA. Which of the following should the student b. Protein → mRNA → DNA
include in the DNA model and NOT the RNA model? c. mRNA → DNA → protein
a. a double helix d. DNA → mRNA → protein
b. the nucleotide uracil
c. the sugar ribose 7. Fill in the correct terms to complete this statement about
d. a phosphate group eukaryotes. Some terms may be used more than once.
2. Which of the following is evidence that would support cytoplasm, amino acids, nucleus, ribosomes, mRNA, DNA,
the claim that DNA has been transcribed into RNA? protein
a. A temporary, complementary copy of the DNA has
been produced.
DNA replication occurs in the _____ of the cell and
b. An exact, permanent copy of the DNA has been produces two identical strands of _____. Protein
produced. synthesis is made up of two stages. Transcription occurs
within the ______ and uses the DNA template to make
c. A complementary, permanent copy of RNA has been
a complimentary strand of _____. This molecule leaves
produced and it replaces DNA.
the nucleus and enters the cell’s _____ where _____ read
along the strand of nucleotides. tRNA molecules bearing
3. Which statement correctly compares the impact
_____ enter the ribosome. The subunits are linked
of frameshift mutations and point mutations on
together to make a polypeptide, which is modified to
polypeptides?
make the final _____.
a. Point mutations have a greater impact because they
always change the resulting protein.
b. Frameshift mutations have a greater impact because
they always substitute the first nucleotide in a codon.
c. Frameshift mutations have a greater impact because
they shift the entire codon sequence following them.
d. Point mutations have a greater impact because they
always cause a change in the amino acid sequence.
Protein synthesis consists of two stages. In the first stage, the
4. Place these steps in order to describe the process DNA code is transcribed to make an mRNA strand. The mRNA
of transcription. strand is then translated into a sequence of amino acids.
a. RNA polymerase uses the DNA strand as a template
to synthesize a complementary strand of RNA.
study guide:
b. The RNA strand grows until an entire gene has been
trascribed.
c. The complex of RNA polymerase and proteins
breaks apart.
d. The DNA is unwound and a specific sequence of
nucleotides is sequenced along the promoter.
e. A large complex consisting of RNA polymerase Consider how models of protein synthesis can be used to
and other proteins assembles on the DNA strand. determine the inputs and outputs at each step, as well as where
each step of the process occurs in the cell.
5. Draw a model showing how the three types of RNA
interact to translate an mRNA code into a sequence
of amino acids.

6.3
Gene Expression
and Regulation
The human genome has 3 CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?

billion base pairs. The fruit
fly genome has 165 million.
FIGURE 1: In the wild-type fruit fly (left), antennae developed normally. In the mutant
fruit fly (right), a mutation caused legs to form in place of the antennae.
Gather Evidence
gather evidence for how gene
Image Credits: (t) ©James King-Holmes/Science Source; (bl) ©Andrew Syred/Science Source; (br) ©Eye of Science/Science Source
expression is regulated in cells.
Most organisms share a group of genes called homeobox genes. One set of homeobox
genes, called Hox genes, direct the formation of many body structures during the
development of the embryo. Mutations in these genes can cause developmental
disorders, including body parts growing in unexpected places, as shown in Figure 1.
We now know that Hox genes are shared by a wide array of animals, from fruit flies
to jellyfish to humans. Hox genes define the head-to-tail pattern of development in
animal embryos. This helps explain why so many animals look the same during the
embryonic stage. Hox genes make segments in a larva or embryo that develop into
specific organs and tissues.
Predict How might changes in genes be responsible for mutations, such as the
mutation that causes legs to grow in place of antennae in a fruit fly?

EXPLORATION 1
Regulating Gene Expression
Most of the cells that make up your body have the same DNA. Red blood cells are one
FIGURE 2: Every gene has a
of the exceptions. Mature red blood cells do not contain DNA. However, the rest of
locus, or specific position on a
your body cells, such as all the different cell types that make up each of your organs, chromosome.
have the same DNA. If they have the same DNA, how can these cells be so different
from each other? The answer lies in the fact that some genes, and the proteins they
encode, control the expression of other genes.
Gene Expression gene
gene
Typically, a gene is considered “expressed” if transcription of mRNA occurs. However,
the mRNA can undergo modification or be broken down before it is translated into
a protein. Gene expression is the process by which the nucleotide sequence of a
gene directs protein synthesis. In this way, cells use protein synthesis to respond to
particular needs and react to changes in their environment.
FIGURE 3: Protein Synthesis in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
DNA molecule
gene
DNA Explain How are genes,

A C C A A A C C G A G T proteins, and cell processes
related?
transcription
U G G U U U G G C U C A
mRNA
codon
translation
protein Trp Phe Gly Ser

amino acid
Collaborate With a partner, discuss these questions: What does the term “expression”
mean in everyday language? How does the meaning of this word relate to the concept of
gene expression?
Lesson 3 Gene Expression and Regulation 287

According to the central dogma of molecular biology, information flows in one
direction from DNA to RNA to proteins. This means there are multiple steps along the
way where protein synthesis can be regulated, or controlled.
Both prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells regulate gene expression, though they do
so differently. In eukaryotes, gene expression is regulated at many different steps. In
contrast, the ability of prokaryotes to regulate gene expression is much simpler.
FIGURE 4: In prokaryotic cells, transcription and translation both occur in the cytoplasm
at about the same time. In eukaryotic cells, where DNA is located inside the nucleus,
these processes are separated both in location and time.
prokaryotic cell eukaryotic cell
cytoplasm cytoplasm
nucleus
DNA DNA
transcription
transcription pre-mRNA
mRNA processing
mRNA mRNA
export
translation mRNA
translation
protein
protein
Structure and Function Use the model in Figure 4 to write an explanation

for how differences in cell structure are related to the differences in the ways gene
expression is regulated in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Gene Regulation in Prokaryotes

Because transcription and translation occur at the same time in prokaryotic cells, gene
expression in these cells is mainly regulated at the start of transcription. Prokaryotic
cells control gene expression using operons to turn genes “on” or “off” during
transcription. An operon is a region of DNA that includes a promoter, an operator, and
one or more structural genes that code for all the proteins needed to do a specific task.
The promoter is a segment of DNA that helps the enzyme RNA polymerase locate the
starting point for transcription.
Analyze What might be
the benefit of turning genes The DNA segment that actually turns genes on or off is the operator. It interacts
with proteins that increase the rate of transcription or block transcription from
on and off?
occurring. Bacteria have much less DNA than do eukaryotes, and their genes tend to
be organized into operons. The lac operon was one of the earliest examples of gene
regulation discovered in bacteria. The lac operon has three genes, which all code for
enzymes that play a role in breaking down the sugar lactose.
Gather Evidence As you read, record information to help you construct an

explanation for how prokaryotes respond to changes in their environment by controlling
gene expression.

The ability of a cell to switch certain genes on or off was first discovered in 1961
by French scientists François Jacob and Jacques Monod. This major advance in our
understanding of how genes work began with a study of how genes control lactose
metabolism in the bacterium Escherichia coli. Jacob and Monod observed that the
genes responsible for lactose metabolism were expressed only in the presence of
lactose. When lactose was not present, the genes were shut off. Their questioning of
how this happened led to the discovery of the lac operon. Scientists now had a basis
for understanding how specific genes can be turned on when needed and turned off
when not needed.
FIGURE 5: Gene Regulation in Prokaryotes Explore Online Explore Online
Hands-On Activity
repressor growing mRNA
RNA polymerase transcribes Modeling Prokaryotic
lactose Operons Build a model of the
DNA lac operon. Then use your model
repressor growing mRNA
to show how gene expression is
RNA polymerase transcribes
regulated in prokaryotes.
lactose promoter operator genes for enzymes that digest lactose
DNA
operon
RNA polymerase blocked
a When lactosepromoter
is present, the lactose molecules
operator strip away
genes for enzymes thelactose
that digest repressor, which lets RNA
polymerase attach to therepressor
promoter and complete the transcription process.
DNA
operon
RNA polymerase blocked
promoter repressor
operator genes for enzymes that digest lactose
DNA
operon
promoter operator genes for enzymes that digest lactose
operon
b When lactose is absent, the repressor protein binds to the operator and prevents RNA
polymerase from transcribing the structural genes that code for proteins.
The lac operon acts like a switch. When lactose is present, the lac operon is switched Language Arts
on to allow transcription. The lactose binds to the repressor, which makes the Connection Make an
repressor change shape and fall off the lac operon. RNA polymerase is able to informational guide explaining
transcribe the DNA into RNA. This RNA is translated to form enzymes that work how the lac operon helps
together to break down the lactose. prokaryotes respond to changes in
When lactose is absent, the lac operon is switched off to prevent transcription of their environment. In your guide,
the lac genes, thus saving the cell’s resources. Bacteria have a protein that can bind explain the functions of the gene,
specifically to the operator. When lactose is absent, the protein binds to the operator, promoter, operator, repressor, and
which blocks RNA polymerase from transcribing the genes. Because the protein RNA polymerase.
blocks—or represses—transcription, it is called a repressor protein.
Model Imagine a bacterium has a mutated gene which codes for a malformed repressor
protein. Draw a flow chart to show how this mutation would affect the bacterium’s ability to
digest lactose.

EXPLORATION 2
Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes
Gene regulation is complex for a reason: the complexity ensures that the correct gene
is expressed in the correct cell at the correct time. Cells rely on information encoded
in their DNA to regulate protein synthesis. In eukaryotes, there is a mechanism that
controls when a gene is expressed, one that controls the amount of protein made,
and still another that controls when synthesis of that protein stops. A gene may also
include other nucleotide sequences that act to control its expression. These sequences
include promoters and operators, which control the start of transcription.
Controlling Gene Expression

Because DNA and ribosomes are located in the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells, both
transcription and translation occur at the same time. As a result, the regulation of gene
expression in prokaryotes is limited to a few steps during transcription. However, the
cellular and chromosomal organization in eukaryotes is much more complex. This
makes it possible for eukaryotes to regulate gene expression at many different points
during protein synthesis.
Pre-Transcriptional Regulation
Language Arts Recall that in eukaryotes, the DNA in chromosomes is bound tightly around proteins
Connection called histones. Chemical compounds are also added to the DNA to help regulate gene
Use Internet resources to research expression. All of these added chemical compounds are referred to collectively as the
some of the recent discoveries in epigenome. The epigenome determines how easily the enzymes of transcription can
access regions of the chromosome to turn genes on or off. When histones or DNA are
the field of epigenetics. Write a
changed chemically, the result may change the accessibility of the DNA for transcription.
blog post to explain how a person’s
environment and their ancestors’ Epigenetic changes can be caused by factors such as the age of the organism, inputs
environments can affect gene from the environment, and disease-causing organisms. Chemical changes to histones
expression. or DNA nucleotides may cause transcription of a DNA region either to begin or to stop.
Epigenetic changes are heritable, even though they do not change the genome itself.
FIGURE 6: Epigenetic changes to chromosomes occur in a variety of ways. In one type of

histone modification, the DNA molecule tightens, making it hard to read.
hard-to-read DNA
gene
Predict What would
happen to a multicellular
organism if every gene were
expressed in every cell all the time? gene
easy-to-read DNA
Explain How is gene expression related to how tightly DNA is wound around histones?

Transcriptional Regulation
Recall that a promoter is a segment of DNA that helps RNA polymerase recognize the
start site of a gene. In eukaryotic cells each gene is controlled by a unique combination
of promoters and other regulatory sequences. Most promoter sequences are unique to
the gene, but some are repeated among many genes in many organisms. For example,
most eukaryotic cells use a seven-nucleotide promoter with the sequence TATAAAA,
called the TATA box.
Eukaryotic cells also have other types of promoters that are more specific to an
individual gene. DNA sequences called enhancers speed up the transcription of a
gene, while sequences called silencers act to slow down transcription. Transcription
factors are proteins that bind to DNA sequences and control gene expression.
Transcription factors may bind to a promoter, an enhancer, or other sections of DNA
near a gene. When the correct transcription factors are present, RNA polymerase
recognizes the start size of the gene, and transcription begins.
FIGURE 7: In eukaryotes, transcription factors bind to promoters and other DNA

sequences to help RNA polymerase recognize the start of a gene.
DNA RNA polymerase gene
Explain Transcription
enhancer
factors occur in different
TATA box
combinations in different types of
promoter cells. How does this allow for
variety in cell types?
transcription factors
Engineering
Using RNA Interference to Fight Disease

In the early 1990s, scientists working with the manipulation of color intensity in Analyze Huntington’s
petunia plants saw something that was hard to explain. In an effort to increase disease is an inherited
the intensity of flower color, the scientists genetically modified petunia plants to disorder that affects the nervous
overexpress the flower pigmentation gene for chalcone synthase (CHS). Some
system, resulting in loss of
of the resulting flowers did indeed have the desired intense purple petals—but
coordination and declining brain
not all of them. Some flowers had purple and white petals, while others had
function. This disease has been
completely white petals. Further investigation led to the discovery that both
the introduced and naturally occurring forms of CHS had been turned off, or
linked to a mutation in the HTT
silenced, in some of these plants. gene. Imagine you want to
design an RNAi technology to
When the gene for the intense color was introduced to the plant, the cells used
silence this gene. Make a list of
RNA interference (RNAi) to deactivate the gene. Small segments of double-
questions you would need to ask
stranded RNA began a series of reactions that degraded the mRNA molecules.
to define and delimit the
RNAi does not normally occur in healthy cells, but cells may use it to fight off
infections or the effects of tissue damage. The study of RNAi may lead to new
problem.
treatments for a variety of diseases caused by harmful genes.

DNA
intron DNA
exon intron exon intron exon intron
intron exon intron exon intron exon intron
Post-Transcriptional Regulation
gene
The cell has a variety of mechanisms it can use at anygene
stage after transcription to
regulate gene expression. One method is mRNA processing, which edits the mRNA
pre-mRNA
pre-mRNA
similar to the way a film editor cuts and splices the scenes of a movie.
exon exon
intron
intronexon
exon intron
intron exon
exon
FIGURE 8: An mRNA molecule typically undergoes processing during or immediately after DNA transcription.
DNA pre-mRNA processing

a c pre-mRNA processing
DNA exon exon exon
intron exon intron exon intron exon intron exon exon exon
intron intron
cap tail
intron intron
gene cap tail
gene
mRNA
pre-mRNA d mRNA
exon exon exon
b pre-mRNA
exon intron exon intron exon exon exon exon
exon intron exon intron exon
cap tail
cap tail
pre-mRNA processing
pre-mRNA processing
exon exon exon
exon exon Theexoncell makes many changes to mRNA after transcription. A specialized nucleotide
cap intron intron intron is added to the beginning

tail of each mRNA molecule, forming a cap. This cap helps the
intron
cap tail
mRNA strand bind to a ribosome and prevents the strand from being broken down
too fast. The end of the mRNA molecule gets a string of nucleotides called the tail that
mRNA improves stability and helps the mRNA molecule exit the nucleus. The “extra footage”
mRNA
exon exon exon in the mRNA molecule takes the form of nucleotide segments, called introns, that are
exon exon exon
not included in the final protein. The nucleotide segments that code for parts of the
cap tail protein are called exons. Introns occur between exons. They are removed from an
cap tail
mRNA molecule before it leaves the nucleus. The cut ends of the exons are then joined
together by a variety of molecular mechanisms.
Introns are an example of what is called noncoding DNA, which are regions of DNA
that do not code for proteins. Scientists are still determining the role of noncoding
regions of the human genome. It is thought that noncoding regions may play a role in
regulating gene expression and in chromosome pairing and condensation.
Collaborate Why would you want to edit a rough cut of film? With a partner,
discuss how this analogy relates to the transcription and translation of a gene.
Translational Regulation
Translation takes place after mRNA is moved into the cytoplasm, and it is the process
that makes a protein from amino acids. In eukaryotes, gene expression may also be
regulated by changes to the translation process. These changes depend mostly on
the stability of the RNA molecule. For example, specific proteins help initiate the
translation process. Changes in these proteins can prevent ribosomes from binding
to mRNA, which slows or stops protein synthesis. These mechanisms allow eukaryotic
cells to control protein production when conditions in the cell change rapidly.
Analyze Make a graphic organizer to summarize the mechanisms that allow eukaryotic
cells to control gene expression at each stage of protein synthesis. How do these
mechanisms compare to those in prokaryotes in terms of structure and function?

EXPLORATION 3
Factors That Influence Gene Expression
What determines whether a gene gets turned on or turned off? Factors both inside Gather Evidence
and outside cells can influence whether a gene is expressed. When an organism is As you read, gather
developing, its cells take on different structures by expressing different sets of genes. evidence to make a claim for how
Gene expression can also be responsible for changes that occur once the organism is gene expression is related to cell
grown. When the environment changes, some genes may need to be turned off, while differentiation.
others need to be expressed more frequently.
Internal Factors
As an organism develops, its cells take on different structures by expressing different
combinations of genes. Several internal factors regulate this process. One internal
factor is the genetic makeup of the zygote. Many of the instructions for differentiation
are included in the zygote’s genome. These genes are expressed early in embryonic
development and begin differentiation. Another factor that affects cell differentiation
is the unequal distribution of molecules in the cytoplasm of the zygote during early
stages of division. As cells divide, some cells have higher concentrations of certain
molecules. These molecules regulate gene expression and help determine what type
of cell each one becomes.
Cells in a developing embryo also influence the cells around them by sending and
receiving diffusible molecules that act as signals. Signals also come from molecules
embedded in the cell membrane. Some of these proteins turn genes on and off to
direct the developmental path of a cell. Still other molecules are enzymes that regulate
gene expression by rapidly breaking down proteins made by translation.
FIGURE 9: During embryonic development, cell differentiation and growth form tissues and organs such as the eye.
optic vesicle future retina lens capsule optic stalk future optic nerve
lens
future neural tissue

lens and future cornea cornea
cornea lens vesicle retina
Structure and Function Make a claim for how the cells in an organism can take on
different structures and functions even though they all have the same genetic material.

External Factors
Factors in an organism’s external environment can also affect gene expression. For
example, a transcription factor called hypoxia-inducible factor, or HIF, is produced
when oxygen concentrations are low. This transcription factor mediates important
developmental processes such as apoptosis and blood vessel development. In tissues
experiencing low oxygen concentrations, or hypoxia, HIF allows for the transcription of
genes related to blood vessel development.
Light and Temperature

Environmental factors such as light and temperature can affect gene expression. For
example, an Arctic fox’s fur color changes from white during the winter to gray-brown
in the summer months to better match its surroundings. This change in fur color is
due to differences in melatonin secretion. In the winter, when day length is shorter,
melatonin is secreted, so the pigment melanin is not produced and the fox’s fur color
is white. In the summer season, when daylight hours are longer, melatonin secretion is
repressed, melanin is produced, and the fox’s fur is gray-brown in color.
Model Draw a flow chart
FIGURE 10: The Arctic fox expresses different colors of fur depending on the season.
to illustrate how changes in
the external environment lead to
changes in gene expression that
affect the Arctic fox’s fur color.
Environmental temperature can also influence gene expression. Trees and other
plants have mechanisms to adapt to changes in temperature, most of which function
through the control of gene expression. In extreme heat conditions, which can
cause stress in plants, multiple genes interact to reduce the rate of photosynthesis
and stop plant growth. By studying the relationship between gene expression and
photosynthesis, geneticists can work to improve the stability of crop plants during
extreme weather conditions.
Drugs and Chemicals

Pregnant women are strongly advised to avoid a variety of drugs and chemicals,
Image Credits: (l) ©BMJ/Shutterstock; (r) ©E+/DmitryND/Getty Images

including tobacco, alcohol, and many medications. These substances can disrupt the
normal timing of gene expression in a developing fetus. For example, a drug called
Analyze Why is a thalidomide was sometimes prescribed to treat morning sickness in the late 1950s and
developing fetus especially early 1960s. However, doctors discovered that it interfered with limb formation in the
susceptible to chemicals that affect developing embryos. Children born to mothers who took this drug were often born
gene expression? with shortened and improperly formed limbs.
Explain Researchers have found that cancerous tumor tissue is often hypoxic, or
deficient in oxygen. As a result, HIF is currently being considered as a possible tool in the
fight against cancer. Explain how HIF-related approaches could be used to suppress tumor
growth, and how this is related to regulating gene expression.

Careers in Science
Geneticist
Genetically, humans and fruit flies are similar. They share FIGURE 11: The genes that determine a fruit fly’s body plan are
many of the same genes and, in some cases, use them in variations of the same genes that determine a human’s, but
the same way. How do we know this? Geneticists work on they are expressed in different patterns.
the cutting edge of science and technology as they study
genes, their functions, and their effects. They study not only
how genes are inherited but also the role of genes in health,
disease, and overall life span.
Geneticists use the fruit fly as a model organism for studying
genetics. The short life span and small size of the fruit fly, HOXA
as well as the ease with which they can be grown and
HOXB
maintained in a lab, make them model organisms to study.
Most importantly, their entire genome is contained on HOXC
just four chromosomes. This has allowed researchers to HOXD

completely map the fruit fly genome.
Many known human disease genes have a recognizable
match in the genetic code of the fruit fly. Using a systems
approach to research, scientists, including molecular Hox genes have a critical role in the regulation of cell
biologists, geneticists, and mathematicians, can use the differentiation. Some Hox genes also act as tumor
information gained from studying fruit flies to provide insight suppressors, meaning they help control cell growth and
into these diseases and many others. This same approach prevent cells from growing or dividing too quickly.
can be used to determine the mechanisms responsible for a
number of different birth defects.
Studying fruit flies has led to many important discoveries. Make an informational career guide for a high school
Observations of strange mutations in fruit flies, including counselor to give to their students. In your guide, include text and
legs where antennae should be or extra pairs of wings, led media explaining what a job in genetics consists of and describing
geneticists to the discovery of homeobox genes. Further some of the topics geneticists are currently studying. Gather
investigation into these strange body modifications led to the evidence from several different sources, including articles and
finding that most of these changes were caused by mutations
scientific journals. Be sure to properly cite your sources in your
in a single set of homeobox genes, called Hox genes.
informational guide. Use these questions to guide your research:
Vertebrates, such as humans, also have Hox genes. However,
they are a bit more complex. In a fly, each segment of its
1. What are some of the topics that geneticists are currently
body expresses only one Hox gene. Therefore, a mutation to studying?
a single Hox gene directly affects the corresponding body 2. What type of training and education is necessary to be a
segment. In vertebrates, however, each segment has at least geneticist?
two, and up to four, Hox genes involved in its development. 3. What is the importance of this career to society and to future
generations?
4. If you were to become a geneticist, what questions would
you like to answer through your work?
TWINS: ARE THEY GENES: LIFE Go online to choose one of

“JUNK” DNA
EXACTLY THE SAME? AFTER DEATH these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 12: A normal wild-type fruit fly (left) and a mutant fruit fly (right).
Hox genes code for transcription factors that play an important role in the
development of body structures. In the developing embryo, these transcription
factors help initiate and regulate cell differentiation, cell adhesion, and cell
migration. Controlling the order and timing of these events is critical for proper body
development. As a result, these genes are very similar, or conserved, among many
different species.
A mutation in a homeobox gene leads to the development of a body structure in
the wrong position. For example, the effect of a mutation in the gene Antennapedia
determines whether an insect body segment will grow antennae or legs. In the
wild-type fruit fly, antennae develop normally. In the fly with a mutation in this gene,
legs develop where the antennae should be. However, the rest of the fly develops
normally. Although the misplaced legs look normal in structure, they do not work
properly. Flies with these mutations usually do not live very long.
Image Credits: (l) ©Andrew Syred/Science Source; (r) ©Eye of Science/Science Source
Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook to explain why a mutation in
Hox genes results in structural malformations such as the one shown in Figure 12. In your
explanation, answer the following questions:
1. How do transcription factors regulate gene expression in eukaryotes? Create a
model to illustrate the process, and write an explanation to accompany your model.
2. Why does a mutation in the Antennapedia gene affect body development in this
way? How is this change in structure related to the regulation of gene expression?

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 6. Use these terms to complete the statement below:
1. Which statement best explains why gene expression

promoter, gene, transcription factors, RNA polymerase
can be more complex and sophisticated in eukaryotic
cells than in prokaryotic cells?

A section of DNA which codes for a protein is called
a. Eukaryotic cells use a more complex genetic code.
a . An enzyme called reads
b. Eukaryotic cells use double-stranded DNA and along the DNA and produces mRNA in a process called
single-stranded RNA. transcription. Special proteins called help
c. Transcription and translation are separated in time this enzyme bind to a segment of DNA called
and space in eukaryotic cells. the . When the correct factors are present
d. Gene expression in eukaryotic cells involves both in the nucleus, RNA polymerase can begin transcription.
transcription and translation.
7. Which would be the best mechanism for maintaining
2. Scientists have concluded that gene expression is homeostasis when conditions suddenly change in the
responsible for the differentiation of the cells of a cell? Pre-transcriptional, transcriptional, or translational
multicellular organism. Which two observations regulation? Explain your reasoning.
together most strongly support this conclusion?
a. All cells produce the enzymes needed for energy 8. Which would most likely affect the structure and function
metabolism. of a protein, a mutation in an intron or a mutation in an
b. The DNA in all body cells of an organism is essentially exon? Explain your answer.
identical.
c. Gene expression can be regulated by a wide variety
of mechanisms.
d. Enzymes needed for digestion are produced only
by cells lining the digestive tract. MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE
3. Which of the following is an example of mRNA

processing?
a. non-coding segments of RNA are added to the
beginning of an mRNA sequence Gene expression is responsible for the differentiation
b. double-stranded RNA initiates reactions that break of cells.
apart RNA strands
Gene expression is regulated differently in prokaryotic cells
c. enzymes break down newly synthesized proteins
and eukaryotic cells.
d. RNA polymerase attaches to a promoter near a
gene cluster Remember to include the following information in your
study guide:
4. Draw a Venn diagram to compare gene expression • Use examples that model main ideas.
in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. • Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
• Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support
5. The role of introns in newly transcribed mRNA has not can include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions,
yet been determined. How might introns help increase and other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
genetic diversity without increasing the size of the
genome? Consider how the structure and function of DNA, RNA,
and proteins make regulation of gene expression possible.

Explain how alterations in these processes make mutations
in organisms possible.

UNIT CONNECTIONS
Computer Science Connection FIGURE 1: DNA could be used to store

digital data one day.
DNA Data Storage The amount of digital data in the world is growing at a fast
rate. People need room to store their personal data and institutions need room to
store archives of information. Scientists have shown it is possible to code digital
information into a strand of DNA and then recreate that information without errors.
This technology is still being optimized, but there is real potential for DNA to be a
solution for long-term data storage needs.
Using library and Internet resources, research DNA data storage. Create a multimedia
sales pitch for a digital archive company explaining how DNA data storage works. Be
sure to include information about how the structure and function of DNA makes it a safe way
to store information. Think about what questions the client might ask, such as, “What
barriers remain for this technology to overcome?”

Contributors to Scientific Knowledge The race to discover the structure of DNA
FIGURE 2: Many technologies, like gel
involved many scientists with varied backgrounds. The experiences and expertise electrophoresis, have enhanced our
of the scientists allowed them to approach the problem from different angles. The ability to manipulate and study DNA.
determination of the double helix structure of DNA was a major accomplishment,
but that wasn’t the last discovery involving DNA. Since that time, there have been
numerous advances in scientific knowledge related to the structure and function
of DNA.
Using library and Internet resources, create a biosketch for a scientist that has
contributed to our current understanding of DNA. A biosketch is a short, one or
Image Credits: (t) ©iStock/jxfzsy/Getty Images; (c) ©Science Photo/Shutterstock; (b) ©Thomas Splettstoesser/SciStyle
two-paragraph summary describing a person. Do not select a scientist whose contributions
were outlined in the lesson. Be sure to use appropriate resources, cite evidence for how the
scientist collaborated with others and contributed to scientific knowledge about DNA.

Four-Stranded DNA The double helix structure of DNA is very well-known, so it
FIGURE 3: DNA can form a four-
may be surprising to learn that DNA can take on other structures. One example is
stranded structure.
four-stranded DNA, which is common in cancer genes. The four-stranded molecule
arises from a different folding structure that is linked to sequences of DNA that are
rich in guanine.
Using library and Internet resources, research four-stranded DNA. How does the
change in structure impact the function of the DNA molecule in gene regulation,
especially cancer genes? Make a 3D model of both the double helix and the four-stranded
structures of DNA. Then, deliver a presentation to the class that explains the differences in
structure and function of these two types of DNA folding, including potential uses for the
four-stranded molecule.



PRACTICE AND REVIEW
1. What is the primary function of DNA? 4. Which element provides instructions for cell
a. store genetic information differentiation?
b. translate genes into proteins a. RNA
c. replicate genetic information for each cell b. codons
d. transcribe genetic information into RNA that can leave c. genome
the nucleus d. traits
2. What evidence do codons provide for the common 5. Which characteristics describe both transcription and
ancestry of all organisms? replication? Select all correct answers.
a. Almost all living things use codons to transcribe RNA a. unwinds the DNA double helix
to proteins. b. controlled by complex enzymes
b. Codons code for amino acids that are found in all c. results in a full set of genetic information
living organisms. d. occurs within the nucleus of eukaryotes.
c. Codons in almost all living organisms code for the
same amino acid. 6. What is the connection between a codon and an amino
d. Codons are used to start and stop protein translation acid? Select all correct answers.
in almost all living things. a. A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides that
specifies a particular amino acid.
3. How does the epigenome assist in gene regulation? b. A codon is made up of amino acids.
a. The epigenome controls which DNA sequences are c. Each tRNA binds to a specific amino acid and has an
accessible for transcription. anticodon that binds to a specific codon.
b. The epigenome regulates mRNA processing after d. DNA is made up of codons and mRNA is made up
transcription. of amino acids that attach to the DNA strand during
c. The epigenome controls the promoter sequence translation.
known as the TATA box.
d. The epigenome regulates translation in the cytoplasm.

A G U C A
ASP
G U C G
U
A C CYS = Cysteine
UNIT PRACTICE AND REVIEW U
C
G U A
G TYR
GLN = Glutamine
ALA
A
G A C U
C S GLU = Glutamic acid
C A
U C
Use the chart to answer questions 7–11.
A G GLY = Glycine
G U
G U CYS
HIS = Histidine
FIGUREVAL4: The genetic A code matches each mRNA codon with its amino acid or function. C
C U G A
G
S
TRP
ILE = Isoleucine
U ALA = Alanine
LEU = Leucine
ARG = Arginine
G GLY PHE U
G
A C
ASN = Asparagine ALA = Alanine LYS = Lysine
U
LEU
ARG A GLU C
A G U C A SER ASP = Aspartic acid
ASP
C AGU C G
U
C CYS = Cysteine ARGA = Arginine
LEU MET = Methionine
C PHE
SER GLY UU G LEU U A
G TYR
GLN = Glutamine G
ASN = Asparagine
A G A
A C UC
C PHE = Phenylalanine
ALA G
GLU = Glutamic acidU
GLU A
S
C
C A SER A G CYS GLY = Glycine CASP = Aspartic acid PRO = Proline
CG A G UC C A G
U
LYS
ASP U
G CU A
HIS = HistidineA
U
A G U U G CYSPRO = Cysteine S = Stop
VAL A C
U C G AG TRP S ILE = Isoleucine
G U
C
U
C U
ASN
G
A U A
G G TYR U
LEU = Leucine
C GLN = Glutamine SER = Serine
A A CC
G U
A G ARG
G C UU C ALYS = Lysine
A
U G MET = Methionine
A G A U HIS GLU = Glutamic acid THR = Threonine
C CU GG A SC
C A LEU
U
C SER
A THR A PHE = Phenylalanine
C A C C
G U
A GLN GLY = Glycine TRP = Tryptophan
U A G
PRO = Proline
G U
MET
LYS C
G U C A ILE G PRO ARG
U CYS S = Stop
HIS = Histidine
ASN
G
A U G C
U
SER = Serine
TYR = Tyrosine
A C A C
U G
U G
C THR
G A
C U G A C
U HIS
A S THR = Threonine
ILE = Isoleucine VAL = Valine
GLN TRP = Tryptophan
U G TRP TYR = Tyrosine LEU = Leucine
MET
ILE ARG
G U VAL = Valine
G
A C
LYS = Lysine
A
C
U A
C
LEU MET = Methionine
U G
7. Which amino acid is represented by the codon CAG? 10. Which amino acids would be most likely to be affected by
G
A
A a. histidine C C
U
a
PHE
point
= Phenylalanine
mutation
PRO = Proline
in the corresponding DNA sequence? Be
C A specific and use evidence and reasoning to explain your
U C
b. alanine
A G PRO answer.S = Stop
ASN
G c. arginine
A
C glutamine
d.
U G A
C
U
SER = Serine
U G 11. Which DNA sequence would lead to the CAG codon
G A U HIS THR = Threonine
THR C U G A C in mRNA?
8. What could happen if this DNA sequence GLN CAG underwent TRP = Tryptophan
MET
a substitution ILE point mutation?

ARG Select all correct answers.
TYR = Tyrosine
a. The sequence could code for a stop codon. UNIT PROJECT
VAL = Valine
b. The sequence could code for the same amino acid.
c. The sequence could code for a different amino acid. Return to your unit project. Prepare your materials into
d. The complete amino acid sequence for the protein a final paper. Include an evaluation of your predictions,
could change. analysis, and conclusions.
9. What would happen if an adenine replaced the guanine
in the DNA sequence GTC? • Look at the empirical evidence—evidence based on
observations and data. Does the evidence support
a. The glutamine would become lysine.
your explanation regarding malformations in frogs?
b. The glutamine would become valine. • Consider if the explanation is logical. Does it
c. The glutamine would remain the same. contradict any evidence you have seen?
d. The glutamine would become a stop codon. • Is there enough evidence from credible sources to
support your conclusions?

Investigating Phenylketonuria
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a recessive disorder that is
FIGURE 5: A special enzyme is responsible for breaking down
characterized by high levels of phenylalanine in the blood. the amino acid phenylalanine.
Phenylalanine is an amino acid that is normally broken down
into components for the body to use. In people with PKU,
the phenylalanine is not broken down and the amino acid
accumulates in the blood. What causes the inability to break
down phenylalanine in people suffering from PKU, and how
does this change impact human health?
1. ASK A QUESTION
With your team, define a set of questions to be answered.
Identify all the factors you will research to answer these
questions. Outline the characteristics a complete answer
should have.
2. CONDUCT RESEARCH
Investigate phenylketonuria. Use library and Internet
resources to explore the cause and effect relationship
between DNA structure, protein structure, and symptoms of
the disease. As you do research, be sure to make notes about
the sources of your evidence so you can correctly cite the
sources and share them with others.
CHECK YOUR WORK

3. DEVELOP A MODEL
Use evidence from your research to develop a model of
phenylketonuria. Include DNA, proteins, and symptoms in
your model. You could draw a conceptual model or build a
physical model out of common materials. • guiding questions that are answered in the final
presentation
4. CONSTRUCT AN EXPLANATION • a model that shows the cause and effect
Use your answers to your questions to construct an
relationship between DNA structure, protein
explanation about the cause and effect relationship structure, and phenylketonuria symptoms
between DNA structure, protein structure, and symptoms of • an explanation about how the structure of
phenylketonuria. DNA determines the structure of the proteins
involved and ultimately the traits associated with
phenylketonuria
5. COMMUNICATE
Image Credits: ©RCSB Protein Data Bank
Present your findings as a poster that describes

phenylketonuria, the enzyme involved, why it malfunctions,
and possible avenues for addressing the issue. Your
presentation should include images and data to support
your claims.

UNIT 7
Genetics and Heredity

Lesson 1: Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Lesson 2:
Mendel and Heredity . . . . . . . . 316
Lesson 3:
Traits and Probability . . . . . . . . 328
Lesson 4: Mutations
and Genetic Diversity . . . . . . . . 342
Lesson 5:
Genetic Engineering . . . . . . . . . 356
Thing Explainer:
Books Inside Us . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Unit Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Image Credits: ©Evan Oto/Science Source
Proteins like Cas9 can be used to edit

DNA.
302 Unit 7 Genetics and Heredity

FIGURE 1: Children inherit traits from each of their parents.
In families, children often share similar physical features, such as hair color, skin
color, and facial shape, with one or both of their parents. These traits and others are
passed from parents to offspring, or inherited. Because of these shared features, it is
often possible to tell that two people are closely related, whether siblings, parent and
child, or even grandparent and grandchild. However, except in the case of identical
twins, even closely related individuals have unique features. Some children may share
distinctive features of their parents—a father’s chin or a mother’s eyes—but not all
children inherit the same sets of features.
Predict Why do you think siblings don’t look exactly the same if all of their DNA comes
from the same mother and father?
DRIVING QUESTIONS
1. How are traits passed from parents to offspring?
2. Why do the offspring of two parents all look different from each other?
3. How does diversity in traits arise over generations?
4. How can we determine the probability that an organism’s expressed version of a
trait will be passed on to its offspring?
5. Can scientists alter the genetic material of other organisms? How might humans
Image Credits: ©pixelheadphoto digitalskillet/Shutter stock
use this ability?
UNIT PROJECT
the Unit Project
Investigating the Heredity of Disease Worksheet to help you
plan your project.
Many traits and conditions can arise from either genetic or environmental causes.
Explore the heredity of Huntington’s disease. Based on your analysis, determine
the likely cause or causes of Huntington’s disease, and the role that genetic or
environmental factors may play.
Unit 7 Genetics and Heredity 303

7.1
Meiosis
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?

Sperm and egg cells are
produced during the
process of meiosis. FIGURE 1: Could it be possible that everyone has a twin?
Gather Evidence
meiosis and sexual reproduction
increase genetic diversity.
Image Credits: (t) ©Dr. Yorgos Nikas/Science Source; (b) ©Design Pics Inc./Alamy
Humans have unique versions of traits that cause us to look and act differently from
one another. Aside from identical twins, there is great variety in physical traits from
one person to the next. However, some people believe there may be an exact copy of
themselves somewhere in the world. For example, some have claimed to have found
their “twin” on the Internet. Have you ever wondered if there could be a copy of you
somewhere else in the world? Do you think it is possible for someone to be born from
a different mother and father, yet have the same genetic makeup as you?
Predict What do you think the chances are that there is someone in the world exactly
like you?

EXPLORATION 1
Chromosomes and Meiosis
DNA is the genetic material in organisms. DNA codes for proteins and contains the
information that determines when proteins are made. In complex organisms, long
strands of DNA are packaged together with proteins into chromosomes in the nucleus of
the cell. Images like the one in Figure 2 can be analyzed to determine a karyotype, which
shows the 23 pairs of chromosomes in a human cell. The brightly colored structures are
pairs of highly condensed chromosomes formed during metaphase of mitosis.
FIGURE 2: Chromosomes in a Human Cell
Collaborate Write your answers to the following questions about the image in
Figure 2. Compare your answers with a partner, and write down any new information FIGURE 3: Homologous
that you had not previously recorded. chromosome pairs include one
chromosome inherited from the
1. What patterns do you observe?
Image Credits: (t) ©Biophoto Associates/Colorization by: Mary Martin/Science Source
father and another inherited

2. How many chromosomes do human body cells have? from the mother.
3. What differences do you see among the different pairs of chromosomes and the
father’s chromosome
chromosomes within a pair?
Chromosome Structure and Function

Each pair of chromosomes in your cells is referred to as a homologous pair.
Homologous chromosomes are two chromosomes—one inherited from the mother,
one from the father—that have the same length and general appearance. These
chromosomes have copies of the same genes, although the two copies may differ.
mother’s chromosome
Analyze What percentage of your genetic material is from your mother and what
percentage is from your father?
Lesson 1 Meiosis 305

Autosomes and Sex Chromosomes
You may have noticed that all of the chromosome sets in Figure 2 are labeled with a
number except for one set, which is labeled with an X and a Y. Together, chromosome
pairs 1 through 22 make up your autosomes, which are chromosomes that contain
genes for characteristics not directly related to the sex of an organism.
Analyze Do the
chromosomes in Figure 2 on Most sexually reproducing species also have sex chromosomes that directly control
the development of sexual characteristics. Humans have two very different sex
the previous page belong to a female
chromosomes: X and Y. In most mammals, including humans, an organism’s sex is
or a male? Explain how you know.
primarily determined by the XY system. An organism with two X chromosomes, or XX,
is female. An organism with one X and one Y chromosome, or XY, is male.
FIGURE 4: Sex chromosomes control the development of sexual characteristics.
a Females have two X chromosomes. b Males have an X chromosome and

a Y chromosome.
Body Cells and Germ Cells

The 23 pairs of chromosomes you analyzed earlier are from a body, or somatic, cell.
Your body cells are called diploid cells because they contain two copies of every
chromosome. However, the two copies are not exact copies because one is from your
FIGURE 5: Body Cells and mother and one is from your father. Diploid cells can be represented as 2n. In humans,
Gametes (Cells are not to scale.) the diploid chromosome number is 46.
In addition to body cells, you also have germ cells located in your reproductive organs.
Germ cells form gametes, or sex cells. The male sex cells are sperm and the female sex
cells are eggs. Unlike body cells, gametes have only one copy of each chromosome.
These cells are called haploid and can be represented as n. Human gametes thus
contain 23 chromosomes. Only DNA in gametes is passed down to the organism’s
offspring. The DNA in body cells is not.
Body cells are diploid (2n). Gametes (sex cells) are haploid (n). Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of two gametes of different types, resulting in
Body cells are Gametes
offspring that are a genetic mixture of both parents. The joining of these two gametes
diploid (2n). (sex cells) are
haploid (n). is called fertilization. When fertilization occurs, the nuclei of the egg and sperm fuse to
Image Credits: (tl) (tr) ©Power and Syred/Science Source
form a single nucleus.
Explain Answer the following questions about body cells and gametes.
1. What is an example of a body cell in your body?

2. Why do gametes have half a set of DNA? What would happen if they had a full set of
DNA? Explain your answer.

EXPLORATION 2
The Process of Meiosis
Recall that body cells reproduce during part of the cell cycle. During mitosis and
cytokinesis, the nucleus and cytoplasm divide, resulting in daughter cells that are
genetically identical to the parent cell. Germ cells in your reproductive organs undergo
the process of meiosis to form gametes. Meiosis is a form of nuclear division that
divides one diploid cell into four haploid cells. There are two rounds of cell division—
meiosis I and meiosis II. This process divides the DNA and reduces each resulting cell’s
chromosome number by half.
FIGURE 6: Meiosis has many stages and produces four haploid cells from one diploid cell.
Predict Meiosis divides one cell into four cells, but each resulting cell has half the
amount of DNA as compared to the original cell. How do you think this is possible?
FIGURE 7: Homologous chromosomes are two separate

Chromosomes and Replication chromosomes, while sister chromatids are duplicated
chromosomes that remain attached to one another.
To understand meiosis, it is necessary to distinguish between
homologous chromosomes homologous chromosomes
homologous chromosomes and sister chromatids. As
Figure 7 shows, homologous chromosomes are two separate
chromosomes, one from your mother and one from your
father. Homologous chromosomes are similar to each other
because they are the same length and carry the same genes.
However, they are not exact copies of each other. In contrast,
replication
a chromatid is one half of a duplicated chromosome. Sister
chromatids refers to the duplicated chromosomes that remain
attached (by the centromere). Homologous chromosomes
divide during meiosis I, and sister chromatids are split and
separated into new gametes during meiosis II.
Analyze What is the difference between the genetic

material on two sister chromatids and the genetic
sister sister
material on homologous chromosomes? chromatids chromatids

Meiosis I
Before meiosis begins, DNA is copied during S phase. Meiosis I separates homologous
chromosomes, producing two haploid cells with duplicated chromosomes. Meiosis I
can be described in distinct phases, each of which is a series of gradual changes.
FIGURE 8: Meiosis I and meiosis II are each made up of four phases.
11 Prophase
prophase II 2 2 metaphase
MetaphaseI I 3 3anaphase I
Anaphase I 4 telophase I
4 Telophase I
Explore Online 1. Prophase I During this first phase of meiosis, the nuclear membrane breaks down,
the centrosomes and centrioles move to opposite sides of the cell, and spindle
Hands-On Lab
fibers start to assemble. The duplicated chromosomes condense, and homologous
Modeling Meiosis chromosomes pair up. They appear to pair up precisely, gene for gene, down their
Make a model to illustrate how entire length. The sex chromosomes also pair with each other, and some regions of
the arrangement and separation their DNA appear to line up as well.
of chromosomes during meiosis 2. Metaphase I The homologous chromosome pairs randomly line up along the
causes an increase in genetic middle of the cell, or the cell equator, attached to spindle fibers. The result is that
diversity. 23 chromosomes—some from the father, some from the mother—are lined up
along each side of the cell equator. This arrangement mixes up the chromosomal
combinations and helps make and maintain genetic diversity.
3. Anaphase I Next, the paired homologous chromosomes separate from each other
and move toward opposite sides of the cell. The sister chromatids remain together
during this step and throughout meiosis I.
4. Telophase I The cell undergoes cytokinesis.
After telophase I, the nuclear membrane forms again in some species, and the spindle
fibers disassemble. These steps occur during a period between meiosis I and meiosis II.
Analyze Observe the model of meiosis I in Figure 8. Use this model to answer the
following questions:
1. What are the products of meiosis I? Explain in terms of number of cells and the
genetic material contained in those cells.
2. Describe the arrangement of chromosomes in metaphase I. Why do you think
chromosomes are arranged in this way?
3. What are some of the strengths and limitations of this model?

Meiosis II
Meiosis II separates sister chromatids, which results in chromosomes that are not
doubled. The diagram of this process applies to both of the cells produced in meiosis I.
It’s important to note that DNA is not copied between meiosis I and meiosis II.
1 prophase
111 prophase
prophase
prophase
II II2IIII metaphase
222 metaphase
metaphase
metaphase
II IIIIII 3 anaphase
333 anaphase
anaphase
anaphase
II IIIIII 4 telophase
444 telophase
telophase
telophase
II IIIIII
5 1Prophase
111 prophase
prophase IIII II2IIII 6metaphase
prophase
prophase 222Metaphase
metaphase
metaphase
metaphase
II IIIIIIII3 anaphase
7333 anaphase
anaphase
anaphase
II
Anaphase IIIIII II 4 telophase
8 444 telophase
telophase
telophase
Telophase II IIIIIIII
5. Prophase II The nuclear membrane breaks down, centrosomes and centrioles move
to opposite sides of the cell, and spindle fibers assemble.
6. Metaphase II Spindle fibers align the 23 chromosomes at the cell equator. Each
chromosome still has two sister chromatids at this stage.
7. Anaphase II Next, the sister chromatids are pulled apart from each other and move Explain According to this
to opposite sides of the cell. model, do all the gametes
8. Telophase II Finally, nuclear membranes form around each set of chromosomes produced by an organism have the
at opposite ends of the cell, the spindle fibers break apart, and the cell undergoes same genetic material? Use
cytokinesis. evidence to support your claim.
Cause and Effect
FIGURE 9: Metaphase in Mitosis Comparing Chromosome Arrangement
Mitosis, which occurs in body cells, produces two genetically identical cells. Like
meiosis, mitosis includes metaphase. However, the alignment of chromosomes
differs, which affects the genetic makeup of the final cells.
Explain Answer these questions about metaphase in meiosis and mitosis.

1. How do the arrangements of chromosomes in metaphase I and metaphase II of
meiosis compare to each other and to the metaphase stage of mitosis?
2. What are the final products of mitosis and meiosis? How does the arrangement of
chromosomes during metaphase affect the genetic makeup of the final products?

FIGURE 10: Gametogenesis (Cells are not to scale.) Gametogenesis
The haploid cells produced by meiosis are not able to be
germ cell (diploid)
fertilized until they go through additional changes to produce
mature gametes. The final stages of this process, called
meiosis gametogenesis, differ between the sexes. The formation of
an egg, the female gamete, begins before birth, inside the
developing body of a female embryo, and is not finished until
polar body
a sperm fertilizes that egg many years later. Only one of the four
cells produced by meiosis actually makes an egg. The other cells
produced are called polar bodies and are not typically able to be
polar body one egg cell fertilized. Nearly all of a zygote’s cytoplasm and organelles come
from the egg. Since mitochondria carry their own DNA, the
mature gametes (haploid)
mitochondrial DNA in the embryo is identical to the mother’s.
a egg production
The sperm cell, the male gamete, is much smaller than the
egg. The sperm cell’s main contribution to an embryo is DNA.
germ cell (diploid) Yet it must swim to an egg to fertilize it, so the ability to move
is critical. Sperm formation starts with a round cell and ends
by making a streamlined cell that can move rapidly. During
meiosis
this process, significant changes occur. DNA is tightly packed
and much of the cytoplasm is lost, resulting in a compact
head. The sperm cell develops a whip-like flagellum and
a neck region with mitochondria that provide the energy
needed to drive the cell’s flagellum. Other changes, such as
the addition of proteins to the cell membrane, also take place.
four sperm cells
mature gametes (haploid) Analyze Make a Venn diagram to compare and contrast
b sperm production egg production and sperm production.
Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis

Mitosis is a process that occurs in body cells. It is essential for the growth and
development of an organism. In contrast, meiosis occurs in germ cells.
FIGURE 11: Mitosis and meiosis produce different kinds of cells.

mitosis meiosis
Explain Make a table to

mitosis meiosis
compare mitosis and
meiosis in terms of the number and
type of cells produced, the genetic
material in the cells, and the role of
each process in the body. Does
meiosis or mitosis occur more
frequently in your body? Explain
your answer.
a Mitosis b Meiosis

EXPLORATION 3
Meiosis and Genetic Variation
One of the major outcomes of meiosis and sexual reproduction is the resulting
FIGURE 12: Genetic variation
increased genetic diversity within a species. Genetic variation refers to differences in
is responsible for the different
the genetic material of individuals in a population. versions of traits you see in this
cat’s offspring.
Mechanisms of Genetic Variation

Meiosis and sexual reproduction increase genetic diversity, or genetic variation, within
a population. Gametes have different combinations of genes than their parent cells
due to crossing over and independent assortment, which both occur during meiosis.
Independent Assortment
When homologous chromosomes pair up in metaphase I of meiosis, the chromosomes
from your father and the chromosomes from your mother line up randomly on either
side of the cell’s equator. This assortment of chromosomes is a matter of chance. The
arrangement of any one homologous pair does not depend on the arrangement of any
other homologous pair. Therefore, it is referred to as independent assortment.
FIGURE 13: Independent Assortment Explore Online
Possibility 1 Possibility 2
two equally probable

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I
metaphase II
daughter
cells
combination 1 combination 2 combination 3 combination 4
Problem Solving
To determine the number of possible chromosome combinations that can result

from independent assortment, you can use this formula:
Image Credits: (t) ©Leonidovich/Fotolia
Combinations = 2n
where n = number of different chromosomes.
1. What is the number of possible chromosome combinations for a human cell
with 23 different chromosomes?
2. How does your answer to Question 1 support the claim that independent
assortment increases variation in an organism’s offspring?

Crossing Over
Crossing over is the exchange of chromosome segments between homologous
chromosomes. It occurs during prophase I in meiosis I, and it is a regulated process.
At this stage of meiosis, each chromosome has been duplicated, the sister chromatids
are still connected, and homologous chromosomes have paired up. Some of the
chromatids are very close to each other. Part of one chromatid from a chromosome
may break off and reattach to the other chromosome. Because crossing over results in
new combinations of genes, it is an example of genetic recombination.
Explore Online
FIGURE 14: Crossing Over
1 Two homologous chromosomes pair 2 In this position, some chromatids are 3 Some of these segments break
up with each other during prophase I very close to each other and segments off and reattach to the other
in meiosis. cross. homologous chromosome.
Explain How does crossing over contribute to genetic diversity?
Fertilization
Once mature gametes have formed during the process of gametogenesis, the
gametes are ready for fertilization. In fertilization, two gametes of different types fuse,
producing a zygote with a complete set of DNA—half from one parent and half from
the other. The zygote formed will have a unique combination of genes. The mixing
and matching of genetic material during meiosis and fertilization is responsible for the
genetic variation in sexually reproducing organisms.
FIGURE 15: Fertilization results in a genetically unique organism.
Image Credits: (b) ©Eye of Science/Photo Researchers, Inc.
Explain Use what you have learned about meiosis and sexual reproduction to construct
an explanation for why offspring are not exact replicas of their parents. In your answer,
include a discussion of sexual reproduction, independent assortment, and crossing over.

Guided Research
Gene Duplication and Genetic Variation
FIGURE 16: Gene duplication has influenced the traits of domestic sunflower plants.
In metaphase I of meiosis, homologous chromosomes

Language Arts Connection Conduct research to
exchange DNA segments via crossing over. This leads to
genetic variation in the offspring of sexually reproducing construct an argument for how gene duplication increases
organisms. Sometimes during crossing over, homologous genetic variation. Start by choosing a specific species to research, and
chromosomes do not align with each other properly. If this look for materials explaining how gene duplication has affected this
happens, the two segments crossing over may be different species. As you conduct your research, evaluate your sources carefully
in size. As a result, one chromosome may have two copies of to be sure they are reliable. Do they present verifiable facts? Are the
a gene or genes, which is called gene duplication. The other opinions those of an expert or experts in this field? Is there enough
chromosome may have no copy of the gene or genes, known evidence to support the claims being made?
as a gene deletion.
Using your own words, write an argument explaining how gene
Gene duplication has occurred many times over millions of duplication from unequal crossing over has influenced genetic variation
years of eukaryotic evolution. For example, domesticated in a certain species. Use these questions to guide your research:
sunflowers have a duplicated gene that lengthens plants’
1. Which species will you be researching, and what evidence exists
growing period. Interestingly, this gene duplication is not the
that gene duplication has occurred in this species?
result of domestication. Evidence shows that the duplication
occurred long before Native Americans began breeding the
2. How did gene duplication influence the traits of this species?
plants as a part of their horticultural practices. This variation of 3. What is the connection between gene duplication and the
evolution of this species?
Image Credits: (l) ©iStock/ogolne/Getty Images Plus
sunflower was simply preferred by Native Americans.
GATHERING EVIDENCE FOR Go online to choose one of

INVESTIGATING GENETIC LINKAGE
GENETIC DIVERSITY these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 17: How likely is it that there is a genetic copy of you somewhere?
Now that you have learned about meiosis and genetic variation, think again about
the possibility of finding a genetic copy of yourself. According to some estimates, the
number of possible gene combinations made by meiosis is trillions of times more than
the number of people who have ever lived on Earth. Independent assortment alone
makes millions of possible combinations of chromosomes. Each chromosome contains
anywhere from hundreds to thousands of genes. When those genes are shuffled
during meiosis, an astounding number of combinations is possible. Multiply this by the
probability that the gametes that formed you would merge, and it’s no wonder there is
so much variation in the human race.
Explain In general, how likely is it that there is someone in the world who is genetically
identical to you? Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook to construct an explanation
for this question using a claim, evidence, and reasoning. Your explanation should include
a discussion of sexual reproduction, meiosis, crossing over, and independent assortment.
2. Cite evidence to support your claim. Include models and examples as necessary.
Image Credits: ©Design Pics Inc./Alamy
3. Explain how the evidence you cited supports your claim. For example, consider the
number of possible chromosome combinations made by independent assortment.
How would this evidence support the statement you are making?

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 6. Make a table categorizing each of the items in the list as a
description of diploid or haploid cells.
1. Fruit fly gametes each have four chromosomes
representing 24, or 16, possible chromosome • contain single chromosomes, each from one parent
combinations. How many chromosome combinations • are described as 2n
could results from fertilization between a fruit fly egg and • make fertilization possible
a sperm cell? • result from meiosis
• contain chromosomes in pairs, one from each parent
2. A student uses string to model four pairs of homologous
• are described as n
chromosomes in a parent cell. Each chromosome pair
• result from mitosis
is a different color. Which model would best show the
genetic makeup of a daughter cell produced by meiosis?
7. Why is it important that human gametes have half a set of
a. two strings, each a combination of different colors
DNA instead of a full set of DNA? Use scientific reasoning
b. two strings, each the same color to support your claim.
c. four strings, each a combination of different colors
d. four strings, each the same color
3. Which of the following statements describe differences MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE
between mitosis and meiosis? Select all correct answers.
a. Mitosis produces diploid cells, and meiosis produces
haploid cells. In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
b. Mitosis is involved in asexual reproduction, and supports the main ideas from this lesson:
meiosis is involved in sexual reproduction. Inheritable genetic variations result from new genetic
c. Only body cells result from mitosis, but both body cells combinations made through meiosis and sexual reproduction.
and gametes result from meiosis.
d. Mitosis produces genetically unique cells, and meiosis Independent assortment and crossing over are processes that
produces genetically identical cells. contribute to genetic variation within a species.
e. Two daughter cells are produced by mitosis, and four Remember to include the following information in your study
daughter cells are produced by meiosis. guide:
4. Describe two pieces of evidence to support the claim that • Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
sexual reproduction increases genetic variation. • Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
5. Identify the process shown in Figure 18. Then explain
how the figure provides evidence to support the claim
that meiosis increases genetic variation. Consider how the models and explanations in this lesson can be
used to support a claim for how meiosis and sexual reproduction
increase genetic variation.
FIGURE 18: This process occurs during meiosis.

7.2
Mendel and Heredity
These snapdragons show CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?

the wide variety of colors
possible within this species.
This is just one example of FIGURE 1: Certain types of vegetables, such as broccoli, make some people cringe.
the endless variation found Others cannot get enough of it. What causes this difference in taste preferences?
in nature.
Gather Evidence
gather evidence for how traits are
inherited through genes passed
down from parents to offspring.
Image Credits: (t) ©Supachita Krerkkaiwan/Shutterstock; (b) ©Lasse Kristensen/Alamy

If the idea of a big plate of broccoli makes you want to push your chair away from
the table, you are actually not alone. Some people do not like the flavor of broccoli.
However, plenty of others do enjoy the taste of this vegetable. Humans have variations
in taste preferences, just as we have variations in hair or eye color. What accounts for
these differences? Do you like all the same foods as your parents or siblings? Are taste
preferences determined by your genes, or do they depend on other influences, such as
your environment?
Predict Do you think food preferences are passed down from parents to their children,
or does the environment play a role? Explain your answer.

EXPLORATION 1
Mendel’s Groundwork for Genetics
One of the most important outcomes of sexual reproduction is the variety in traits that
FIGURE 2: These cats show a
results from a shuffling of genes. These traits are distinguishing characteristics that are
variety of inherited traits.
inherited. Scientists have known for a long time that traits in organisms vary. Scientists
also saw that offspring often looked similar to their parents, but not always. What
remained a mystery was why traits vary.
Mendel’s Experimental Design

Our current understanding of heredity comes from a foundation laid in the mid-1800s
by an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendel. Mendel’s detailed experiments using pea
plants led to some important changes in the way scientists viewed the transmission
of traits. Scientists of the time commonly thought that parents’ traits were blended
in offspring, like mixing two colors of paint. However, this idea failed to explain
how specific traits on one end of the trait spectrum are observed throughout many Collaborate With a
successive generations, without all being blended or “diluted.” partner, identify at least
Mendel chose to work with pea plants based on their fast rate of reproduction and the three traits that vary among the
fact that he could easily control their pollination. He began with purebred plants as the cats shown in Figure 2.
parent generation. Purebred means, for example, that a purple flowering pea plant only
produces offspring that have purple flowers when allowed to self-fertilize. During his
experiments, Mendel prevented self-fertilization by controlling which plants were able
to reproduce. He crossed plants with specific traits by interrupting the self-fertilization
process. He then observed the results of each cross. Mendel also used mathematics to
analyze the experimental data gathered from hundreds of pea plant crosses.
FIGURE 3: Mendel removed the male parts of flowers and then fertilized the female parts Explore Online
with pollen from a different plant. Hands-On Lab
removed stamens from purple Investigating Traits and

flower and transferred pollen from Heredity Plan and conduct an
white flower to purple flower investigation to determine how
albinism is inherited in tobacco
plants.
parental
generation
(P)
carpel
stamen
Image Credits: (t) ©Andrey Kuzmin/Fotolia
first- all offspring

generation Analyze Why did Gregor
had purple
offspring Mendel pollinate the plants
(F1) flowers
himself rather than let the plants
self-fertilize?
Lesson 2 Mendel and Heredity 317

Mendel’s Observations
During his experiments, Mendel observed seven traits in the pea plants. We now know
that these specific traits are associated with genes on different chromosomes or are far
enough apart on the same chromosome to allow for crossing over. However, Mendel
did not know this. The traits Mendel studied are shown in Figure 4. Each trait shows a
simple “either-or” characteristic; they do not show an intermediate form. For example,
the plant is either tall or short, but not medium in height. The selection of these traits
that occur in the “either-or” fashion played a crucial role in helping Mendel identify
the patterns he observed. Had he chosen different traits or a different species for his
experiments, he may not have come to the same conclusions.
FIGURE 4: Mendel worked with seven traits in pea plants for his experiments.
Explain Figure 4 shows Flower Flower Seed Seed Pod Pod Stem
the characteristics that color position color shape shape color length
Mendel noticed before he set up his

experiments. What is one question
you would ask about how these
traits are passed down from one
plant generation to the next? purple axial yellow round inflated green tall
white terminal green wrinkled constricted yellow dwarf
A genetic cross is the mating of two organisms. When Mendel pollinated a specific
female flower of a plant with the pollen from another plant, he carried out a cross.
Through his experiments, Mendel was able to observe the results of specific crosses.
Two of Mendel’s experimental crosses are shown in Figure 5. In the first experiment,
he crossed a purebred white-flowered pea plant with a purebred purple-flowered
pea plant. These original plants are the parents—or P—generation. The offspring that
result from such a cross are called the first filial—or F1—generation. In the second
experiment, Mendel let the F1 generation self-fertilize, meaning he did not control their
pollination himself. Recall that both F1 plants had purple flowers. The offspring from
these crosses, referred to as the F2 generation, showed a different set of traits.
FIGURE 5: Purebred white and purple plants were crossed to make the F1 generation. F1
plants then self-fertilized, making F2 plants.
Collaborate
Discuss these questions with P P
a partner.
1. What pattern occurred when the
P generation was crossed?
2. What patterns occurred when the F1 F1
F1 generation was crossed?
3. What questions do you think
Mendel would have asked after
seeing these results?
F2 F2

Mendel performed similar crosses with F1 generation plants, which are monohybrids.
A monohybrid results from crossing two parents with different variations of a trait. He
observed the original traits in the F2 plants. In all cases, the offspring of these crosses
showed many plants with one version of a trait and some plants with the alternate
version. The results of his crosses are shown in Figure 6.
Data Analysis
Mendel’s Data Analyze Answer

the following questions
about Mendel’s data.
FIGURE 6: Mendel allowed the F1 hybrid plants to self-fertilize, resulting in the
reappearance of some previously hidden traits. 1. What patterns do you
notice in the data?
Mendel’s Monohybrid Cross Results 2. What questions might
F1 Traits Dominant Recessive Ratio Mendel have asked after
seeing this data?
Pea shape 5474 round 1850 wrinkled 2.96:1
Pea color 6020 yellow 2001 green 3.01:1
Flower color 705 purple 224 white 3.15:1
Pod shape 882 inflated 299 constricted 2.95:1
Pod color 428 green 152 yellow 2.82:1
Flower position 651 axial 207 terminal 3.14:1
Plant height 787 tall 277 short 2.84:1
Mendel’s Conclusions
Gather Evidence
After making careful observations of his experiments and reviewing the data, Mendel What forms of evidence offer
realized that certain traits, such as white flowers, had not disappeared; they were just support for Mendel’s conclusion that
temporarily masked. They also had not been altered by other traits or blended to form traits are inherited as discrete units
a new trait. Mendel concluded that traits are inherited as discrete “factors” that pass from the parental generation?
from the parental generation to the offspring.
Recall that each gamete of a diploid organism has only one version of a gene, because
gametes are haploid, or have half the number of chromosomes as body cells. During
meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate and are deposited into gametes. Two
gametes fuse during fertilization, so the resulting organism has two copies of each
gene, one from each parent. This knowledge, unknown to Mendel, parallels his
experimental results and his conclusions about inheritance. The separation of alleles
during gamete formation became known as the Law of Segregation.
Explain During anaphase I of meiosis, copies of the same gene are separated as FIGURE 7: Anaphase I
homologous chromosomes move to opposite sides of the cell. These chromosomes may or
may not contain the same genetic information. Use evidence from meiosis to explain how
gene separation occurs and why gametes only have one copy of each gene. How does the
process of meiosis support the Law of Segregation?

EXPLORATION 2
Traits, Genes, and Alleles
We know a lot about DNA and genes today, but this information was discovered long
after Mendel’s time. However, Mendel did correctly hypothesize that there was a
hereditary factor that carried genetic information. We now call those factors genes.
Genes and Alleles

A gene is a piece of DNA that provides a set of instructions to a cell to make a certain
protein. Each gene has a locus, which is a specific location on a pair of homologous
chromosomes. You can think of the locus as the “address” that tells where a gene
is located on a chromosome. In human cells, there are 23 pairs of homologous
chromosomes, for a total of 46. Genes located on chromosomes, which get passed on
to offspring during reproduction, are the basis for heredity. What Mendel essentially
revealed is that it is not the traits that are passed from
FIGURE 8: Alleles are different forms of a gene. They are one generation to the next, but rather the genes that are
located at the same position on homologous chromosomes. responsible for those traits.
homologous pair of chromosomes Genes contain genetic information, but this information
varies widely from one organism to another due to different
alleles. An allele is any of the alternative forms or versions of
allele for allele for a gene that may occur at a specific locus. Human cells have
purple flowers white flowers two alleles for each gene, which are found on homologous
chromosomes. You receive one allele from one parent and
locus for flower
one allele from your other parent. The same is true for almost
color gene
all organisms that reproduce sexually, including pea plants.
The traits observed in Mendel’s experiments, such as flower
color or plant height, resulted from varying alleles.
Explain How is an allele related to a gene?
FIGURE 9: Heterozygous and Homozygous Alleles

Combinations of Alleles
homozygous alleles
Your body cells contain two alleles for each gene. These
alleles may be the same, or they may be different. The term
wrinkled wrinkled
homozygous describes two of the same alleles at a specific
locus. The term heterozygous describes two different alleles
heterozygous alleles at the same locus. For example, you may inherit an allele for
freckles from one parent and another allele for no freckles
wrinkled round from your other parent. The same holds true for pea plants. A
pea plant may have a purple flower allele and a white flower
allele, making it heterozygous for that trait.
Gather Evidence What is one question you could ask

about how traits are expressed when an organism has
heterozygous alleles for a trait?

Traits
When describing homozygous or heterozygous pairs of alleles, we are referring to an
organism’s actual genetic makeup. This is known as its genotype. If a pea plant has one
allele for round seeds and one allele for wrinkled seeds, it is said to be heterozygous.
Both of these alleles make up its genotype even though one trait will be masked. The
actual physical characteristics, or traits, of an individual make up its phenotype. The
plant might have an allele for wrinkled seeds, but the phenotype expressed is for
round seeds.
FIGURE 10: Only the dominant allele is expressed when two different alleles for a gene
are present.
Gather Evidence Based
genotype phenotype genotype phenotype on what you know about
Mendel’s studies on purple and
white flowers, why can genotype be
different from phenotype?
wrinkled round wrinkled wrinkled

recessive dominant recessive recessive
Sometimes only one allele in the pair will affect the trait. As Mendel’s results Analyze In pea plants, T
demonstrated, in some cases one allele may be dominant over another allele. A
represents the allele for a
dominant allele is the allele that is expressed when two different alleles or two
tall plant, which is a dominant trait,
dominant alleles are present. A recessive allele is the allele that is only expressed when
and t represents the allele for a
two recessive copies occur together.
dwarf, or short plant, which is the
The allele combination, or genotype, of an organism is often represented by a set of recessive trait. Identify whether the
letters. Because each body cell contains two alleles per gene, two letters are needed genotypes Tt, tt, and TT are
to represent each allele in the pair. Uppercase letters represent dominant alleles, and
homozygous dominant,
lowercase letters represent recessive alleles.
homozygous recessive, or
In the chromosomes shown in Figure 10, the dominant allele, R, codes for round heterozygous. Then identify the
peas. The recessive allele, r, codes for wrinkled peas. The round phenotype will occur phenotype for each.
if one or two copies of the dominant allele is present. So plants that are homozygous
dominant (RR) or heterozygous (Rr) will have round peas. The wrinkled phenotype, on
the other hand, occurs only when two copies of the recessive allele are present. Only
plants with the homozygous recessive (rr) genotype will have wrinkled peas.
Explain Use what you have learned about Mendel’s contributions to genetics to answer
the following questions.
1. When Mendel crossed two purple-flowered plants from the F1 generation, he found
that out of every four flowers, three were purple and one was white. Which of these
traits, purple or white, is most likely to be the dominant trait? Explain your reasoning.
2. Write two questions you could ask to learn more about how food preferences, such as
distaste for broccoli, are passed from parents to offspring.

EXPLORATION 3
Extending Mendelian Genetics
Mendel’s use of pea plants ensured that he would be able to follow easily predictable
dominant and recessive patterns of inheritance. We now know that most phenotype
expression is much more complex. Very few human traits follow the dominant and
recessive relationship, or “Mendelian” rules of inheritance.
Complex Patterns of Inheritance

Mendel’s basic theory of heredity was correct, but his research could not have
explained all of the continuous variations for many traits. Many traits result from alleles
with a range of dominance, rather than a strict dominant and recessive relationship.
Incomplete Dominance and Codominance

Sometimes alleles show incomplete dominance, in which a heterozygous phenotype
is somewhere between the two homozygous phenotypes. This yields a blended result.
For example, a cross between a snapdragon with white flowers and a snapdragon with
red flowers results in offspring with pink flowers. Sometimes, both alleles of a gene
are equally expressed and appear in the phenotype. These alleles show codominance,
and both traits are fully and separately expressed. For example, when a certain breed
of white-feathered chicken is crossed with the black-feathered phenotype of the same
breed, their offspring have feathers that are speckled black and white.
FIGURE 11: Incomplete Dominance and Codominance
rr RR FW FW FB FB
white red
P P
FIGURE 12: Human blood type
is controlled by multiple alleles, white black
two of which are codominant.
FB F W
Rr Rr Rr Rr
antigen A F1 F1
speckled
antigen B
Multiple Alleles
In some cases there are more than two alleles possible in a population. Human blood
A B A
type is an example of multiple alleles. The three alleles are called I , I , and i. Both I
both antigens B
and I result in a protein, called an antigen, on the surface of red blood cells. Allele i is
A
recessive and does not result in an antigen. Someone with a genotype of I i will have
B A B
type A blood, and someone with a genotype of I i will have type B blood. I and I
A B
no antigens alleles are also codominant. That means someone with a genotype of I I will have type
AB blood. People with an ii genotype have red blood cells without an antigen, and
they have type O blood.

Sex-Linked Traits FIGURE 13: People with red-
Recall that humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes and that the last pair is referred to green colorblindness cannot
as sex chromosomes. These chromosomes—X and Y—contain different genes, which distinguish between the colors
make a unique pattern of inheritance. Many of the genes seen on the X chromosome red and green.
do not have corresponding genes on the Y chromosome, simply because the Y
chromosome is so much smaller. Males only have one copy of the Y chromosome,
so any recessive gene on a Y chromosome will be expressed. Any recessive gene
on an X chromosome also will be expressed in males, because there is no second X
chromosome to mask the recessive allele’s expression. The genes located on an X or
Y chromosome are referred to as sex-linked genes. Red-green colorblindness is an
example of a trait caused by a sex-linked gene that occurs more often in males.
Females have double the number of genes located on an X chromosome, but they
do not need double the number of their associated proteins. A process known as X
inactivation solves this dilemma. Only one X chromosome is active, while the other
is silenced or has very few active genes. X inactivation results in more balanced gene
expression between males and females.
Explain The gene for red-green colorblindness is located on the X chromosome. Does
the mother or father pass the gene for colorblindness to sons? Explain your answer.
Polygenic Traits
In contrast to the traits studied by Mendel, most plant and animal traits are actually
the product of multiple genes. Very few traits in humans are controlled by a single
gene. Your height is an example of a polygenic trait, in which multiple genes
contribute to the overall phenotype observed. The height genes you inherit from
your mother and father accumulate, and the final height that you are likely to reach
is due in part to the cumulative effect of these genes. Scientists have discovered
over 600 genes that affect height. These complex traits show a continuous range of
phenotypes from very short to very tall. Polygenic traits often show a bell-shaped
curve when graphed. Many people fall around the average, and very few show one
extreme or the other.
Epistasis
Another polygenic trait is fur color in mice and in other mammals. In mice, at least FIGURE 14: Albinism in this
five different genes interact to produce the phenotype. Two genes give the mouse its wallaby is caused by an epistatic
Image Credits: (t) ©Steve Allen/Brand X/Corbis; ©Artush/Fotolia
general color. One gene affects the shading of the color, and another gene determines gene that blocks the production
of pigment.
whether the mouse will have spots. But the fifth gene involved in mouse fur color can
overshadow all of the others. In cases such as this, one gene, called an epistatic gene,
can interfere with the expression of other genes. Genes that modify the expression of
another gene are said to show epistasis.
In albinism, a single epistatic gene interferes with the expression of other genes.
Albinism is characterized by a lack of pigment in skin, hair, and eyes. A mouse that is
homozygous for the alleles that prevent the coloration of fur will be white, regardless
of the phenotypes that would normally come from the other four genes. A person with
two recessive alleles for albinism will have very light skin, hair, and eyes, regardless of
the other genes he or she has inherited.

Cause and Effect
FIGURE 15: Several different Genes for Eye Color

genes interact to produce the
range of human eye colors. Another example of epistasis occurs in human eye color. Two genes thought to be
responsible for eye color are called OCA2 and HERC2, both located on chromosome
15. The OCA2 gene codes for a protein involved in storing pigment in the iris. This
protein helps cells store melanin, the pigment that affects eye coloration. More of
the protein leads to darker eyes, which may appear brown. Less of the protein leads
to lighter eyes, which may appear blue. The expression of the OCA2 gene, however,
can be turned on or off by a mutation in another gene. This gene, called HERC2, can
reduce the expression of OCA2, leading to less melanin being stored in the iris and
resulting in blue eyes. Several other genes are known to contribute to eye color,
including those that lead to green eyes.
Analyze Draw a simple diagram to model the scenario described in each question.
Use your diagram as evidence for your explanations.
1. A child inherits a functional copy of the OCA2 gene from his mother but a mutated
version of this gene from his father. Predict his eye color. Explain your answer.
Image Credits: (tl), (bl) ©PeopleImages/iStock/Getty Images Plus; (tr) ©Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; (cl) ©Bo Valentino/Shutterstock; (cr) (br) ©ARENA Creative/Shutterstock
2. Another child inherits two functional copies of the OCA2 gene but also inherits two
copies of the HERC2 gene that suppresses the expression of the OCA2 genes. What
would you predict about the color of this child’s eyes? Explain your answer.
Genes and the Environment

The environment also interacts with genes and affects their expression. Environmental
influences, such as temperature, diet, light, and even pH, all play a role in the
expression of countless traits in plants and animals. For example, the sex of sea turtles
depends both on genes and on their environment. Female turtles make nests on
beaches and bury their eggs in the sand. Eggs that mature in warmer temperatures
develop into female turtles. Eggs that mature in cooler temperatures develop into
male turtles.
Genes and the environment also interact to determine certain human traits. For
example, a person’s height is determined by genes, but environmental factors, such as
lifestyle and nutrition also affect height. Studies of identical twins have shown that the
environment during early development can have long-lasting effects. One twin might
get more nutrients than the other because of its position in the mother’s uterus. This
difference can result in height and size differences that last throughout the twins’ lives.
Also, twins raised in environments with different diets and health care often differ in
height as well as other physical traits.
Gather Evidence How might patterns of inheritance influence taste preferences?

What environmental factors might affect this trait?

Careers in Science
Genomics: Studying Genomes FIGURE 16: The field of genomics attempts to understand our
genetic code better in order to find out how genes affect our
Genomics is a branch of biology that analyzes the DNA traits, our health, and even our future.
sequence of specific organisms and compares it to other
organisms with the hope of gaining information about a
gene’s particular function. Scientists in this field might study
the DNA code of an organism, the length of genes, and
numbers of genes, or the locations of genes on chromosomes.
They are particularly interested in any similarities and
differences in the genome of various organisms.
A career in genomics requires a strong background in
molecular biology but also a solid foundation in math and
statistics. Genomicists often use computers to aid in the
analysis and presentation of vast amounts of data. This use of
computer databases to organize and analyze biological data is
called bioinformatics. A sharp eye for detail and an underlying
curiosity about the world are also essential characteristics in The study of animal genomes gives researchers in many
this and other fields of science. fields of research incredibly valuable information about how
our own genes might function and what happens when
One area of genomics called gene mapping got its start with
they do not function properly. Plant genome sequencing
the mapping of a simple virus in 1977. To date, scientists have
provides scientists with information on how to grow crops
mapped the genome of hundreds of animals, including mice,
that are more productive. The insights gained from the field
frogs, and chimpanzees. Our own genome was sequenced as
of genomics will undoubtedly have far-reaching effects on
part of the Human Genome Project completed in 2003.
industries, such as pharmaceutical research, health care, and
Plants also have been studied using gene sequencing. agriculture.
Watermelons, sugar beets, rice, and wheat have all had their
genomes mapped. Scientists today often use techniques
called next-generation sequencing, which are higher-yielding Language Arts Connection
methods than previous techniques, resulting in millions of Write a brief report answering these questions.
copies of DNA in a short period. A small flowering plant called • Do you think you would enjoy a career as a genomicist? Why or
Arabidopsis, a type of mustard plant, was the first plant to
why not?
have its genome sequenced in 2000. Arabidopsis is still used
• Which organism would you like to study the DNA of, and why?
today as a model organism for research into the processes
of all flowering plants. Genomicists and plant biologists are • Why do you think studying the genome of other animals might
working together to research variant alleles of Arabidopsis to provide valuable information?
Image Credits: ©Emile Wamsteker/Bloomberg/Getty Images
improve understanding of other plants, including those used • Why might scientists be interested in the genomes of plants?
for food. Because the DNA sequence of Arabidopsis is already • In what ways do you think the field of genomics has improved
known, scientists can use this information and compare it to our lives?
other plants. Research on rice and corn genomes is aimed at • How might changes in technology change the way we study
producing crop varieties that produce higher yields, are less
the genomes of organisms?
susceptible to disease, or can grow in drought conditions.
DISCUSSION: SEQUENCING EVALUATING CLAIMS: EYE COLOR Go online to choose one of

YOUR OWN GENOME AND OUR ANCESTORS these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 17: Perhaps if you were given different food choices as a young child, you would
make different food choices today.
You have explored throughout this lesson about inherited traits. Both genes and the
environment play a role in shaping who we are. Eating a healthy diet is an important
part of growing up and maintaining good health as we age. Nonetheless, some
foods are just not that appealing to some people. Researchers are looking at how our
food preferences develop—is it genetic, or is it our environment? This question is an
example of the long-standing “nature vs. nurture” debate. Doctors and scientists alike
have always maintained that parents should provide a variety of healthy foods to
children so that they are familiar with these tastes from a young age. But do we have
genes that predispose us to like or not like—as in the case of broccoli—certain foods?
Several studies have linked a specific gene to a taste receptor that perceives broccoli
and similar vegetables as bitter, whereas people without this gene do not detect
the bitterness. This makes sense from a biological standpoint, as taste reception is a
biochemical process. However, other studies have suggested that a “food window”
of sorts exists when children are as young as four months old. During this sensitive
time period, exposure to different foods may influence the child’s food choices later in
life. Some feel that this critical period is when children should be exposed to as many
different foods and flavors as possible.
Explain When it comes to something like food preferences, how do genetics and the
environment influence traits? In your answer, discuss the following:
Image Credits: ©Lasse Kristensen/Alamy
• How are traits generally passed from parents to offspring?

• How can dominant-recessive relationships influence which trait is expressed in the
phenotype of the organism?
• How is the expression of genes influenced by other genes and the environment?

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 5. Which of the following questions can be answered by

Mendel’s Law of Segregation?
1. Which of the following statements best describes how
a. Why do the offspring of a plant that is homozygous
genes relate to traits?
tall (TT) and homozygous short (tt) all appear tall?
a. Genes code for the production of specific proteins.
b. In what way do traits pass from one generation to the
These proteins lead to different traits.
next?
b. Genes and traits function together to produce proteins.
c. How can a plant that is heterozygous for height (Tt)
c. Traits contain instructions for making proteins, and
have both tall and short offspring?
genes are the observable outcome of such proteins.
d. Why don’t tall pea plants also all have purple flowers?
d. Genes are expressed according to instructions in traits.
6. Use the following words to complete this statement:
2. Why did Mendel remove the stamens of some pea
phenotype, genotype, heterozygous, homozygous, traits,
plants during his first experiments? Select all correct
alleles, genes
answers.

Chromosomes contain ____, which help to determine an
a. to prevent reproduction from occurring
organism’s ____. Genes come in alternate forms called
b. to control which parent plants were allowed to ____, and both parents may not have the same type of
reproduce allele. The actual gene combination that an organism
c. to prevent self-fertilization of the pea plants receives from its parents is called its ____, while the trait
d. to allow the pea plants to reproduce asexually that gets expressed as a result is referred to as its ____. If
an offspring receives the same type of allele for a given
3. Mendel’s F1 generation of pea plants were heterozygous. gene from each parent, it is said to be ____ for that trait.
What does this mean? If the alleles differ, it is ____.
a. All of the offspring plants would have the recessive trait.
7. Explain why a recessive allele can only be expressed
b. Half of the offspring plants would have the dominant
when the organism is homozygous.
trait, while the other half would have the recessive trait.
c. The offspring had two identical alleles for the same
gene.
d. The plants had two different alleles for the same trait.
4. Which of the following statements best describes why a In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
recessive trait is not observed in the offspring of a cross supports the main idea from this lesson:
between a homozygous-dominant and a homozygous-
recessive parent? Both genes and the environment influence the expression of
a. The offspring will be heterozygous, and the dominant traits passed from parents to offspring.
allele masks the appearance of the recessive allele. Remember to include the following information in your
b. Recessive alleles are blended with dominant alleles to study guide:
make an intermediate trait. • Use examples that model main ideas.
c. The offspring will likely be homozygous dominant for • Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
this trait and therefore show the dominant trait. • Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
d. The dominant alleles will destroy the recessive alleles. include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions, and
Consider how genes function to produce traits, how different genes
interact, and how the environment influences genes.

7.3
Traits and Probability
The color of corn, Zea mays,

is an inherited trait.
CAN YOU SOLVE IT?
FIGURE 1: A cat breeder crossed an orange female cat with a black male cat.
Image Credits: (t) ©Kaj R. Svensson/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (bl) ©adogslifephoto/Fotolia;

a Female cat b Male cat c Tortoiseshell kitten from the litter
Gather Evidence Animal breeders select animals to cross based on desired characteristics. Imagine a
What can you determine cat breeder who wants a litter of kittens—half with solid orange fur and half with solid
(bc) ©Eric Isselée/Fotolia; (br) ©Eric Isselée/Fotolia
from the fact that only male kittens black fur. The breeder decides to cross a female orange cat with a male black cat. The
inherited the mother’s phenotype? resulting litter has three orange male kittens and three tortoiseshell female kittens.
Tortoiseshell is a mixture of orange and black fur. The breeder successfully bred solid
orange kittens, but there were no black kittens in the litter.
Predict Answer the following questions in your Evidence Notebook:

1. Why was the litter of kittens not half black and half orange?
2. Why were there only female tortoiseshell kittens?

EXPLORATION 1
Predicting Generations
Gregor Mendel’s trials with purebred white-flowered (pp) and purple-flowered (PP)
FIGURE 2: Purple plants in the
pea plants yielded a heterozygous purple (Pp) F1 generation. When the F1 plants self-
F1 generation self-pollinated to
pollinated, the white flowers reappeared. The F2 plants were one-fourth PP, one-half produce the F2 generation.
Pp, and one-fourth pp.
P
Predict If you crossed two plants from the F2 generation, what procedure would you
follow to determine the genotypes of the next generation? F1
F2
Modeling Genetic Crosses
In the early 1900s, several British scientists expanded upon Mendel’s work. One,
R. C. Punnett, explored genetic crosses with chickens and other species. The model he
developed tracks the alleles each parent can donate to predict the outcome of crosses.
FIGURE 3: The common vizsla has smooth hair, but the wirehaired vizsla has a wiry coat.
a Smooth vizsla b Wirehaired vizsla
Coat texture in dogs is a heritable characteristic. Some dogs, like the vizsla, can have
a smooth coat or a wiry coat, and this trait is controlled by one gene. The wire-coated
allele is dominant, noted as W, and the smooth-coated allele is recessive, noted as w.
Imagine a dog breeder wants to cross two wirehaired vizslas and that both dogs are
heterozygous for the trait. Each parent is heterozygous for the wirehaired trait, so each
one has two different alleles for coat texture. The alleles are separated into gametes
during meiosis. There are two possible gametes for each parent, one for each allele he
Image Credits: (l) ©tmart_foto/Fotolia; (r) ©scarlet61/Fotolia
or she carries.
Analyze What alleles can each heterozygous vizsla parent pass on in his
or her gametes?
The genotype of an organism indicates which alleles the organism carries for a certain
characteristic. Each gamete contains one allele for each trait in an organism’s DNA.
Punnett recognized a relationship between parental gametes and the genotypes of
offspring. He used this relationship to develop a simple table, now known as a Punnett
square, that predicts all possible offspring genotypes resulting from a specific cross.
This model is a quick and easy way to determine the probable outcome of a cross.
Lesson 3 Traits and Probability 329

Explore Online A model for the cross between two heterozygous, wirehaired
FIGURE 4: A Punnett square is used to
vizslas is shown in Figure 4. Because each parent donates
model the cross between two parents with known genotypes.
one gamete to each offspring, gametes will have either a
dominant, wire-coated allele (W) or a recessive, smooth-
coated allele (w).
To complete a Punnett square, divide a square into four equal
sections. Write the alleles of each parent on the outside of the
square, one set above the columns and one set to the left of
the rows. Write the dominant allele first.
Ww Ww Next fill in each box in the Punnett square with the parent
allele from the top of the column and the parent allele from
the beginning of the row. When complete, each box will
W w W w contain one allele from each parent.
The completed Punnett square shows three possible
genotypes for coat type: homozygous dominant (WW),
W w heterozygous (Ww), or homozygous recessive (ww). From
these genotypes, we can predict that there is a one in four
chance that the WW genotype will occur. There is a two in
W
WW Ww four chance that the Ww genotype will occur. Finally, there is
a one in four chance that the ww genotype will occur.
In this cross, both the homozygous dominant and
heterozygous genotypes will have wire coats. Only the
w Ww ww homozygous recessive genotype will have a smooth coat.
Math Connection The wire-coated allele (W) is

dominant to the smooth-coated allele (w). Use the
Punnett square to answer the following questions:
1. What percentage of puppies will have the same
genotype as the parents, Ww?
2. What percentage of puppies will have the wire-coat
WW Ww Ww ww phenotype?
3. What percentage of puppies will have the smooth-coat
phenotype?
A Punnett square models complex processes by focusing on desired traits rather than
a genome. Pulling the letters that represent the parental genotype apart and placing
them along the outside of the Punnett square shows the segregation of homologous
chromosomes and possibly different alleles during meiosis. Each gamete contains only
one version of the gene, and there is an equal opportunity for a gamete to contain
either allele.
The assignment of alleles to the empty boxes models fertilization. Just as haploid
gametes join to make a diploid zygote, the parental alleles join to make letter pairs in
the Punnett square. The letter pairs represent potential offspring genotypes. This is the
real value of a Punnett square. Modeling these processes makes it possible to predict
the genotypes of offspring from a specific cross.
Analyze What do the letters on the top and side of a Punnett square represent?

Calculating Probabilities
Scientists use a branch of mathematics called probability to
FIGURE 5: A Punnett square reflects the probability of two
determine the likelihood that offspring will be born with
independent events occurring at the same time.
certain characteristics. Probability is the chance that an
outcome will occur, such as the birth of a dog with a wire
coat. The probability of an event occurring can be determined
using the following equation:
1 1
number of ways a specific event can occur H T
probability = ______________________________
2 2
number of total possible outcomes

An easy way to explore probability is by flipping a coin. Each
flip has two possible outcomes: the coin either lands heads up 1
H
2
or it lands tails up. The probability of the coin landing heads
up is one out of two, or __12 . The probability of the coin landing 1
HH 1
HT
4 4
tails up is also one out of two, or __12 . Probability is usually
expressed on a scale of 0 to 1, with 0 being an impossible
outcome and 1 being a certain outcome. 1
2 T
Now, consider what happens when you flip two coins at the
same time, as shown in Figure 5. The results of the two flips 1
4 HT 1
4 TT
are independent, so the result of one coin flip does not impact
the result of the other. Both coins are free to land heads up
or tails up. Calculate the probability of two independent events occurring together by
multiplying the probability of the individual events. The probability of flipping heads
is __12 . Therefore, the probability of flipping two heads together is __12 × __12 = __14 .
Probabilities are averages, not exact numbers. If you flip a coin twice, you will not
always get one heads and one tails. You may get two heads or two tails. The more you
repeat an event, the closer you will get to the average described by probability.
Math Connection Determine each of the following probabilities using Figure 4.

1. What is the probability of a Ww genotype? Of a WW genotype?
2. What is the probability of a puppy with a smooth coat being born?
In the cross modeled in Figure 4, what events would have to occur to produce a
heterozygous puppy? The father could donate the dominant allele (W) and the mother
could donate the recessive allele (w). The reverse could also occur. Both of these events Patterns
would produce a heterozygous puppy, and both are equally likely to occur.
The pattern of inheritance observed
The probability of an event that can occur in more than one way is equal to the in sexually reproducing organisms
probability of the individual events added together. So, the probability of a sperm is explained by chance. This makes
with a dominant allele fertilizing an egg with a recessive allele is __14 . The probability probabilities particularly useful for
of a sperm with a recessive allele fertilizing an egg with a dominant allele is also __14 .
analyzing some of the mathematics
Therefore, the probability of producing a heterozygote can be calculated as
behind inheritance.
1
__
4
+ __41 = __21 . In other words, there is a one in two chance that a puppy will be born
that is heterozygous (Ww) for a wire coat.
Explain How can a Punnett square help you explain the phenotypes of the kittens
discussed at the beginning of this lesson? Use your knowledge of meiosis to help support
your answer.

EXPLORATION 2
Determining Types of Crosses
In most horse breeds, a smooth coat is dominant to a curly coat. The recessive allele
FIGURE 6: A Curly Bashkir Horse
is responsible for naturally curly coats that occasionally appear in some horse breeds.
Because the gene is recessive, these occurrences are rare. In a few horse breeds, such
as the Bashkir horse, the curly-coat allele, C, is dominant and the the smooth-coat
allele, c, is recessive.
Predict Imagine you crossed a smooth-coated Bashkir horse with a curly-coated

Bashkir horse. How could you determine the possible outcomes of this cross?
Analyzing the Inheritance of One Trait

All of the genetic crosses discussed so far have involved one trait, from flower color
in pea plants to coat texture in dogs. A cross that examines one trait is a monohybrid
cross. There are three basic types of monohybrid crosses: a homozygous-homozygous
cross, a heterozygous-heterozygous cross, and a heterozygous-homozygous cross.
FIGURE 7: Homozygous-Homozygous Cross

Homozygous-Homozygous Cross
A homozygous-homozygous cross occurs when a
homozygous dominant parent crosses with a homozygous
C C recessive parent. Imagine that a Bashkir horse that is

homozygous dominant for curly hair (CC) is crossed
with a Bashkir horse that is homozygous recessive for
smooth hair (cc).
c Cc Cc
The Punnett square in Figure 7 models the possible outcomes
of the cross. As shown, a homozygous-homozygous cross
always results in heterozygous offspring because one parent
can donate only dominant alleles and the other can donate
only recessive alleles. The sole possible outcome of the cross
is one dominant allele and one recessive allele, which is a
c Cc Cc heterozygous combination. For the cross shown in Figure 7,

all of the offspring would have the heterozygous genotype,
Cc. They would have curly coats because the dominant curly-
coat allele, C, is present in all genotypes. Each offspring would
also carry the recessive smooth-coat allele, c.
Math Connection Probability is measured on a scale from 0 to 1. For a

Image Credits: (t) ©Mark J. Barrett/Alamy
homozygous-homozygous cross, determine the following probabilities:

1. Probability of homozygous recessive offspring
2. Probability of homozygous dominant offspring
3. Probability of heterozygous offspring

C c
Heterozygous-Heterozygous Cross
Imagine you wish to cross two curly-coated, heterozygous
FIGURE 8: Heterozygous-Heterozygous Cross
C
Bashkir horses. Each horse has the genotype Cc and can pass
on either the dominant allele for curly hair or the recessive
allele for smooth hair. The probability of each parent donating
a dominant allele to the offspring is __12 . The probability of each
CC Cc
parent donating a recessive allele to the offspring is also __12 .
Figure 8 shows the Punnett square for this heterozygous-
heterozygous cross. From each parent, half the offspring
receive a dominant allele (C) and half receive a recessive
allele (c).
Math Connection In the heterozygous-heterozygous

cross modeled in Figure 8, what is the probability of
offspring with homozygous dominant, heterozygous, or
c Cc cc
homozygous recessive genotypes?
This type of cross for a single trait always results in a

genotypic ratio of 1:2:1. This means that __14 of offspring will
have the homozygous dominant genotype, __24 will have the heterozygous genotype,
and __41 will have the homozygous recessive genotype.The phenotypic ratio is 3:1
of dominant:recessive phenotypes. In other words, of the potential offspring
phenotypes, __34 will have the dominant phenotype and __14 will have the recessive
phenotype.
Heterozygous-Homozygous Cross FIGURE 9: Heterozygous-Homozygous Cross

Now, imagine a heterozygous-homozygous cross between
a heterozygous Bashkir horse with curly hair (Cc) and a
homozygous recessive Bashkir horse with smooth hair
(cc). From the homozygous parent, the offspring receive a
recessive allele, c. From the heterozygous parent, half the
C c
offspring receive a dominant allele, C, and half receive a
recessive allele, c.
Figure 9 shows the Punnett square for this heterozygous-
homozygous cross. This cross results in two offspring with the
c Cc cc
genotype Cc and two offspring with the genotype cc.
Math Connection What is the probability the

offspring in this cross will have a heterozygous genotype? c Cc cc
What about a homozygous-recessive genotype?
A heterozygous-homozygous cross always produces parental

genotypes in a 1:1 genotypic ratio. For the cross in Figure 9,
the probability of offspring with the heterozygous genotype and the probability of Analyze In your Evidence
offspring with the homozygous recessive genotype are both __12 . The phenotypic ratio in Notebook, complete a cross
this instance is also 1:1, because the probability that each coat type will occur is __12 . So, between a heterozygous horse (Cc)
in this cross, half of the offspring will have curly coats and half will have smooth coats. and a homozygous-dominant horse
(CC). Were your results the same?

Hands-On Activity
Determining a Genotype
FIGURE 10: Peaches and nectarines are the same species, Prunus persica.
MATERIALS Peaches have fuzzy skin. A nectarine is a variety of smooth-skinned peach. A

• paper dominant allele, G, causes fuzzy skin. All peaches have at least one copy of this
• pencil allele. Nectarines come from trees that are homozygous recessive (gg) for fuzz.
Imagine your company sells peach and nectarine seedlings. You developed a
new type of peach tree that is very popular. To meet demand, you must learn the
genotypes of your breeding stock. You determine them by setting up a testcross
between an individual that has a dominant phenotype but an unknown genotype
and an individual that is homozygous recessive.
Predict How can a testcross help you find the unknown genotype of the plant?
PROCEDURE
1. Plant A produces peaches. You need to determine its genotype. Plant B
produces nectarines that have smooth skin and a known genotype of gg. You
cross Plant A with Plant B.
3. The resulting cross yields twelve plants. Six plants produce peaches upon the
first fruiting and six plants produce nectarines upon the first fruiting.
4. Use Punnett squares to determine the genotype of Plant A.
Image Credits: Georgia Department of Economic Development
ANALYZE
1. What is the genotype of Plant A? Explain how you arrived at your answer.
2. Plant A is crossed with a plant that has a genotype of GG. What are the possible
genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring?
3. Plant A is crossed with a plant that has a genotype of Gg. What is the ratio of
dominant to recessive phenotypes of the offspring?
4. In terms of genotype, is Plant A the best plant to produce as many peach
seedlings as possible? Why or why not? Which genotype would be best?

Analyzing the Inheritance of Two Traits FIGURE 11: Phenotypes of Peas
A dihybrid cross examines the inheritance of two traits. Consider the peas shown in
Figure 11, which can be yellow or green and round or wrinkled. The yellow allele, Y, is
dominant to the green allele, y. The round allele, R, is dominant to the wrinkled allele, r.
Figure 12 shows a cross between two heterozygous plants (YyRr). Each gamete
receives one allele for pea color and one allele for pea shape. Each pea color allele
has an equal probability of being paired with each pea shape allele. There are four
possible combinations of alleles in heterozygous dihybrid gametes. The probability of
producing any of the four gametes is one out of four.
FIGURE 12: A dihybrid cross between two heterozygous pea plants.

Gather Evidence
Determine the number of
F1 generation YR Yr YyRr yR yr possible phenotypes in the dihybrid
cross. What is the ratio for all the
possibilities?
YR
YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr
Yr
YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr
YyRr
yR
YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr
yr
YyRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr
F2 generation
Math Connection Use the Punnett square to answer the following questions:
1. What is the probability that the cross will produce a plant that is heterozygous for
both traits? What is the probability of producing a plant with yellow and round
peas? Why are these two probabilities different?
2. Make a Punnett square for the dihybrid cross YyRr and yyrr. How are the
probabilities of this cross different from those in Question 1?
In this cross, the chance of producing offspring that exhibit both dominant traits
9
(yellow and round) is __16
. The chance of producing offspring that exhibit one dominant
3
trait and one recessive trait (yellow and wrinkled or green and round) is __ 16
. Finally, the
chance of producing offspring that exhibit both recessive traits (green and wrinkled)
1
is __
16
. Using Figure 12, you can see these possibilities. There are nine yellow and round
peas, three yellow and wrinkled peas, three green and round peas, and one green
Image Credits: (t) ©Martin Shields/Alamy
and wrinkled pea. Therefore, a heterozygous-heterozygous dihybrid cross results in a

phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1.
Explain Why are Punnett squares a useful model for scientists studying traits and
genetic disorders? In which other types of careers would this model be useful?

EXPLORATION 3
Sex-Linked Inheritance
Human offspring have an equal probability of being male (XY) or female (XX). The
mother donates an X chromosome, so the chromosome donated by the father is
the one that determines the sex of the offspring. The father could donate either an
X chromosome, in which case the child would be female, or a Y chromosome, in
which case the child would be male, as shown in Figure 13. The probability of either
occurrence is __12 .
FIGURE 13: Females donate an X chromosome to offspring while males can donate either
an X or a Y chromosome.
a Female Sex Chromosomes b Male Sex Chromosomes
Predict How would the inherited traits discussed in this lesson be influenced if those
alleles were on a sex chromosome? Would the probability of inheritance change?
Expressing Sex-Linked Traits
Explore Online Genes located on sex chromosomes are sex-linked genes. These genes follow a
Image Credits: (l) ©Power and Syred/Science Source; (r) ©Power and Syred/Science Source
pattern of inheritance called sex-linked inheritance and are not always connected to
Hands-On Lab
sexual characteristics. All other genes occur on autosomes, or non-sex chromosomes,
Sex-Linked Inheritance Use and follow autosomal inheritance patterns. Few genes appear on both the X and Y
a model to determine the pattern of chromosome, so males, with only one X chromosome, often express X-linked genes.
inheritance for sex-linked traits. To prevent the double expression of sex-linked traits in females, female embryos go
through the process of X inactivation. During this process, one X chromosome in each
cell randomly becomes inactive very early in development. All descendants of these
early cells have the same inactive X. This process does not impact the phenotype of
homozygous females because both of their X chromosomes have the same allele.
Heterozygous females can be impacted by X inactivation, depending upon the genes
involved.
A
Analyze Imagine an X-linked recessive disease. X represents the dominant allele
a
and X represents the recessive allele. What are the different kinds of gametes a
heterozygous female and a male with a dominant allele can produce?

Analyzing the Inheritance of Sex-Linked Traits
Cone cells in the human eye have color-sensing molecules called photopigments that Gather Evidence
normally respond to either red, blue, or green light. The most common type of color Which genotypes for males
blindness, red-green color blindness, involves abnormalities in the photopigments and females result in normal vision
in green or red cone cells. The genes responsible for red-green color blindness are and which result in color blindness?
located on the X chromosome, so red-green color blindness is a sex-linked trait.
The dominant allele that produces normal vision is
C FIGURE 14: A cross between a female heterozygous for red-
represented by the C superscript (X ). The recessive allele that
green color blindness and a male with normal vision.
is responsible for red-green color blindness is represented by
c
the c superscript (X ). For heterozygous females, the presence
of one dominant allele is enough to overcome the expression
of the recessive allele.
XC Xc
When using a Punnett square to perform a sex-linked cross,
place the female chromosomes at the top of the square and
the male chromosomes to the left of the square. Sex-linked
crosses track sex chromosomes and the trait of interest
XC XCXC XCXc
simultaneously. These characters are linked and therefore
always appear together as a capital letter for the sex
chromosome and a superscript for the trait of interest.
Y X CY XcY
Math Connection Using the Punnett square in Figure
14, determine the probabilities that a couple will have a
colorblind child, a colorblind son, or a colorblind daughter.
Most sex-linked traits occur on the X chromosome. Thus, sex-linked inheritance

patterns are mostly due to differences in expression of the X chromosome. An affected
male offspring requires only a single recessive allele, while an affected female requires
two recessive alleles. This decreases the likelihood that a female will be homozygous
recessive. She is more likely to be a heterozygous carrier of the recessive trait.
Sex-linked crosses are similar to monohybrid crosses, but there is a key difference—the
trait and the sex chromosome are inherited as one unit and cannot be separated. So,
C
in a male unaffected by a sex-linked condition with genotype X Y, the normal allele, C,
and the X chromosome are always inherited together.
Engineering
For those affected by or are carriers of a heritable disorder, the decision of

whether to have children can be monumental. Genetic counseling helps inform
this decision by predicting the likelihood that a particular couple will have a child
with an inherited disease. Genetic counselors use Mendelian genetics, pedigrees,
and genetic tests to model the potential outcomes for prospective parents.
Explain How do the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of the sex-linked traits differ from
those of a monohybrid cross?

Data Analysis
Pedigrees FIGURE 15: A pedigree tracing hemophilia through three generations.
Long before DNA testing made it

possible to determine genotypes l ?
analytically, scientists constructed
XhY XHX?
pedigrees to study inheritance patterns. 1 2
A pedigree is a family tree that tracks a
trait through multiple generations.
The inheritance pattern of hemophilia ll
can be determined by analyzing a XHXh XHY X HY XHXh XHY
pedigree. Hemophilia is a sex-linked 3 4 5 6 7
disorder that causes uncontrolled
bleeding because the body fails to make
one or more clotting factors. It can be lll ? ?
fatal if untreated.
XHX? XhY
X XHX? XHY
Pedigrees are built using symbols 8 9 10 11
to represent relationships between
Male Affected male Carrier male
individuals. Figure 15 is a pedigree
following hemophilia through three Female Affected female Carrier female ? Unknown phenotype
generations. Males are represented by

squares and females are represented daughters. Therefore, all daughters in It is also impossible to determine the
by circles. A direct line between two the second generation are heterozygous genotypes of Females 8 and 10. The
individuals indicates a relationship. H h
for this condition, X X . These females father can donate only a dominant
Siblings are listed from left to right are carriers of the hemophilia gene. allele. The mother can donate either
in order from oldest to youngest, a dominant or a recessive allele.
connected by a sibling relationship line. It is impossible to determine the
Therefore, the daughters are either
Parents and offspring are connected by genotype of Female 2. She may be a
homozygous dominant or heterozygous
a line of descent. carrier for hemophilia who passed along
at this location. Again, the unknown
a normal allele to all of her children. Or
Fully shaded shapes represent allele on the X chromosome is
she could be homozygous dominant for
individuals who are affected by the trait represented by X?.
this gene. This unknown allele on the X
of interest—hemophilia. Affected males chromosome is represented by X?.
must have the hemophilia allele on
h
the X chromosome, represented by X .
Data Analysis Use the pedigree to answer the following questions.
Unaffected males must have a normal
H
allele at this location, represented by X . 1. Is hemophilia a dominant or recessive trait? Use evidence to support your claim.
Half-shaded shapes represent carriers.
2. In the second generation, how many females are carriers of the gene? What is
No females in the second generation their genotype?
have hemophilia. Therefore, they all 3. Imagine Male 9 married a female carrier. What is the probability that they will
must have at least one normal allele produce a female child with hemophilia? A child who does not have hemophilia?
for this gene. Also, their father can only A child who has the parental phenotypes? Use evidence to support your answers.
pass along the hemophilia allele to his
PRACTICING MODELING MONOHYBRID Go online to choose one of

ANIMAL BREEDING
GENETIC CROSSES & DIHYBRID CROSSES these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU SOLVE IT?
FIGURE 16: Kittens with tortoiseshell fur resulted from crossing an orange cat with a black cat.
a Female cat b Male cat c Tortoiseshell kitten from the litter
Recall the cat breeder from the beginning of the lesson. The breeder hoped to produce
a litter of kittens in which half the kittens were orange and half were black. To achieve
this, the breeder crossed an orange female cat with a black male cat. When the kittens
were born, three were male and three were female. As expected, half the kittens had
orange fur. However, the remaining kittens had a mixture of orange and black fur
called tortoiseshell. To complicate things further, the orange kittens were all males and
the tortoiseshell kittens were all females.
Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook to answer the

following questions:
1. Why was the litter of kittens not half black and half orange?
2. Why were there only female tortoiseshell kittens?
3. Which alleles were passed on by each parent cat in this cross? Which alleles
Image Credits: (l) ©adogslifephoto/Fotolia; (c) ©Eric Isselée/Fotolia; (r) ©Eric Isselée/Fotolia
did the male offspring receive? Which alleles did the female offspring receive?
Tortoiseshell coloring in cats is usually expressed only in females. This tells us that the
gene controlling black and orange color is located on the X chromosome. Males have
one X chromosome with either an allele for orange fur (XB) or one for black fur (Xb).
This gives two possible genotypes for males: XBY or XbY. Because males have only one
version of the allele, they will always express that allele. Females, however, have two X
chromosomes. Thus, they can be homozygous for orange fur (XBXB), homozygous for
black fur (XbXb), or heterozygous (XBXb).
Remember, in females one X chromosome in each cell is inactive. X inactivation does
not impact homozygous females (XBXB and XbXb) because the same allele is expressed
regardless of which X chromosome is active. X inactivation impacts heterozygous
females (XBXb) because it is random. The color expressed by each cell depends on
which of the two chromosomes is active. Black fur occurs on skin patches that have an
inactive XB allele. Orange fur occurs where the Xb allele is inactive. The patches of color
occur randomly, giving these females their characteristic mosaic tortoiseshell pattern.

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding Use the following information and the Punnett square in
Figure 18 to answer Questions 6–8.
Use the following information to answer Questions 1–3.
The trait for purple flowers in pea plants (P) is dominant to the
Two heterozygous, wirehaired vizslas were crossed. The
trait for white flowers (p).
genotypes of their potential offspring are shown in the
Punnett square in Figure 17. FIGURE 18: Heterozygous-Homozygous Recessive Cross
FIGURE 17: Heterozygous-Heterozygous Cross
P p
W w
p Pp pp
W WW Ww
p Pp pp
w Ww ww
6. What is the probability that the heterozygous parent will

donate a recessive p allele?
1. What is the phenotypic ratio of wire-coated to smooth-
coated offspring? 7. What is the probability that the homozygous-recessive
parent will donate a recessive p allele?
2. What is the genotypic ratio of homozygous dominant to
heterozygous to homozygous recessive offspring? 8. What is the probability of both parents donating a
recessive p allele?
3. What genotype has a 100% chance of expressing a
recessive allele? 9. Why is the known genotype in a testcross always
homozygous recessive? Provide an example to
Use the following information to answer Questions 4 and 5. support your claim.
10. For each pair, calculate the probability of producing

Duchenne muscular dystrophy is an X-linked recessive
a homozygous recessive genotype. Then place the pairs
disease that causes degeneration and weakness in muscles.
in order of increasing probability.
The normal condition is represented by the superscript D,
and the allele that causes Duchenne muscular dystrophy is a. Aa × aa
represented by the superscript d. b. aa × aa
c. Aa × Aa
4. Draw a Punnett square to show a cross between
a homozygous-dominant female and a male with 11. Parents of genotype AABB and aabb were crossed
Duchenne muscular dystrophy. and produced all heterozygotes with the genotype
AaBb. Heterozygotes from the F1 generation were
5. Which combination of parental genotypes is most likely crossed and produced a phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3:1.
to result in carrier daughters? How does this sequence of events support the law of
independent assortment?

Use the following information and the pedigree in Figure 19 Use following information to answer Questions 16–18. Make
to answer Questions 12–14. a Punnett square for each cross to support your answers.
This simple pedigree traces an autosomal-recessive disorder In pea plants, yellow seed color (Y) is dominant to green seed
across three generations. This disorder is not sex-linked and color (y); round seeds (R) are dominant to wrinkled seeds (r).
follows Mendelian patterns of inheritance. The dominant
allele is A, and the recessive allele that causes the disorder is a. 16. What is the probability that parents with the genotypes
YyRR and YYRR will produce an offspring with the
FIGURE 19: Autosomal-Recessive Pedigree
genotype YYRR?
I 17. What is the probability that parents with the

1 2 genotypes yyrr and YyRr will produce offspring with
the genotype yyrr?
II
18. What is the probability that parents with the
genotypes YYRR and yyrr will produce offspring
3 4 5 6 7
with the genotype YyRr?
III
8 9 10

12. The four siblings in the second generation have the same
genotype. What is it? The expression of genes determines an organism’s phenotype.
13. What is the most likely genotype of the father in the first Punnett squares can be used to determine the probability
generation? of offspring expressing certain traits.
If genes are sex-linked, males will express the allele found
14. What is the genotype of both affected individuals?
on the X chromosome while females express the allele on
the active X chromosome. If the gene is located on the Y
15. Imagine a plant can have striped flower petals or
chromosome, it is expressed only in males.
solid flower petals. Solid coloring (Z) is dominant to
stripes (z). Which parental cross would yield the following Remember to include the following information in your
ratio of offspring: 1 homozygous dominant (ZZ): study guide:
2 heterozygotes (Zz): 1 homozygous recessive (zz)? • Use examples that model main ideas.
a. homozygous dominant–homozygous recessive • Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
b. homozygous dominant–homozygous dominant • Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
c. homozygous dominant–heterozygous include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions, and
d. heterozygous-heterozygous other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
There is a cause-and-effect relationship between an organism’s
DNA and its phenotype. Consider other cause-and-effect
relationships, such as the effect a parent’s DNA has on offspring.

7.4
Mutations and
Genetic Diversity
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?

Mutations can affect the
sequence of nucleotides
in your DNA. Screening FIGURE 1: Red blood cells normally have a rounded shape. A mutation in a protein called
techniques can be used to hemoglobin causes red blood cells to have a “sickled,” or bent, shape.
detect these changes.
Gather Evidence
mutations increase genetic
diversity.
Image Credits: (t) ©Kevin Curtis/Science Source; (b) ©Science Picture Co./Getty Images
When you think of mutations, you may imagine enhanced, superhuman abilities, or
you may think of negative effects on the body. Some mutations can be beneficial,
while others can be quite harmful. For example, sickle cell anemia is a disease caused
by a mutation that affects red blood cells. The result is anemia, or a shortage of healthy
red blood cells in the body. Other symptoms include fatigue, pain, swelling of hands
and feet, and delayed growth. The sickle cell anemia allele, HbS, causes the disease
and can be passed on from parent to offspring. Despite its damaging effects, the HbS
allele persists in relatively high frequencies in some parts of the world. These areas are
typically near Earth’s equator and include parts of Africa and the Mediterranean.
Predict Why might the HbS allele be more common in some parts of the world than in
others? What do you think causes this pattern?

EXPLORATION 1
Gene Mutations
What you are made of and how your body functions begins with the instructions
from your DNA. Your DNA carries the code from which all the proteins that give your
body structure and help your body carry out life-maintaining processes are produced.
Changes in DNA, or mutations, may result in diseases like sickle cell anemia. How do
mutations occur and what causes them?
Causes of Mutations
Mutations can be categorized as gene mutations or chromosomal mutations.
Gene mutations are changes in the DNA sequence of a single gene. Typically,
gene mutations happen during DNA replication. DNA polymerase has a built-in
proofreading function that repairs mutations, but a small number of replication errors
do not get fixed. They build up over time, and can eventually affect how the cell works.
Many studies suggest that mutations in somatic cells, coupled with a decrease in the
body’s self-repairing ability, may contribute to the process of aging. Collaborate When you
Mutagens are agents in the environment that can change DNA or increase the get x-rays at the dentist, a
frequency of mutation in organisms. Some mutagens occur naturally, such as lead vest is placed over your body.
ultraviolet (UV) rays in sunlight. Some chemicals have also been linked to mutations, Write why you think this is
such as those in food and cosmetics. Biological mutagens include bacteria and viruses. necessary, and explain to a partner.
FIGURE 2: Mutagens can change DNA. The main types of mutagens include radiation, chemicals, and infectious agents.
Radiation Chemicals Infectious Agents
X-rays UV Processed foods Cleaning products Carcinogens Viruses Bacteria

(medical uses) (from sunlight) and preservatives and cosmetics (e.g., cigarettes) (e.g., HPV) (e.g., H. pylori)
One example of a mutation caused by a mutagen is a thymine dimer. Recall that in

FIGURE 3: Thymine Dimer
DNA, adenine always pairs with thymine. UV light can cause neighboring thymine
nucleotides to break their hydrogen bonds to adenine and bond together, forming a UV light
thymine dimer. The dimer causes the DNA to kink, which interferes with replication.
Cells have a process for correcting these mutations. One enzyme removes the thymine
dimer, another replaces the damaged section, and a third bonds the new segment
in place. Sometimes, this process is not effective. When these mutations are not
corrected in genes that regulate cell and tumor growth, they may result in cancer. kink
Explain Some cancer drugs take advantage of mutagenic properties. One type of
drug wedges its way between nucleotides in DNA. Explain how the action of this drug
would cause cancer cells to eventually lose their ability to function and reproduce.
Lesson 4 Mutations and Genetic Diversity 343

Point Mutations
A point mutation is a mutation in which one nucleotide is substituted for another. In
other words, an incorrect nucleotide takes the place of the correct nucleotide. Very
often, such a mistake is caught and fixed by DNA polymerase. If not, the substitution
may permanently change an organism’s DNA.
Cause and Effect
Let’s examine some mutations and determine their effects on the sequence of
amino acids. Remember that in protein synthesis, the DNA code is transcribed to
make a strand of mRNA, which is then translated into a sequence of amino acids
using codons. Some mutations affect the amino acid sequence, which can affect
the structure and function of the resulting protein.
FIGURE 4: A codon chart shows which amino acids correspond to each possible
combination of mRNA bases.
ALA = Alanine
ARG = Arginine
GLY PHE
LEU ASN = Asparagine
GLU
A G U C A SER ASP = Aspartic acid
ASP U C G
A G U
C CYS = Cysteine
U
C
G U A
G TYR
GLN = Glutamine
Language Arts
ALA
A
G A C U
C A
Connection Research a U C A G GLY = Glycine
G U
G U CYS
HIS = Histidine
human health condition caused by VAL A C
C U G A S ILE = Isoleucine
a mutation, and write a blog post U G TRP LEU = Leucine
G U
G
A C
explaining how people are working ARG A
U C LYS = Lysine
C A LEU MET = Methionine
to address the condition. What has SER U G
been done to raise awareness of the

G
A
A C C
PRO = Proline
LYS C A
condition? How are scientists U C A G PRO S = Stop
ASN
G
A
C
U G A
C
U
SER = Serine
approaching this condition? What U
G A
C U G A C
U
G
HIS THR = Threonine
THR
kinds of treatments have been GLN TRP = Tryptophan
MET
ILE ARG TYR = Tyrosine

proposed so far, and which of them VAL = Valine
seems most promising?
FIGURE 5: Normal and Mutated DNA Sequences
Normal sequence Mutation 1 Mutation 2 Mutation 3

DNA CTC CAC ATC CTT
mRNA GAG GUG UAG GAA
Analyze Use the chart in Figure 4 to analyze the DNA sequences in Figure 5.
1. For each mRNA sequence, determine the corresponding amino acid.
2. Which mutations changed the identity of the amino acid as compared to the
normal sequence?
3. If you had to create names for the three types of mutations you analyzed, what
would they be?

Mutations that change a codon, but not the identity of
FIGURE 6: Hemoglobin has four subunits, each with an iron
an amino acid in a protein, do not affect the amino acid
atom to which oxygen molecules attach.
sequence of that protein. This type of mutation is sometimes
called a “silent mutation” because it does not change the polypeptide iron
structure and function of the protein. However, there are chain
red blood cell
times when the substitution of a base results in a change in a
codon and consequently in a new amino acid. This is called a
“missense” mutation. If a mutation results in a “stop” codon
being formed, the protein will not be complete. This is called a
“nonsense” mutation. In both types, the amino acid sequence
has changed and the protein’s structure and function may
hemoglobin
be altered.
Sickle cell anemia is caused by a point mutation that alters the
gene which codes for the hemoglobin protein in red blood
cells. Hemoglobin is made of four subunits with each of the
subunits containing iron. This arrangement allows red blood
cells to be efficient in transporting oxygen molecules from
the lungs to the cells because oxygen molecules bind to the iron atoms. In HbS alleles,
glutamic acid is substituted by valine. The protein synthesized using the mutated gene
as a template has a different structure than that of a typical hemoglobin protein.
Glutamic acid is a negatively-charged amino acid that is attracted to positively-charged

amino acids. This interaction between amino acids helps the protein keep its shape.
Unlike glutamic acid, valine is not attracted to positively-charged amino acids. So, instead
of grouping together to form the structure in Figure 6, the hemoglobin subunits form
long, rigid chains. This results in red blood cells that have a “sickle” shape.
Image Credits: (cr) ©Dr. Tony Brain/Science Source; (br) ©Jackie Lewin, Royal Free Hospital/ Science Photo Library/ Photo Researchers
FIGURE 7: Sickle
DNA DNAcell anemia results from a mutation that alters the structure of hemoglobin.
C A CC AG CT GG TG GA GC AT CG TA GG AG GA GC AT CC TC CT CC T C
sequence
sequence
DNA DNA C A CC AG CT GG TG GA GC AT CG TA GG AG GA GC AT CC TC CT CC T C
mRNAsequence
mRNA
sequence G U GG UC GA CC AC CU CG UA GC AU CC UC CU CG UA GG AG GA GG A G
sequence
sequence
mRNAmRNA G U GG UC GA CC AC CU CG UA GC AU CC UC CU CG UA GG AG GA GG A G
sequence
sequence
aminoamino
acid acid
Val Val His His Leu Leu Thr Thr Pro Pro Glu Glu Glu Glu
sequence
sequence
aminoamino
acid acid normalnormal
red blood
red blood
cells cells
Val Val His His Leu Leu Thr Thr Pro Pro Glu Glu Glu Glu
sequence
sequence
normalnormal
red blood
red blood
cells cells
mutation
mutation
DNA DNA C C AA mutation
mutation
A CC AG CT GG TG GA GC AT CG TA GG AG GA G CC AC CT CC T C
sequence
sequence
DNA DNA C A CC AG CT GG TG GA GC AT CG TA GG AG GA GC AA CC AC CT CC T C
mRNA mRNA
sequence
sequence G U GG UC GA CC AC CU CG UA GC AU CC UC CU CG UU GG UG GA GG A G
sequence
sequence
mRNAmRNA G U GG UC GA CC AC CU CG UA GC AU CC UC CU CG UU GG UG GA GG A G
sequence
sequence
aminoamino
acid acid
Val Val His His Leu Leu Thr Thr Pro Pro Val Val Glu Glu
sequence
sequence
aminoamino
acid acid sickledsickled red blood
red blood cells cells
Val Val His His Leu Leu Thr Thr Pro Pro Val Val Glu Glu
sequence
sequence
sickledsickled
red blood
red blood
cells cells
When sickle-shaped red blood cells stack on top of each other, they can clog blood
vessels. This mutation causes anemia, and consequently fatigue and the other
symptoms of sickle cell anemia. The cells do not get enough oxygen to produce the
energy the body needs to properly maintain processes that keep the body healthy.
Model Draw a flow chart to illustrate how a change in a nucleotide in a DNA strand
leads to symptoms experienced by those with sickle cell anemia.

Frameshift Mutations
normalthe insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotides in point mutation
A frameshift mutation involves
the DNA sequence. This mutation changes the reading frame, or the arrangement of
nucleotides into codons. To understand how a frameshift mutation affects an mRNA
DNA of three-letter
strand, imagine a short sentence G A T C “codons”:
T C A G G C T A DNA G A
THE CAT ATE THE RAT

RNA
If the letter E is removed, or deleted,Cfrom
U AtheG first
A “THE,” A U that follow shift RNA
G U Call CtheG letters C U
to the left. The sentence now reads:

THC ATA TET HER AT...
proteinsense. The
The sentence no longer makes Leu sameGluwould beSertrue if a
Asp
nucleotide was protein Leu
added, or inserted, and all the letters shifted to the right, as shown in Figure 8.
FIGURE 8: Frameshift mutations change the reading frame, which changes the amino acid sequence after the mutation.
normal frameshift mutation (insertion)

point mutation frameshift muta
DNA G A T C T C A G G C T A DNA
DNA G GA AT TC CT TT AC AA GG GG CC TT AA DNA G A
AT
RNA C U A G A G U C C G A U RNARNA C CU UA AG GA AA UG UU CC CC GG AA UU
added
mutated RNA C U
base
base
protein Leu Glu Ser Asp protein

protein LeuLeu GluAsp Val Ser ArgAsp protein Leu
Explore Online A nucleotide sequence loses its meaning when an insertion or deletion shifts all the
codons by one nucleotide. This change throws off the reading frame, which results in
FIGURE 9: Trinucleotide repeat
frameshift mutation (insertion) frameshift
codons that code for different mutation (deletion)
amino acids.
expansions make a loop of
duplicate nucleotides.
DNA G A T C T T C A
Trinucleotide
G G C T A
Repeat
DNA Expansions
G A T C T C A G C T A A
T G
RNA C U A G A A G U Frameshift
C C G A mutations
U may also
RNAoccur inC sections
U A G ofADNA that
G U C consist
G A Uof U repeating
added
nucleotides, such as CAG
base CAG CAG. These repeating segments are known asdeleted
base
trinucleotide repeats because they involve three nucleotides. During replication, DNA
polymerase may “slip” and make duplicate copies of the repeated sequence. This
protein Leu Glu Val formsArg
a “hairpin” loop of DNAprotein
that sticks Leu
out fromGlu Ser
its complementary Ilestrand. When this
strand is replicated, the loop becomes part of the DNA, resulting in a longer double
strand of DNA. This expansion continues as cells divide and DNA is replicated.
Image Credits: (b) ©HHMI BioInteractive
Analyze People with sickle cell anemia have two copies of the HbS allele. People with
one copy are carriers and do not have the disease.
1. Is the sickle cell allele dominant or recessive? Explain how you know.
2. If two carriers have children, what is the probability of one of their children
having the disease?

EXPLORATION 2
Chromosomal Mutations
Chromosomal mutations are changes in either chromosome segments or whole

chromosomes. These mutations may change the amount of genetic material or change
the structure of a chromosome, and they usually occur during mitosis and meiosis.
Gene Duplication
During meiosis, homologous chromosomes exchange DNA segments through crossing
over. If the chromosomes do not align with each other, a segment of one chromosome
may break off and attach itself to the other chromosome, resulting in one chromosome
with two copies of a gene or genes. This process is called gene duplication. The
chromosome that lost the segment has undergone gene deletion.
FIGURE 10: The douc langur has digestive enzymes that evolved as the result of a gene
duplication event. These enzymes allow douc langurs to digest leaves and fruits.
Mutations can have harmful effects, but they can also increase genetic variation, or Model Draw a model
the variety of traits among individuals within a population. Gene duplication has illustrating how gene
occurred many times in the evolution of eukaryotic organisms. When gene duplication duplication and mutations can lead
occurs, multiple copies of a gene are present. As a result, one copy of the gene can to a gene with a new function over
encode functional proteins, while the other copies are “free” to accumulate mutations.
the course of several generations.
Mutated genes may encode proteins with new structures, which may take on new
functions in the organism.
Engineering
Sometimes the entire genome is duplicated. This type of error can lead to FIGURE 11: Polyploidy in Plants
polyploidy, or multiple copies of the genome. Genome duplication has occurred in
the evolution of many crop plants, such as strawberry, wheat, and mustard plants. Common Chromosome
Image Credits: (tr) ©nattanan726/Shutterstock
Name Number
Scientists can use chemicals to artificially induce polyploidy in cells. These
chemicals interfere with the formation of microtubules, disrupting the separation Banana 3N= 33
of chromosomes during mitosis. As a result, one daughter cell receives a double set
Potato 4N = 48
of chromosomes. This technique has been used to manipulate traits such as flower
desirable totocustomers.
size to make plants more desireable customers. Common wheat 6N = 42
Analyze Suppose you wanted to chemically induce polyploidy to make a plant with Boysenberry 7N = 49
larger fruit. Write a list of questions you would ask to define and delimit the problem. Strawberry 8N = 56

Gene Translocation
Translocation is another type of chromosomal mutation. In translocation, a segment
FIGURE 12: Gene Translocation
of one chromosome moves to a nonhomologous chromosome. Translocations are
often reciprocal, which means that the two nonhomologous chromosomes exchange
segments with each other. In Figure 12, a translocation occurs between chromosome 1
and chromosome 17. This is known as a balanced translocation because the swapping
of segments did not break up any genes, and there was no gain or loss of material.
1 17 Predict Many people with balanced translocation mutations are not aware they have
normal them until they try to have children. How might this be possible?
Nondisjunction Mutations
1 17 Nondisjunction mutations occur when one or more homologous chromosomes do

translocated not separate during anaphase of meiosis. The resulting gametes do not have the
same number of chromosomes and can have more or fewer chromosomes than the
parent cell.
FIGURE 13: A karyotype can be used to identify a nondisjunction mutation.
FIGURE 14: People with Down

syndrome have three copies of
chromosome 21, called trisomy
21.
Image Credits: (bl) ©Huntstock/Disability Images; (br) ©L. Willatt/East Anglian Regional Genetics Service/Science Source
Examples of human disorders caused by nondisjunction include Down syndrome
and Klinefelter disorder. Down syndrome occurs in people with three copies of
Model Draw a model chromosome 21. Klinefelter disorder is caused by an extra X chromosome in the
cells of males. Recall that males have one X and one Y chromosome. A male with this
to illustrate how a
disorder would have three chromosomes: XXY. This mutation affects the learning
nondisjunction mutation could
ability and sexual development of males. Turner syndrome is another example of
occur during either anaphase I or
a disorder caused by nondisjunction. Females with this syndrome have only one
anaphase II of meiosis. X chromosome instead of two. This missing X chromosome interferes with the
development of secondary sexual characteristics in females.
Explain Make a chart to organize and describe the main types of mutations you have
learned about so far. Then use your chart to help you write an explanation for these
questions: When is a mutation likely to increase genetic variation? When is a mutation
likely to have harmful effects?

EXPLORATION 3
Effects of Mutations
You have seen how HbS, the sickle cell anemia allele, can be passed on from parent to
offspring. Whether or not a mutation such as this gets inherited depends on the type
of cell in which the mutation occurs. If a mutation is transmitted, it may or may not
affect the phenotype, or the physical expression of a trait, in the organism.
Impacts on Offspring
There are two major types of cells in the body: body cells and germ cells. Germ cells
are involved in the formation of gametes. Body cells, or somatic cells, include all other cells
of the body. Mutations happen in both of these cell types, but only mutations in germ cells
may be passed from parent to offspring. Mutations in the germ line affect the phenotype
of offspring. Often, this effect is so harmful that offspring do not develop properly or
die before they can reproduce. Other mutations, though less severe, often still result in less
adaptive phenotypes. More rarely, a mutation results in a more beneficial phenotype.
FIGURE 15: Mutations can occur in gametes and in body cells.

Explain Would a
mutation in one of your
germline mutation: somatic mutation: muscle cells be passed down to
mutation in gametes mutation in body cells your offspring? Use evidence to
(sperm or egg) support your explanation.
mutation parental
in egg gametes
mutation
embryo in body cells
All cells
of the patch of
organism organism affected
carry the area
mutation.
Some of the gametes None of the

gametes (sperm gametes (sperm
or eggs) carry
of the or eggs) carry
the mutation. organism the mutation.

Impacts on Phenotype
Chromosomal mutations affect many genes and have a major impact on the organism.
A mutation may break up a gene, inactivating it, or make a new hybrid gene with a
new function. Translocated genes may also come under the control of new promoters.
Gene mutations, though smaller in scale than chromosomal mutations, can also
have a big effect on an organism. Even a mutation in a noncoding region can cause
problems. Recall that DNA sequences such as promoters and enhancers interact with
Collaborate How
transcription factors and RNA polymerase to start transcription. Therefore, a mutation
might a mutation that
that affects any one of these elements could also affect the expression of one or more
affects a regulatory element, such
genes.
as a promoter, transcription factor,
or enhancer, affect the expression FIGURE 16: A promoter is a segment of DNA that binds to proteins that help initiate the
of a gene? Discuss possible transcription of a gene.
outcomes of mutations affecting
DNA RNA polymerase gene
each of these elements. Would the
gene be expressed? If so, how
might its expression change?
enhancer
TATA box
promoter
transcription factors
Many gene mutations, however, do not affect an organism’s phenotype. Remember

that many codons code for the same amino acid. Therefore, some substitutions have
no effect, especially those occurring in the third nucleotide of a codon. If AAG changes
to AAA, the resulting protein still has the correct amino acid, lysine. Similarly, an
incorrect amino acid might have little effect on a protein if it has about the same size
or polarity as the original amino acid or if it is far from an active site.
DNA
FIGURE 17: In mRNA processing,
DNA
introns are removed from the pre-mRNA strand.
Cause and Effect intron exon intron exon intron exon intron
DNA
DNA
Would a mutation in an intron intron
intron
exon
exon
intron
intron
exon
exon
intron
geneintron
exon
exon
intron
intron
affect the structure and function of gene
pre-mRNA gene
the resulting protein? Explain your gene
pre-mRNA
answer. pre-mRNA
pre-mRNA
pre-mRNA processing
pre-mRNA
exon processing
exon exon
pre-mRNA
exon processing
exon exon
pre-mRNA processing
intron intron
cap exon exon exon tail
cap tail
intron intron
cap tail
capmRNA intron intron
tail
mRNA
exon exon exon
mRNA
exon exon exon
mRNA
cap exon exon exon tail
exon exon exon
cap tail
cap tail
cap tail

Impacts on Genetic Diversity
Genetic variation, or genetic diversity, is the variety of genes within a population. While
genetic recombination via sexual reproduction is a major source of genetic diversity,
mutations in germ cells are the ultimate source of genetic diversity in an organism’s
genome. Genetic diversity is the basis of a process called natural selection. In natural
selection, environmental factors “select for” phenotypes that allow organisms to better
survive and reproduce. For example, an individual might have a phenotype that allows
the organism to attract more mates than other individuals. This individual would
have more opportunities to pass down their genes, and over the course of many
generations, this phenotype could become more prevalent in the population.
FIGURE 18: Mutations increase genetic diversity, which is the basis of natural selection.
Analyze Assume that in these lizards, the brown phenotype results from a mutation.
Why does this phenotype become more common in the population over time?
When less adaptive phenotypes result from mutations, natural selection typically
removes these mutant alleles from the population. Less adaptive phenotypes may
make it difficult for organisms to survive or reproduce. These traits are “selected
against” by environmental factors and tend to become less prevalent in a population
over time. Explain Two species of
FIGURE 19: A mutation in humans rabbits occupy an area that
has been shown to protect against Sometimes, a mutation results in a more
experiences four seasons. The first
coronary artery disease. beneficial phenotype. These mutations
type of rabbit has white fur in the
Image Credits: (b) ©Universal Images Group/Photo By BSIP/Getty Images
are favored by natural selection. For

winter and brown fur in the spring.
example, one type of deletion mutation
in humans has been shown to protect The other species has brown fur all
against coronary artery disease, a condition year round. Which of these types of
characterized by the hardening and rabbits has a more beneficial
thickening of artery walls. phenotype? Explain your answer.
Explain In some cases, mutations that have some harmful effects continue to persist in
certain human populations. Why might a mutation with detrimental effects persist in a
given population?

Engineering
Testing UV-Protective Fabrics
When our body is exposed to moderate levels of radiation from sunlight, it may respond
FIGURE 20: UV-protective
by tanning or burning. The exposure activates the production and release of a brown
clothing protects the wearer
from skin damage due to pigment called melanin. This pigment acts like a natural sunscreen by helping block
radiation from the sun. ultraviolet (UV) light, an invisible type of radiation present in sunlight. Recall that UV light is
a mutagen that can damage skin tissues. Prolonged exposure to UV light can lead to skin
cancer caused by mutations in the DNA of skin cells. The most common type of damage is
the formation of thymine dimers, or pairs of thymine bases bonded together
in DNA. These mutations interfere with both replication and translation.
UV-protective clothing is designed to protect people from UV light. In this activity,
you will work with your classmates to develop a testing system that could be used to
identify fabrics that can be used for UV-protective clothing. The system should be easy
to use and cost less than one hundred dollars. The testing system should also allow
the user to test up to 100 pieces of fabric in an eight hour work day. Finally, the system
should be lightweight and portable, so that one person can carry it.
MATERIALS DEFINE AND DELIMIT

• fabric (3 types) Write a statement identifying the problem you are designing a solution for. What are
• plates, paper the criteria and constraints for an effective testing system?
• UV beads or paper
• UV light box or sunlight

DESIGN
As a team, brainstorm some possible solutions to the problem. Make a decision matrix
to choose the solution that best meets the criteria. Once you have chosen a potential
solution, make a prototype of your testing system.
TEST
Conduct a test to gather data showing how well your testing system works. If your
solution does not fully meet the criteria, return to your design. Continue developing
and testing solutions until you feel certain that your solution meets the most
important criteria and constraints.
COMMUNICATE
Write an explanation communicating your results. Which type of system is best for
testing these fabrics? Give evidence to support your explanation. Include a diagram of
Image Credits: ©Maya Kovacheva/Alamy
the final solution your team selected.
p53: THE TUMOR MUTATIONS AND INVESTIGATING Go online to choose one of

SUPPRESSOR GENE HUMAN HEALTH MELANISM these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 21: “Sickling” of red blood cells occurs when deoxygenated HbS molecules form
long chains, or polymers. These polymers force the cell to change shape.
The allele for sickle cell anemia is linked with resistance to malaria, a disease caused by
a parasite transmitted from one infected person to another by mosquitoes. Individuals
who have this disease may experience swelling of the brain, difficulty in breathing,
liver and kidney failure, anemia, and low blood sugar. Although modern medical
techniques can diagnose and cure malaria through early treatment, if untreated, the
complications of malaria can lead to death.
Individuals who have malaria, but are also carriers of the sickle cell anemia gene
(HbS) have been observed to not advance to the serious stage of malaria. Thus, in the
absence of modern medical treatment, having one of these genes helps protect them
from the fatal consequences of malaria. According to the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, HbS can provide 60% protection against malaria.
Explain Why is the HbS allele more common in some populations than in others?
Answer the following questions in your explanation.
Image Credits: ©Science Picture Co./Getty Images
1. How do changes in DNA lead to changes in the structure of red blood cells in people
with the HbS allele?
2. Is the phenotype that corresponds to the HbS allele harmful, beneficial, or both?
Explain your answer.
3. Why is the frequency of the HbS allele higher in areas near Earth’s equator, such as
parts of Africa and the Mediterranean?

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 4. Individuals with trisomy X have three X chromosomes in

their cells. Which statement can be used to describe this
condition? Select all correct answers.
1. The results of a study on the effects of a mutagen on
a. This condition is caused by a chromosomal mutation
bacteria had the following results. Some bacterial
known as nondisjunction mutation.
cultures were exposed to the mutagen, some were not.
Which culture was most likely exposed to the mutagen? b. This condition is a result of the exchange of genetic
material between two homologous chromosomes.
c. This mutation is a result of chromosomes not
Culture Number of mutant bacteria
separating during anaphase of mitosis.
A 0
d. This mutation is caused by balanced translocation, a
B 350 type of chromosomal mutation.
C 10
D 4 5. Which of the following can be changed during meiosis?
E 3 Select all correct answers.
a. base sequence
2. Epidermolysis bullosa is a disease characterized by very b. number of amino acids
delicate skin that easily blisters upon scratching or being c. number of chromosomes
exposed to the slightest friction. The disease is caused d. gene sequence
by a missense mutation. Which statement describes the
mutation that causes epidermolysis bullosa?
6. Which processes are involved in the inheritance of
a. The mutation is a result of the premature completion mutated genes? Select all correct answers.
of a protein.
a. meiosis
b. The mutation is caused by a change in one of the
b. fertilization
amino acids.
c. mitosis
c. This mutation is a result of the reading frame being
shifted.
7. Watermelons are exposed to a mutagen to produce
d. This mutation is caused by the duplication of the a variety that has four sets of chromosomes. The new
genome. variety is then allowed to mate with a normal watermelon
to produce seedless watermelons. What type of mutation
3. Before the genetic code could be understood, scientists is involved in the growing of seedless watermelon?
needed to know that a codon is composed of three
nucleotides. This situation is an example of the 8. Rachel Carlson was one of the first ecologists to warn
a. cumulative nature of scientific evidence. against the widespread use of pesticides and other
b. scientists making inferences based on data. potential mutagens and toxins. How might the presence
c. way that theories can lead to scientific laws. of a chemical mutagen in the environment affect the
d. ability of scientists to make hypotheses. genetic makeup and size of a population over time?

MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDEW
FIGURE 22: Codon Chart In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
ALA = Alanine
ARG = Arginine
GLY PHE
LEU
GLU
A mutation
ASN = Asparagineis a change in the sequence of an organism’s DNA,
SER ASP = Aspartic acid
ASP U C
A G U C A
G and may occur spontaneously or as the result of exposure to
A G U
C CYS = Cysteine
C
G U A
G TYR a mutagen.
U GLN = Glutamine
ALA
A
G A C U
Mutations contribute to genetic diversity because as the
C A
U C A G GLY = Glycine
genetic makeup of organisms are changed through mutations,
G U
G U CYS
HIS = Histidine
VAL A C variety is produced.
C U G A
G
S
TRP
ILE = Isoleucine
U LEU = Leucine
G U Mutations may or may not affect an organism’s phenotype.
G
A C
LYS = Lysine
ARG A
U C
C
U G
A LEU Remember
MET to include the following information in your
= Methionine
SER
G
A
A C C
study guide:
PRO = Proline
LYS C A • Use examples that model main ideas.
U C A G PRO S = Stop
ASN
G
A
C
U G A
C
U • =Record
SER Serine explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
U G
G A
C U G A C
U HIS • =Use
THR evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
Threonine
THR
GLN TRP =include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions, and
Tryptophan
MET
ILE ARG TYR = Tyrosine

VAL = Valine
Consider how mutations can lead to changes in DNA at both the
ALA = Alanine GLY = Glycine PRO = Proline cellular and organismal levels, and develop an explanation as
ARG = Arginine HIS = Histidine S = Stop to how each of these types of changes may or may not lead to
ASN = Asparagine ILE = Isoleucine SER = Serine
changes in phenotype in real-world situations.
ASP = Aspartic acid LEU = Leucine THR = Tryptophan
CYS = Cysteine LYS = Lysine TYR = Tyrosine
GLN = Glutamine MET = Methionine VAL = Valine
GLU = Glutamine acid PHE = Phenylalanine
9. Consider this small part of a DNA sequence:

GTG–GAC–TGA–GGA
Use this sequence and the codon chart in Figure 22
to make a model showing how a frameshift mutation
happens and how the amino acid sequence is affected.
10. Huntington’s disease affects how the brain functions.

Individuals who have this disease are not able to control
the movement of their bodies. Additionally, they
experience emotional problems and loss of cognitive
ability. This disease is caused by a trinucleotide repeat
involving CAG. What causes this mutation and how does
it affect the protein synthesized by the mutated gene?
11. Can a parent pass on a mutation in a kidney cell to his

child? Why or why not?
12. Explain how mutations contribute to genetic diversity.

7.5
Genetic Engineering
Aspen trees can reproduce

by sprouting new, identical
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
trees from their roots.
Many organisms, such as jellyfish, fluoresce when exposed to particular wavelengths
of light. Fluorescence occurs when an organism absorbs light and then emits it,
appearing to glow. Fluorescent zebrafish can be purchased to enjoy in your aquarium.
There’s just one catch: zebrafish don’t naturally fluoresce.
FIGURE 1: Zebrafish were genetically altered to fluoresce in many colors.
Image Credits: (t) ©tharathep lomchid/Shutterstock; (bl) (br) ©Ted Kinsman/Science Source
Gather Evidence Fluorescent zebrafish are the result of decades of scientific research. Researchers at
As you explore the lesson, the National University of Singapore studying the green fluorescent protein (GFP) that
gather evidence to explain how a causes fluorescence in jellyfish inserted the GFP-coding gene into zebrafish, resulting
in a zebrafish that emitted green light.
gene from one organism be inserted
into the genome of an unrelated The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved the sale of fluorescent
organism? zebrafish as pets in the United States. The FDA decided not to regulate the altered
zebrafish because they were not intended to be part of the food supply. In addition,
there was no research to suggest that the fluorescent strains would be more harmful
to the environment than the original strains in case of accidental release.
Predict What does it mean to change the genome of an organism? Is this fluorescent
zebrafish a new type of animal?

EXPLORATION 1
Isolating Genes
Huntington’s disease causes nerve cells in the brain to break down. The onset of
Huntington’s often begins midlife, with no physical hints of the disease before
symptoms arise. For those who have a parent with Huntington’s disease, a Punnett
square or pedigree analysis may provide a probability of having the disease, but not a
definitive diagnosis. For Huntington’s and many other diseases, genetic material can
be tested to determine whether a person has, or is a carrier of, a specific disease.
Gather Evidence Would you undergo tests to determine your likelihood of having
certain diseases? Why or why not? If you did, what would you want to happen to your
genetic information? Should it be shared with scientific researchers, your health
insurer, or your future employers? Explain your reasoning.
Genetic Testing FIGURE 2: DNA microarrays are

used in genetic testing.
Genetic testing is the analysis of a person’s DNA to determine the risk of having or
passing on a genetic disorder. Geneticists test for abnormalities in genetic material,
from entire chromosomes down to individual genes. It is also possible to test for
proteins that indicate a particular disease. Since proteins reflect the DNA patterns
of genes, this is an indirect method of testing genetic material. Genetic testing is a
powerful tool to screen for genetic disorders. However, not all diseases can be found
through genetic testing.
Analyze Why can’t genetic testing identify all diseases? How does inheriting cystic
fibrosis differ from developing cardiovascular disease due to poor diet and exercise?
Collaborate In a group,
There are thousands of genetic tests available, each targeting a specific gene or
genomic region. DNA microarrays are tools that allow scientists to study many genes,
discuss the benefits, risks,
or their expression, at once. A microarray is a small chip that is dotted with all of the and limitations of genetic testing.
genes being studied. The genes are laid out in a grid pattern. Each block of the grid is Why is it important to identify
so small that a one-square-inch chip can hold thousands of genes. Microarrays, such as carriers of a genetic disease? How
the one shown in Figure 2, help researchers find which genes are expressed in which should genetic information be used
tissues, and under what conditions. and safeguarded?
Image Credits: ©dra_schwartz/iStockphoto.com/Getty Images
Replicating Genes
Genetic tests are useful for genes that have been linked to a disease, but identifying
specific genes that cause disease is not simple. Scientists spend years finding genes
that are associated with a particular disease among the 20,000–25,000 genes in the
human genome. Small quantities of target sequences collected from patients must be
amplified many times to produce the amount needed for testing. The invention of the
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was a turning point, making it possible to obtain the
large amounts of DNA needed for genetic testing in hours instead of days.
Lesson 5 Genetic Engineering 357

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FIGURE 3: The steps of the polymerase chain reaction.
target sequence
a
The DNA sample, primers, DNA polymerase,
and nucleotides are placed in the PCR tube
and put in the thermocycler.
PCR tube thermocycler
Cycle 1
target
sequence
primer 2 primer 2
primer 1 primer 1
b Separating c Binding d Copying

The temperature is raised to 95 °C (203 °F) The temperature is cooled to 55 °C (131 °F), The temperature is heated to 72 °C (152 °F).
to separate the DNA strands. and the primers bind to the DNA strands. DNA polymerase locates the primers and
begins synthesizing a complementary strand.
It continues to synthesize the DNA strand
until it reaches the end of the strand.
Cycle 2 The same three steps occur in Cycle 2 and each subsequent cycle: separating, binding, and copying.
Separating Binding Copying
Cycle 3 Cycle 4 Cycle 30
target
fragment
At the end of Cycle 3, fragments that By the end of Cycle 4, eight target fragments After 30 cycles, more than a billion
include only the target DNA have have been synthesized. fragments have been synthesized.
been synthesized.

Figure 3a shows the beginning of a PCR run. DNA is extracted from cell nuclei and added
to a PCR tube, along with primers, DNA polymerase, and nucleotides. The tube is placed
inside a thermocycler, which automatically regulates the temperature of the solution.
The polymerase chain reaction occurs in three steps:
Separating The thermocycler heats the sample until the complementary strands
of DNA separate (Figure 3b). Separation occurs around 95 °C (203 °F).
Binding The thermocycler then cools to around 55 °C (131 °F) (Figure 3c), and primers
bind to the separated DNA strands. Primers are short nucleotide segments that
allow a specific type of DNA polymerase to attach to the DNA strands. Two primers
are required for each reaction. One primer attaches to the beginning of the target
Patterns
segment on one strand of DNA. The other primer attaches to the beginning of the
target segment on the complementary strand of DNA. DNA replication produces a
Copying The thermocycler heats to 72 °C (162 °F) (Figure 3d). At this temperature,
complementary strand of DNA,
DNA polymerase attaches to the primer segments and begins adding complementary while PCR amplifies a target
nucleotides. The free nucleotides added to the solution act as building materials for section of DNA by copying just
the new strands of DNA. DNA synthesis continues until the DNA polymerase reaches that section. How else are DNA
the end of the strand and detaches. A complementary strand of DNA is produced, replication and PCR similar?
and the first PCR cycle is complete. How are they different?
Collaborate With a partner, take turns explaining and modeling how the three
steps of PCR produce DNA sequences. While you walk your partner through the steps,
explain the significance of the following terms: DNA polymerase, nucleotides, primers,
DNA separation, primer binding, DNA synthesis, and thermocycler. Then, your partner
explains and models the process to you. Continue to take turns until both of you feel
comfortable with the steps of PCR.
The cycle is repeated a second time. The thermocycler heats to 95 °C and the DNA
strands separate. The thermocycler cools to 55 °C and primers bind to the target sites.
Finally, the thermocycler heats to 72 °C. DNA polymerase attaches to primer segments
and synthesizes a complementary strand of DNA using the free nucleotides.
The thermocycler continues to heat and cool the solution automatically. The first
fragment of the target DNA sequence is synthesized after the third cycle. More than
one billion fragments of target DNA are synthesized after thirty cycles. PCR cycles
continue until an adequate amount of the target DNA is produced.
Analyze Why is it necessary to keep changing the temperature in the PCR process?
Use evidence to support your claim.
The polymerase chain reaction was invented by Kary Mullis in 1983, who shared the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993. This invention solved two problems Mullis was
facing. First, his lab was trying to create a new use for the oligonucleotides, or short
DNA segments, they produced. PCR uses oligonucleotides as primers. Second, genetic
testing and other DNA-related tests took weeks to perform. PCR greatly decreased the
time required to amplify a DNA sample.
Explain Describe the relationship between genetic testing and the polymerase chain
reaction. How has the PCR technique made genetic testing possible on a large scale?

EXPLORATION 2
Cloning and Engineering
As the world’s population increases, so does the demand for food. Long periods
FIGURE 4: These cereal plants
of drought in many areas of the world threaten food production because many
can grow in soil with little water.
commercial crops are not adapted to dry climates. To maintain food production as
land becomes drier, scientists engineered plants that are drought resistant.
Gather Evidence Other strategies for growing food in dry climates include water
conservation, sustainable farming practices, and improved fertilizers. Make a list of
possible criteria for evaluating drought-resistant crops along with the other solutions.
Cloning Organisms
Many plants produce genetically identical offspring, or clones, through asexual
FIGURE 5: Some plants produce
reproduction. Humans have cloned plants for thousands of years by taking cuttings
“pups,” or genetically identical
offspring. from one plant and planting them, producing clones. When the offspring, or “pup,”
of a spider plant, shown in Figure 5, is planted, a genetically identical plant grows.
Humans clone plants with desirable traits, such as bigger or more flavorful fruit.
Eventually these traits appear more often in the new population.
Bacteria produce clones through binary fission, a type of asexual reproduction. In
binary fission, a bacterial chromosome is replicated. The cell splits into two daughter
cells that are genetically identical to the mother cell. Making clones ensures beneficial
traits, such as resistance to antibiotics, spread quickly in a bacterial population.
Cloning has a low success rate in more complex organisms, such as vertebrate animals.
Advances in genetic engineering, though have made it possible to produce artificial
mammalian clones. The sections below describe breakthroughs in cloning.
Embryo Twinning
Image Credits: (t) ©iStock/Marccophoto/Getty Images; (c) ©Guy Jarvis/Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
FIGURE 6: The embryo twinning process.
In 1903, Hans Spemann separated the cells of two-celled
salamander embryos. The separated cells continued to
develop normally, resulting in two salamanders (Figure 6).
Spemann determined that vertebrates can be “twinned”
to form identical organisms. This experiment showed that
embryonic cells have a full set of genetic material. So, each
cell has the potential to grow into a complete organism.
Nuclear Transfer
Cloning mammals involves replacing the nucleus of an
unfertilized egg with the nucleus of a cell from the animal
that is being cloned. The egg cell is implanted into a surrogate mother to develop as
it would during a normal pregnancy. The resulting offspring is a clone. Some of the
milestones in nuclear transfer are shown in Figure 7.

LONumber=9B1_0230; CorrectionKey=NL-A
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FIGURE 7: Milestones in the advancement of cloning techniques.
a Embryonic cell nuclear transfer b Somatic cell nuclear transfer
In 1952, Robert Briggs and Thomas King performed the first successful nuclear transfer
(Figure 7a). The nucleus from an embryonic frog cell was inserted into an egg cell with
its nucleus removed. The egg cell then developed into a tadpole. This experiment
demonstrated that nuclear transfer could be used to clone organisms.
Scientists later adapted nuclear transfer methods to produce clones of other animals,
including mammals. Further research led to new techniques which allowed the use of
other cell types as nuclear donors, eliminating the need to use embryos.
In 1996, Dolly the sheep became the first mammal cloned from an adult somatic, or
body, cell (Figure 7b). Somatic cells are differentiated, so many genes not necessary
for the cell’s function are deactivated. These genes must be reactivated for cloning to
succeed. Of 277 attempts in this experiment, only Dolly survived.
Cloning After Dolly

Milestones in cloning after Dolly include cloning primates, producing sheep from
FIGURE 8: A cloned puppy with
genetically engineered cells, cloning endangered animals, and creating stem cells from
the genetic father.
somatic cell nuclear transfer. New advances in cloning have raised ethical concerns,
such as concerns regarding human cloning.
Pet cloning is one of these advancements. Several companies offer cloning services
Image Credits: (t) ©iStock/Marccophoto/Getty Images; (c) ©Guy Jarvis/Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
that will produce an exact genetic copy of a pet. Though they are genetically identical,
these animals often look and act differently than the original pet.
Gather Evidence Why is a clone not an exact copy of a donor animal? Consider the
effect of genetics and environmental conditions. Use evidence to support your answer.
Image Credits: (c) ©Getty Images; (b) ©Science Source
Cloning Ethics FIGURE 9: Henrietta Lacks
Henrietta Lacks died of cervical cancer in 1951. Before she died, a researcher took
a sample of her tumor. From this sample, scientists made the first “immortal” cell
line, named HeLa for the first two letters of Lacks’s first and last names. Unlike other
cells, HeLa cells did not die when cultured in the lab. The cells divided indefinitely,
providing a never-ending source of cells for scientific research. From the polio vaccine
and cloning to AIDS research and experiments in space, HeLa cells have been a
cornerstone of science for more than half a century.

Most of this research took place without the knowledge or permission of Henrietta
Lacks or her family. This raises the issue of cloning ethics. Ethics are principles that set
standards of right or wrong for a person or group. As advances in genetics continue,
discussions about ethics and treatment of genetic material become more important.
Language Arts Connection Further research the story of Henrietta Lacks.

Should individuals have control over their genetic material? How would you feel if your
genetic material was taken without permission? Use evidence to support your claims.
Engineering Genes
Genetic engineering is the process of altering the genetic material of an organism,
changing its traits or introducing a new, desirable trait. Once a desirable trait has been
successfully inserted into a genome, the new genome—and trait—can be passed
on to future generations using cloning. An organism with one or more genes from
another organism inserted into its genome is called a transgenic organism.
Genetically modified (GM) crops are becoming more widely used by farmers. If a
farmer plants clones of GM crops, then he or she knows the desired trait is present in
the entire population. However, this would also decrease genetic diversity, a necessary
feature for a robust and flexible population.
Adoption of Genetically Engineered Crops in the U.S., 1996-2016

FIGURE 10: The usage of genetically engineered crops in the United States.
Adoption of Genetically Engineered Crops in the U.S., 1996–2016
Analyze Compare the
100
risks versus the benefits of
using cloned, GM plants instead of
GM plants propagated through
Percent of planted acres
75
sexual reproduction.
50
HT soybeans
HT cotton
25 Bt cotton
HT corn
Bt corn
0
1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016
Year
Sources: USDA, Economic Research Service using data from Fernandez-Comejo and McBride
(2002) for the years 1996–99 and USDA, National Agricultural Statistics Service,
June Agricultural Survey for the years 2000–16.
In the early 1990s, the FDA approved genetically engineered plants for human
consumption in the United States. Insect resistance and herbicide resistance are among
the most common genetic modifications in crops, as shown in Figure 12. Much of the
genetically modified corn produced is fed to livestock, but GM corn does appear in the
human food supply as ingredients such as high-fructose corn syrup and corn starch.
No long-term studies have found negative side effects from eating GM plants.

Genetic Engineering in Bacteria FIGURE 11: Bacterial plasmid
Recombinant DNA technology, combining the genes from more than one organism, is
bacterium
a key element of genetic engineering. The organisms can be from the same species or
plasmid
different species. One method of producing recombinant DNA is to add foreign DNA
to a plasmid. In bacteria, a plasmid is a small, circular segment of DNA that is separate
from the bacterial chromosome. The foreign DNA that is inserted into the plasmid is
then expressed by the bacteria.
bacterial
Bacteria naturally recombine their DNA by absorbing plasmids from the environment chromosome
or by exchanging plasmids between two bacteria. There can be multiple plasmids
within a bacterium, and each one is able to replicate independently from the bacterial
chromosome. Genetically modified bacteria are able to produce antibiotics, insulin,
therapeutic proteins, and other types of proteins.
Imagine foreign DNA containing a gene for producing human insulin is inserted into
a plasmid. Because plasmids self-replicate, numerous copies of a plasmid can exist
within a bacterium. Plasmids are shared with daughter cells during binary fission, and
bacteria divide at relatively fast speeds. A handful of bacteria with a plasmid coding for
human insulin can quickly become a manufacturing center for a protein.
FIGURE 12: Recombinant DNA.
Collaborate Genetically engineering bacteria to produce drugs can be cheaper than

producing the drugs in a lab. Discuss the impacts cheaper drugs may have on society
and science. foreign DNA
plasmid
Engineering
Editing Genes with CRISPR
Genetically engineering organisms requires the ability to cut DNA strands in

specific places. Precisely cutting DNA can be difficult, time-consuming, and
costly work. To solve this problem, genetic engineers needed to find an easier,
faster, and cheaper method for precisely cutting DNA.
As it turns out, bacteria use a mechanism for precise DNA cuts called CRISPR,
named for the clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats (CRISPRs) in
bacterial DNA. These repeated sequences surround segments of viral DNA that
bacteria have been exposed to. An enzyme uses the information in this viral
library to target and cut viral DNA, preventing viral replication.
Image Credits: (inset) ©Professor Stanley N. Cohen/Science Source
CRISPR is exciting for genetic engineers because it provides a very precise

method for cutting DNA at a specific point. Cutting DNA easily and accurately
simplifies the process of replacing defective genes with functional genes. This
is one of the more difficult tasks in gene therapy, but one with the greatest
potential benefits to humans. New ways to apply the CRISPR system to scientific
problems are still being discovered. As with most genetic advances, the
excitement surrounding the prospective benefits of CRISPR is tempered by the
ethical concerns raised by such a powerful gene-editing tool.
Gather Evidence In what ways do you think CRISPR can advance the field of
genetic engineering? What concerns do you think people might have about
CRISPR?

Genetic Engineering in Plants
One of the most common methods for genetic modification in plants is the use of
bacterial plasmids. A gene for a desired trait is inserted into a plasmid, and the plasmid
is added to a plant cell. When the plant cell is infected, the recombinant DNA is
inserted directly into the plant genome, modifying the plant. The plant expresses
the bacterial DNA as well as its own.
Explore Online Genetic Engineering in Animals

Hands-On Lab Animal models of human diseases are valuable tools in medical research. These models
allow scientists to study the disease process, from the genetic basis of a disease to how
Modeling Genetic Engineering
it responds to chemical substances. Through genetic engineering, scientists have been
Simulate the techniques used by able to develop more and better models to study disease.
genetic engineers to modify genes
in humans using recombinant DNA FIGURE 13: A scientist studies genetically modified mosquitoes.
technology.
Model Draw a flow Consider the use of genetically modified mosquitoes to prevent the spread of disease.
chart that demonstrates Mosquitoes act as vectors for many diseases. A vector carries foreign DNA into another
how genetically engineering cell or organism. One species, Aedes aegypti, is known to transmit the viruses for yellow
fever, chikungunya, dengue, and Zika. Dengue is one of the leading causes of illness
mosquitoes can reduce the risk of
and death in tropical and subtropical regions. There is no vaccine for dengue, and the
illness in humans.
best way to minimize dengue cases is to minimize bites from infected mosquitoes.
To solve this problem, scientists engineered mosquitoes so they required a human-
made drug to survive. When modified male mosquitoes are released into wild
populations, they breed with wild females, passing the drug-dependency gene to their
offspring. The affected males die soon after breeding, and any offspring die before
maturity without access to the drug. Several field trials demonstrated that release of
mosquitoes modified in this way can effectively control mosquito populations.
Image Credits: ©AFP PHOTO/NELSON ALMEIDA/Getty Images
The possibility of unintended effects is a big constraint to this solution. The potential
unintended effects of releasing genetically engineered mosquitoes into the wild is not
fully understood. There may be tradeoffs for scientists and society between the risks of
unintended effects and the benefits of smaller mosquito populations.
Explain There typically are tradeoffs when selecting a solution to a problem.

Genetically engineered crops may be able to help farmers produce greater yields, but a
tradeoff is the reduction in the genetic variation in crops, making crops more susceptible
to disease. What other tradeoffs exist for this solution?

EXPLORATION 3
Engineering
Genetically Engineering Salmon

Demand for Atlantic salmon has increased, and wild
FIGURE 14: A normal Atlantic salmon compared to a GM
populations of salmon have decreased, mainly due to
Atlantic salmon of the same age.
overfishing and other environmental impacts. Struggling
wild populations suggest that commercial fishing is not
sustainable at current rates. Farm-raised Atlantic salmon is an
alternative to wild-caught fish and reduces pressure on wild
populations by providing a reliable salmon source. Salmon
can be farmed in ocean pens or in land-based facilities. Some
farm-raised salmon are bred for advantageous traits, such as
disease resistance.
Farming has drawbacks, though. Farms require space and
resources to feed, house, and maintain the fish as they grow.
The salmon typically take 28-36 months to reach market
weight, and production costs can drive up the price.
Analyze Define the engineering problem outlined for salmon production. What are
the important criteria? What constraints might exist for a solution that reduces the
stress on wild-caught salmon and on farmers raising these fish?
To solve some of the problems with farming salmon, scientists produced genetically
engineered Atlantic salmon. They inserting a growth hormone from Chinook salmon
and a promoter from ocean pout into the genome. The promoter allows the growth
hormone to be active all year, instead of only part of the year as in normal salmon.
Transgenic Atlantic salmon grow to twice the size of normal Atlantic salmon in the
same amount of time. This decreases the time to market weight to as few as 18
months, compared to up to 36 months in normal salmon. So, farmers are able to grow
and sell more salmon in a given time period. There are also environmental benefits
such as decreased usage and contamination of water resources. The genetically
modified salmon are raised in land-based facilities with pollution management and
water recycling systems. Genetically modified salmon reduce the impact on wild
populations and aquatic ecosystems.
There is still public resistance to eating genetically modified organisms. This represents
a social challenge to the success of farming genetically engineered salmon. One of
the biggest environmental concerns is the possibility that a GM individual may escape
and breed with wild individuals. This could introduce the modified gene into wild
populations through any offspring produced, with unknown long-term effects on wild
Atlantic salmon or other species.
Image Credits: ©AquaBounty Technologies
Explain Design a decision matrix and use it to analyze criteria for the use of commercial
fishing, normal salmon farming, and GM salmon farming in meeting the demand for
salmon. Weight the criteria on a scale of 0 to 5. What is the best solution based on your
criteria? Are there any problems with this solution that can be anticipated and avoided?

EXPLORATION 4
Further Applications of Genetic Engineering
Collaborate With a New technologies can have unforeseen impacts on society and the environment.
partner, discuss the The positive effects of controlling mosquito populations with transgenic mosquitoes
benefits and risks of transgenic are clear: reduced illness and death due to infections from mosquito-borne viruses.
mosquitoes for humans and There are also negative effects to this solution, though, that may be hard to believe.
ecosystems. Mosquitoes may be pests for humans, but they are a food source for other animals.
Impacts on Conservation
In the future, ecosystems may undergo rapid change due to climate change, habitat
destruction, and human influence. Populations may be forced to adapt or move to
new habitats to survive. This is a problem because natural selection, the mechanism
by which populations adapt, is not a rapid process and works over many generations.
Scientists are looking for ways to help threatened species.
Hawaii had no mosquitoes until the early 1800s when a
FIGURE 15: The ‘i’iwi.
whaling vessel carrying water from Mexico brought them to
the islands. Today, avian malaria, carried by these invasive
mosquitoes, has decimated the native bird population. The
‘i’iwi, or Hawaiian honeycreeper, and other birds native to
Hawaii are going extinct. Many scientists think the only way
to save these birds is to wipe out the mosquito population.
Scientists are considering releasing GM mosquitoes that
will die prematurely, reducing the mosquito population and
hopefully saving Hawaii’s native birds.
For species threatened by climate change or low genetic
diversity, scientists are investigating a process known as
facilitated adaptation. Facilitated adaptation involves humans
guiding adaptations in threatened populations by changing the species’ genome.
Advantageous genes can be added to a genome through hybridization, selective
breeding, or genetic engineering using recombinant DNA technology. For example,
scientists are considering inserting genes from species that can tolerate higher
temperatures into different species suffering from global warming.
One drawback of facilitated adaptation is the possibility of unintended effects related
to changing genomes that have evolved over millions of years. Scientists may be able
Image Credits: ©Photo Resource Hawaii/Jack Jeffrey/Alamy
to identify the main function of a gene, but they cannot determine all the ways a gene
interacts with the rest of the genome. Loss of function, or an unintended new function,
may occur by changing an organism’s genome. Facilitated adaptation could also lead
to an unintended loss of genetic diversity. If the genetically engineered individuals
are much more successful than normal individuals, that single gene could become
widespread in the population.
Engineering Define a problem facing conservation. Explain what role genetic

engineering could play in solving that problem. Use evidence to support your claims.

Gene Therapy
Gene therapy uses genetic engineering to treat or prevent the genetic basis of disease.
A common gene therapy technique uses a delivery mechanism, or vector, such as a
bacterium or virus, to deliver a new gene to target cells. Once the gene enters the cells,
the new DNA is transcribed and the new protein is expressed.
Not all diseases are good candidates for gene therapy. For example, a disease caused
by the interaction of multiple genes is not a good candidate because the necessary
modification of genes would be too complex. Also, if the genetic basis for a disease
is not understood, it is not a good candidate. Scientists need to know which gene to
modify to combat the disease. If the biology of the disorder is not understood, the
disease is also not a good gene therapy candidate. Finally, if there is no way to get
new genetic information to affected cells, the disease is not a good candidate for gene
therapy.
FIGURE 16: Cystic fibrosis is caused by a mutated CFTR protein.
chloride
chloride inside cellcell
inside chloride
chloride inside cellcell
inside
normal
normal mutant
mutant
CFTR
CFTR CFTR
CFTR
chloride
chloride chloride
chloride
channel
channel channel
channel
mucus
mucus mucus
mucus
a Normal CFTR protein b Mutated CFTR protein

outside cellcell
outside outside
outside
cellcell
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an inherited disease that affects the respiratory and digestive
systems. Airways and some organs are naturally lined and protected by a layer of
mucus. Cystic fibrosis causes abnormal, sticky mucus secretions in these areas.
Symptoms include coughing and wheezing, digestive problems, and increased
probability of infections. The most common cause of death in untreated CF patients is
a fatal lung infection.
The protein that regulates mucus secretion in the respiratory, reproductive, and
digestive systems is encoded by the Cystic Fibrosis Transmembrane Conductance
Regulator (CFTR) gene. A normal version of the CFTR gene produces a protein that
acts as a channel to move chloride ions across the cell membrane in mucus-producing
cells. This helps regulate the water content of surrounding tissues, leading to normal,
moist mucus. A mutated gene leads to disruption of the chloride channels, lowering
the water content of nearby cells. This causes the thick, sticky mucus characteristic
of cystic fibrosis.
Cellular functions are highly related to the structure of DNA. In the case of cystic
fibrosis, the change in the DNA sequence of the mutated CFTR gene results in a
different amino acid sequence in the CFTR protein. Typically, a phenylalanine amino
acid is missing from the protein sequence. When this protein is expressed, the
abnormal structure leads to a loss of protein function.

As shown in Figure 16a, with normal CFTR function, chloride ions move across the cell
membrane and congregate on the outside of the cell, making an ionic gradient. The
hypertonic solution outside of the cell attracts more water and maintains mucus of
a normal consistency. A healthy, watery mucus layer traps particulates and bacteria
before they can harm the cell. The cilia of the cell are free to move and sweep away
the foreign matter.
Gather Evidence In a person affected by cystic fibrosis, the irregular protein produced by the mutated
Does cystic fibrosis meet CFTR gene cannot transport chloride ions across the cell membrane, as shown in
Figure 16b. This loss of protein function results in a higher concentration of chloride
the criteria to be considered for
and sodium ions inside the cell and a lower concentration of these ions outside of the
gene therapy? Use evidence to
cell. The hypotonic solution causes water to move into the cell, drying out the mucus
support your claims.
layer. The thick, sticky mucus prevents the cilia from moving and clearing debris. The
increased presence of debris and pathogens causes increased infections
in individuals with cystic fibrosis.
Engineering
Developing Approaches to Gene Therapy
The problems gene therapy attempts to solve are broad and span many kinds of
diseases, from genetic immune disorders to cancers. Many different approaches
are required to solve these problems. To alleviate respiratory symptoms of cystic
fibrosis (CF), for example, scientists need to deliver a functioning copy of the
CFTR gene to lung cells. However, it is hard to access and modify every lung cell.
Analyze A loss-of- A solution to this problem is to deliver the gene therapy through an aerosol that
function mutation patients inhale. Affected cells that receive a functioning copy of the gene will begin
to show normal gene expression, which alleviates the symptoms of cystic fibrosis.
results in a mutated protein that
does not function correctly. How Gene therapy is not always this straightforward. For example, some mutations
could gene therapy treat this produce a dominant-negative protein. This type of mutated protein does not do its
type of genetic disorder? job correctly and also blocks normal proteins from functioning. Simply delivering
a working copy of the gene to affected cells won’t work because the dominant-
negative protein would still block the function of normal proteins. A solution to this
problem is to “silence,” or turn off, the mutated gene so that no protein is produced.
Huntington’s disease produces a dominant-negative protein and is a promising
candidate for gene-silencing therapies.
Gene therapy relies on many different biotechnologies. Without genetic testing, it

would be harder to determine which patients would benefit from gene therapy. The
genes required for insertion into affected cells are produced through PCR. Without
the rapid amplification of DNA through PCR, gene therapies would take much longer
to produce. CRISPR is a relatively new tool, but it is already affecting gene therapy by
making it easier to cut and edit DNA segments of a mutated gene.
Explain Think back to the fluorescent zebrafish from the beginning of this lesson. Using
this example, explain some implications of being able to edit genes. Where do you think
science will go from here?

Knockout Mice FIGURE 17: The Zika Virus
Knockout mice have a gene of interest

knocked out, which means the gene
is turned off. Knockout mice are often
used in genetic engineering, allowing
researchers to study structure and
function in gene expression. Many
knockout mice are named for the gene
that has been deactivated. For example,
the p53 knockout mouse does not have
the p53 gene, which produces a protein
that stops tumor growths. This line of
mice is susceptible to cancer. Other
mice have genes knocked out that
affect obesity, anxiety, and other traits.
immune system gene. When the gene may fail to produce a response in mice
Knockout mice have been used in was not expressed, the Zika virus could when the gene is known to cause a
thousands of experiments studying replicate within pregnant mice. None response in humans. Or the gene may
many different diseases. Recently, of the fetuses survived, but scientists cause a different response in humans
knockout mice helped scientists confirm did find concentrations of the Zika virus than is seen in mice. These constraints
the link between Zika infections in in the placenta that were 1000 times must be considered when developing
pregnant women and birth defects. higher than the concentration of Zika or selecting a knockout mouse model
in the mother’s blood. The placenta for an experiment. Knockout mice are
The Zika virus was identified in humans
is responsible for supplying blood to imperfect models in these cases, though
in 1952. The first major outbreak of
the fetus. A high viral concentration in they still may provide some information
Zika occurred in 2007. Another major
the placenta supports the hypothesis about the function of genes.
outbreak occurred in 2016 and scientists
that Zika affects the placenta, thereby
started to study the effects of Zika
harming the fetus.
infections in more detail. Of particular Language Arts Connection
interest were reports that the Zika virus The Zika virus was also found in the Answer the following questions in
causes microcephaly, a birth defect heads of the fetuses. This suggests that your Evidence Notebook. Use evidence
characterized by a small head and Zika directly affects brain development. from the text to support your answers:
abnormal brain development. Scientists Scientists have continued the Zika
needed to learn more about the link research using knockout mice and 1. What happens when a gene is knocked
between Zika and birth defects to other techniques, and there is now a out in a mouse?
accurately advise the public on the risks confirmed link between Zika and birth 2. How are structure and function related
of Zika infections. defects in humans. in the development of knockout mice?
Mice are not ideal models for testing Knockout mice provide a valuable 3. What is a limitation of using knockout
Image Credits: ©James Cavallini/Science Source
the effects of Zika because the mouse model for studying the effects of gene mice for disease models?
immune system prevents a sustained expression, but there are limitations.
Zika infection. To solve this problem, Some genes behave differently in mice
a group of scientists knocked out a key than in humans. A knocked-out gene
MODELING GENETIC Go online to choose one

LABELING GMOs BACK FROM EXTINCTION
ENGINEERING of these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 18: Genetically modified zebrafish.
Fluorescent zebrafish are genetically modified. Originally, fluorescent color genes

from jellyfish and sea anemones were inserted into zebrafish eggs. The color genes
became part of the zebrafish DNA. It is now a heritable trait that is passed to offspring.
Current generations of fluorescent zebrafish are born, not modified, but their roots lie
in genetic modification.
questions:
1. How can a gene from one organism be inserted into the genome of an unrelated
organism?
2. Does genetically altering an organism make a new species?
3. What are the implications of genetic engineering?
The green fluorescent protein (GFP) is used for more than creating glow-in-the-dark
pets. When a GFP sequence is added to a gene, the translated protein will include the
green fluorescent protein, which glows. This glowing tag allows scientists to track the
protein in the organism. Knowing where, when, and how often a protein is made is
Image Credits: (l) ©Ted Kinsman/Science Source; (r) ©Ted Kinsman/Science Source
important for understanding what abnormal expression of a protein looks like. GFP has
been modified to produce a range of colors. The different colors are used by scientists
to track multiple proteins at the same time.
Research performed using GFP tags includes exploring cell behavior during embryonic
development, monitoring cell death during apoptosis, and studying insulin cells in
the pancreas. Processes that are difficult to monitor directly, such as the growth of a
neuron or tumor, can be tracked using GFP-tagged proteins.

CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 5. How does the mutated CFTR protein contribute to
cystic fibrosis?
1. What is the difference between genetic engineering
a. The mutation prevents the channel protein from
and cloning?
moving chloride across the membrane, resulting in a
a. Genetic engineering is governed by an international thick, sticky mucus.
ethics committee. Cloning does not have any formal
b. The mutation prevents the channel protein from
ethics oversight.
moving sodium across the membrane, resulting in a
b. Genetic engineering uses PCR and CRISPR. Cloning thick, sticky mucus.
does not use PCR or CRISPR.
c. The mutation causes the channel protein to produce
c. Genetic engineering focuses on changing an the sticky, thick mucus.
organism’s genome, while cloning focuses on exactly
d. The mutation attracts more mucus to the channel
copying genetic material.
protein.
d. Genetic engineering refers to gene manipulation in
humans. Cloning refers to gene manipulation in all
6. How is CRISPR used in genetic engineering?
other species.
a. to clone cells
2. Place the elements in order to model how mosquito b. to cut DNA
populations can be controlled using genetic engineering. c. to insert foreign DNA in a chromosome
a. affected males and affected offspring die d. to test for genetic conditions
b. insertion of gene into mosquito embryo
c. release of affected male mosquitos to the wild
d. development of drug-dependency gene MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE
e. breeding of genetically modified mosquitoes
f. affected males mate with wild females
I n your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
3. What would happen if a thermocycler malfunctioned supports the main ideas from this lesson:
during a PCR run and never heated the solution?
Genetic engineering is used to solve many societal and
a. The DNA polymerase used to separate the DNA environmental problems, but there are benefits and risks
strands would not be activated.
associated with genetic engineering.
b. The PCR would proceed at a slower rate.
c. The primers would not bind to the target DNA sites,
The ethical considerations of cloning and genetic engineering
and DNA synthesis would not occur. are complex. Scientists must balance scientific progress with
d. The DNA strands would never separate, and the PCR
the concerns of the public.
would never begin. Remember to include the following information in your
study guide:
4. Which of the following is not a criterion for a disease • Use examples that model main ideas.
being a good candidate for gene therapy? • Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
a. genetic information can be distributed to new cells • Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
b. biology is understood include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions, and
c. genetic basis of disease is identified other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
d. controlled by one gene up to a handful of genes
Consider how genetics, engineering, technology, and society
e. none of the above
influence and affect each other.

A BOOK EXPLAINING
COMPLEX IDEAS USING
ONLY THE 1,000 MOST
COMMON WORDS
BOOKS INSIDE US
Why people’s children are sort of like
them but not exactly the same
You know that genetic material from two parents results
in offspring with traits that follow a pattern of inheritance.
Mendel found that these patterns can be predicted by RANDALL MUNR
OE
using mathematical probabilities. Here’s an overview. XKCD.COM

WRITING INSIDE YOUR BODY
Living things are full of a kind of writing telling them One set is from each parent. The two sets match; each
how to grow. It’s not written using letters and words; book in a set has a matching book in the other set
it uses four different tiny pieces, like letters, stuck that is about the same size, as if they have the same
together in long lines. We can think of them like words number of pages, even if each page doesn’t have the
in a set of books, but remember, they’re not really same words. We won’t worry about how to read what
“words” like we’re used to. People, like a lot of animals, the writing says. After all, in real life, we don’t really
have two different full sets of books in their bodies. know what most of the writing is for!
THE TWO SETS OF WRITING IN YOUR BODY THAT TELL IT HOW TO GROW
SET FROM ONE SET FROM THE

PARENT OTHER PARENT
ONE PARENT’S THE OTHER
BOOKS PARENT’S BOOKS
(A small note:
When parents make We’re calling these
a child, the child people “parents,”
gets one of its sets but we really
of books from each mean the people
parent. The parents whose bodies the
don’t get to pick child came from.
which of the books These might not
in their two sets they Set from be the same as the
Set from the
give the child. It just one parent parents who raised
other parent
happens by chance. the child.)
LEFT AND RIGHT

To learn a little more about This person has a hat
how the left and right because there’s a hat in
books come together, one of their books.
let’s imagine that there’s
a piece of writing in a This person has a hat
person’s book that decides because there’s a hat in
whether they will have a hat both of their books.
or not. (We’ll pretend hats
are part of our bodies.)
In the part of the book about This person has a hat
hats, let’s say some books because there’s a hat in
have a piece of writing that one of their books.
means “HAT” and other
books don’t. This person doesn’t
Here’s the Hat Law: If either have a hat because
of your books says “HAT,” there’s no hat in either
then you will have a hat. one of their books.

WHY CHILDREN ARE DIFFERENT
TWO PARENTS WHO ARE THE SAME A NOTE ON HATS
Let’s suppose two parents with hats PARENT #1 PARENT #2 In real life, hats aren’t passed
have a baby. These parents both have down in families like this, but lots
the same thing in their books, as far of real things are.
as hats go—a hat in their left book Humans have yellow stuff in their
and no hat in their right. ears, which is either wet or dry.
WHAT HAPPENS TO THE KIDS? “Having wet yellow ear stuff”
is passed down in families like
Since the parents both have hats,
these hats are.
you might think the kids will have
hats too. But it’s not that simple. In cats, short hair is passed
down in the same way. Having
CHANCE SQUARE long hair is like having a hat
Each parent gives the child one of its two and follows the same rules as
books. Since each parent has one “hat” book hats do in these pictures.
and one “no hat” book, the child could end
up with two “hat” books, two “no hat” books, PARENT #2
or one of each!
You can draw a square like this one to figure Parent #2 has the
out the chances of each thing happening. same chance of
giving either one of
their two books.
Parent #1 has the

same chance of
giving either one of
their two books.
These four squares show

the four things that can
happen. Since each
square has an equal
PARENT #1
chance of happening, we
can use it to figure out the
child’s chance of getting
each pair of books.
The child has a one-in- The child has a two-in-four chance The child has a one-in-four
four chance of getting of getting the “no hat” book from chance of getting the “hat”
the “no hat” book from one parent and the “hat” book book from both parents. This
both parents. If that from the other. That means the child will have a hat, and
happens, the child will child will have one “hat” and one they are different from their
not have a hat, even “no hat” book, just like both parents because they don’t
though both parents do. parents do. Like their parents, have a “no hat” book.
these children will have hats.

Go online for more
A HAT FAMILY TREE

Let’s follow a pretend family tree to see
how different branches end up with
different sets of hat and no hat books.
The family tree starts

The parents have three children. Two of
with two parents. Each
them have one hat book, like their parents
has one hat book and
(there’s a two-in-four chance of this) and
one no hat book.
the third has no hat books (there’s a one-
in-four chance of this).
This person, who

has one hat book This person, who This person, who
like their parents, has one hat book, has no hat, meets
meets someone meets someone else someone else with
with no hat and with one hat book no hat and has
has children. and has children. children.
This person has This person has These people This person got Since neither of the parents in this
a hat, since they no hat, which have one hat a hat book from branch have hats, neither of the
got the hat book means hat book and one both parents, children have hats either, since no
from their hat- books are gone no hat book, which means one has a hat book.
wearing parent. from this branch like their all children this
There was a of the family parents and child has will
one-in-two until someone grandparents. have hats.
chance of this. with a hat
shows up.

UNIT CONNECTIONS
Engineering Connection FIGURE 1: Scientists are developing

therapies for genetic eye diseases.
Curing Blindness with Gene Therapy Certain diseases of the retina and eye,
including some that can cause blindness, have genetic causes. With recent
advances in technology, genetic engineers now have tools that may allow them to
reverse the genetic damage and perhaps restore patients’ sight. Clinical trials have
shown promise in this area, with more research emerging every day.
Using library and Internet resources, research the factors scientists must consider
when developing a gene therapy for blindness. Write a report to discuss the pros
and cons of medical advances, using gene therapy as the example. Reference information
from a range of sources to develop a clear dialogue that explains the technical, safety, social
or other factors related to medical advances such as gene therapy.
Music Connection FIGURE 2: Musicians practice many

hours every week.
Does Practice Make Perfect? Scientific studies have found that when it
comes to musical talent, genetics may play an important role. Practice or no
practice, it’s possible that some aspects of musical ability may be hard-wired into
our genes.
Using library and Internet resources, research studies that have examined the
role genetics may play in the development of musical talent. Form your own
opinion about whether practice, genetics, or both are the key to becoming an expert
Image Credits: (t) ©Charles Fox/Philadelphia Inquirer/MCT/News Com; (c) ©Africa Studio/Shutterstock; (b) ©Radius Images/Alamy
musician. Write a blog post stating your opinion. Cite evidence and examples from credible
sources to support your claim.
Life Science Connection FIGURE 3: Shell color and banding

pattern in brown-lipped snails are
Beneficial Mutations Small changes, or mutations, in DNA can result in new or dependent on temperature.
modified phenotypes. If those mutations occur in germ cells, they may be passed
on to future generations. Some scientists think that changes in environmental
conditions, such as global warming, may cause an increase in the rate of mutations.
Scientists have found evidence that the genetics of several species, such as brown-
lipped snails and red squirrels, are changing in response to higher temperatures.
Using library and Internet resources, research at least three organisms scientists
claim have mutations that became more common due to changing environmental
conditions. Make an infographic explaining what mutations are and how they happen. Then,
describe why scientists think certain mutations are helping some species survive in
environments with higher temperatures. Not all scientists may agree with the causes for the
changes observed. If you find evidence supporting a different claim, explain the
counterargument and why scientists may draw different conclusions. Use evidence from
credible resources to support your claims.



PRACTICE AND REVIEW
1. What processes that occur during meiosis contribute to

FIGURE 4: A purebred purple and purebred white flower
genetic diversity in offspring? Select all correct answers.
were crossed. The F1 generation self-pollinated, resulting in
a. crossing over the F2 generation.
b. cytokinesis
c. gametogenesis
P
d. independent assortment
2. If meiosis produces four daughter cells, why does

gametogenesis in females produce only a single egg cell?
F1
a. Egg cells contain four times the amount of DNA as
sperm gamete cells.
b. Egg cells in females are not produced via meiosis.
c. Gametogenesis involves steps in addition to meiosis, F2
in which a single egg cell is retained.
d. The process of meiosis does not fully complete when
producing an egg cell.
4. Examine the image shown in Figure 4 representing
3. The human genome contains roughly 1,000 olfactory the cross of purebred plants and the self-pollination of
receptor genes, which allow us to detect and distinguish the F1 generation. Use these terms below to complete
different odors. While only about one-third of these the statement explaining why some plants in the F2
genes are functional, all of the genes may have arisen as generation display white flowers.
duplications of a single ancestral gene. Put these steps in
dominant, recessive, heterozygous, homozygous
order to illustrate how this process could have occurred.

The F1 plants are ____, with one ____ allele coding for
a. mutations accumulate over time in the duplicate copy
white flowers. The plants in the F2 generation with white
of the gene
flowers are ____, with two alleles for white flowers. The
b. chromosomes exchange uneven amounts of DNA plants in the F2 generation with purple flowers may have
c. the duplicate gene encodes a protein with a slightly one or two copies of the purple flower allele, because it is
different function ____ and masks the white trait.
d. homologous chromosomes line up in the middle
of the cell during meiosis
e. a chromosome obtains multiple copies of the same
gene

5. Imagine that a species of mouse has a gene controlling 11. Imagine that a pea plant develops a somatic cell, or body
fur color, with the dominant allele associated with black cell, mutation that allows the plant to grow twice as
fur and the recessive allele associated with white fur. A tall as other pea plants. What will be true of the plant’s
second, epistatic gene also influences fur color in these offspring?
animals. What can you say about the color of a mouse a. All offspring will be taller than other plants.
that is heterozygous for the first fur-color gene? b. Some offspring will be taller than other plants.
a. The mouse’s fur color will be black. c. Some offspring may be taller, but only if the plant
b. The mouse’s fur color will be white. self-pollinates.
c. The mouse’s fur color will be gray, or a mix of black d. None of the offspring are likely to be taller than other
and white. plants.
d. The mouse’s fur color cannot be determined without
knowing the genotype of the epistatic gene 12. The polymerase chain reaction, or PCR, allows scientists
to amplify target regions of genetic material for further
Use the information below to answer Questions 6–8. study. What are some of the possible applications of PCR?
The trait for red coloring (R) is dominant to the trait for white a. Amplify the sequence of a gene from a human blood
coloring (r) in birds. Image two heterozygous birds were sample to determine if a mutation is present.
crossed. b. Amplify a protein sequence from a salamander egg to
inject into another egg.
6. Make a Punnett square for the cross between two c. Amplify a DNA region from a herbicide-resistant plant
heterozygous birds. to insert into the DNA of another plant species.
d. Amplify a region of human DNA to insert into a
7. What is the probability that the offspring of this cross will bacterial plasmid.
have red coloring?
8. What precentage of possible offspring will have RR, Rr, or UNIT PROJECT
rr genotypes?
9. In what ways can a recessive X-linked disease such as red- materials into a presentation to share with the class. In
green color blindness be inherited by male offspring? your final presentation, include an evaluation of your
a. From the father, but only if the father has the predictions, analysis, and conclusions.
colorblind phenotype. Remember these tips while evaluating:
b. From the father, even if the father is unaffected.
• Look at the empirical evidence—evidence based
c. From the mother, but only if the mother has the
on observations and data. Does the evidence
colorblind phenotype.
support your explanation of the cause or causes of
d. From the mother, even if the mother is unaffected. progeria?
• Consider if the explanation is logical. Does it
10. Would you expect a mutation that deletes one base in a contradict any evidence you have seen?
protein-coding region of DNA to be more or less harmful • Is there enough evidence from credible sources to
than a mutation that deletes three bases in a coding support your conclusions?
region? Explain your answer.

Analyzing Traits in Tomato Plants

In 2012, the tomato genome was fully sequenced. This FIGURE 5: Tomatoes can come in many colors including red,
knowledge allowed geneticists to study tomato traits and yellow, green, and even white.
their genetic basis. For example, several genes affect the color
of the fruit. Tomatoes can come in many colors. Interactions
between the tomato’s skin and the fleshy material result in
the color we see. Tomato skin can either be yellow or clear.
Imagine you’re a farmer and want to know the genotypes
of your tomato plants regarding tomato skin color. You ran
several testcrosses, shown in Figure 6, to determine the
genotypes of your plants (the P generation).

FIGURE 6: Number of tomato plants resulting from crosses of
about the problem and the information you need to solve it. parental plants with yellow or clear skin.
P generation phenotypes F1 generation phenotypes

2. ANALYZE DATA
Make a plan for organizing the data and approaching the
number of yellow number of clear
problem. How will you determine which allele is dominant yellow × clear 16 17
and which allele is recessive? What assumptions can you
make based on the data?
yellow × yellow 25 8
3. DEVELOP A MODEL yellow × clear 23 21
With your team, develop a system for modeling the yellow × clear 26 0
yellow and clear alleles. When you have decided on a
system, indicate the genotypes for each phenotype in the clear × clear 0 29
P-generation crosses. Then, use a Punnett square to calculate
the probability of producing tomatoes with clear or yellow
skin for each type of possible cross between heterozygous,
homozygous-recessive, and homozygous-dominant plants. CHECK YOUR WORK
Determine the probability of producing each genotype and
phenotype for each possible type of cross.
4. CONDUCT RESEARCH
Research ways that geneticists might alter or enhance this • an explanation based on evidence explaining how
trait. Why might they want to do so? alleles are related to this trait in tomato plants
• a valid model for the alleles involved in this trait
and correct Punnett squares showing the probability
5. COMMUNICATE
Image Credits: ©kaliantye/Fotolia
of each genotype and phenotype from different types

Write a report describing your findings and the process you of crosses
used to determine how this trait is influenced by different • a description of techniques geneticists use to
alleles. In your report explain which allele is dominant
genetically engineer plants and reasons for using
and recessive, describe the model you used, and give the
technology in this way
genotypes of the plants in the P generation.

UNIT 8
Evidence for Evolution

Lesson 1: Lines of
Evidence for Evolution . . . . . . . 382
Lesson 2: Theory of
Natural Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Unit Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Image Credits: ©WaterFrame/Getty Images
Many species develop unique features

that help them survive.
380 Unit 8 Evidence for Evolution

FIGURE 1: Over the course of 20 generations, some green anoles have developed stickier
feet that allow them to survive better in habitats invaded by the brown anole.
The territory of the green anole, a native species in the southeastern United States,
is being invaded by brown anoles originally from Cuba and the Bahamas. The anoles
compete with each other for food. Both green and brown anoles will eat the eggs of
the other species. A population of green anoles in Florida developed stickier feet to
help them climb higher in vegetation. The physical change along with the change in
habitat preference allows these green anoles to escape egg predation from brown
anoles and competition for food associated with the presence of the brown anole.
Predict How do species change over time to adjust to varying conditions?
DRIVING QUESTIONS
© Houghton Mifflin Harcourt • Image Credits: ©Kenneth Jones/Alamy Images
1. How do we know living things have changed over time?

2. What are the mechanisms of natural selection, and how do they lead to changes in
species over time?
3. How can environmental changes impact traits in a population?
UNIT PROJECT
Investigating the Evolution of Eyes the Unit Project
Worksheet to help
plan your project.
Eyes are complex organs. Simple eyes allow organisms to sense light while complex
eyes, like those in humans, allow organisms to see images. Explore how small changes
over time can lead to the development of unique features, such as eyes. How can you
explain the evolution of eyes?
Unit 8 Evidence for Evolution 381

8.1
Lines of Evidence
for Evolution
Geological evidence
indicates that Earth is
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
billions of years old.
FIGURE 1: Modern birds and long-extinct dinosaurs share some characteristics.
a Modern chicken b Archaeopteryx fossil
Image Credits: (t) ©mariakraynova/Fotolia; (bl) ©schankz/Fotolia; (br) ©Naturfoto Honal/

Gather Evidence Figure 1 shows a modern chicken and the fossilized remains of a dinosaur that
As you explore the lesson, lived about 150 million years ago. This dinosaur species, named Archaeopteryx,
gather evidence related to common was discovered in the 1860s. It was about the size of a chicken, and like all modern
ancestry and how living things birds, it had feathered wings and a fused collarbone. But it also had many reptilian
change over time. characteristics, including clawed toes, a long tail, and teeth.
In the 1990s, scientists discovered theropod fossils with feathers. Theropods were
dinosaurs that walked on two legs, such as Tyrannosaurus rex. They first appeared over
200 million years ago during the Triassic period. This important discovery showed that
feathers did not originate as an adaptation for flight. These theropods were covered
with feathers, but they did not have wings. They were running animals. This means
that feathers originally had another function in theropods.
Corbis Documentary/Getty Images
Predict Do you think chickens and other birds could be descendants of dinosaurs?
What evidence would you need to support such a claim?

EXPLORATION 1
Molecular and Genetic Evidence
How could a chicken be related to dinosaur ancestors? Evolution is the process of

biological change by which descendants come to differ from their ancestors. Multiple
lines of evidence support the idea that evolution has occurred. This evidence comes
from fields such as molecular biology, developmental biology, and paleontology, just
to name a few. All of this evidence helps to strengthen our understanding of evolution.
Hands-On Activity
Piecing Together Evidence

In this activity, you will receive pieces of “evidence” about a picture in order to
make observations, inferences, and predictions about it.
PROCEDURE MATERIALS
1. Using the three strips that your teacher has provided, write down all • picture cut into strips
observations and inferences that you can make about this picture.
2. Record observations, inferences, and a prediction for each remaining strip of
“evidence” that you receive from your teacher.
ANALYZE
1. What type of evidence might evolutionary biologists find that would let
them see the big picture of a species’ evolutionary past?
Molecular Similarities FIGURE 2: Many of our genes are shared by other organisms.
human
All living things on Earth share DNA as their genetic code. We
all have the same four basic nucleotides that make up our chimpanzee
genome. Through DNA sequencing technology, scientists can
compare the genetic codes of different species. In general,
the more related two species are, the more similar their DNA mouse baker’s yeast
100% 0%
will be. The differences in the nucleotide sequences in the
90% 10%
genomes of various species are smaller than you might think.
For example, your genome is about 88 percent identical to 80% 20%
that of a mouse. That may not be too surprising considering
mice are mammals, too. However, this might come as a bit of zebrafish 70% 30%
a surprise: Did you know that your DNA is about 47 percent
identical to that of a fruit fly? 60% 40%
50%
Analyze How do patterns in DNA support the claim that
roundworm
living things share a common ancestor? chicken
fruit fly
Lesson 1 Lines of Evidence for Evolution 383

Explore Online Sequences of DNA nucleotides known as pseudogenes also provide evidence of
evolution. Pseudogenes are genes that no longer function but are still carried along
Hands-On Activity
with functional DNA. They can also change as they are passed on through generations,
Predicting Evolutionary so they provide another way to determine evolutionary relationships.
Relationships Analyze Similarities among cell types across organisms can also be revealed by comparing
similarities in a protein common their proteins. A unique set of proteins is found in specific types of cells, such as liver or
to bacteria and eukaryotes. Then muscle cells. Computers are used to search databases of protein sequences and look
use the results of your analysis to for homologous, or similar, sequences in different species. Cells from different species
draw conclusions about similarities that have the same proteins most likely come from a common ancestor. For example,
among species. the proteins of light-sensitive cells in the brain-like structure of an ancient marine
worm closely resemble those of cells found in the vertebrate eye. Vertebrates are
animals with a backbone. Invertebrates, like arthropods and worms, have no backbone.
This resemblance in proteins shows a shared ancestry between worms and vertebrates.
It also shows that the cells of the vertebrate eye originally came from cells in the brain.
Engineering
FIGURE 3: Scientists often study model Using Model Organisms

organisms such as the zebrafish to learn to Study Human Diseases
more about human disease.
Because we share common ancestry with other species, many human
genes also exist in other organisms such as zebrafish, fruit flies, and
mice. This fact, along with their rapid life cycles, makes these organisms
ideal models for the study of shared genes. Zebrafish have 70 percent
of the same genes as humans, and they have bodies that are almost as
transparent as embryos. This feature allows for a better view of what
is happening inside of their bodies. Zebrafish can also regenerate
their spinal cords after injury, which makes them a promising model
organism for studies on spinal cord injuries.
Zebrafish have been used as a model organism for research on many
human diseases, including muscle, kidney, heart, and nervous system
disorders. Scientists use genetic manipulation techniques to induce
mutations in the fish. By experimenting with mutant, or variant, forms
of genes in this model organism, scientists can make predictions
about how similar genes will function in humans. For example, a strain
of mutant zebrafish called breakdance has been used for studies on
arrhythmia, or abnormal heart rhythm, in humans.
In addition to sharing much of our genetic material, zebrafish also have
eyes that are similar to the human eye in many ways. Several zebrafish
Image Credits: ©Toronto Star/Vince Talotta/Getty Images
mutants have been identified that display eye defects and visual
impairment. These mutants have helped scientists better understand
how different genes are involved in eye disorders. For example, two
mutant strains called grumpy and sleepy have been vital in the study of
certain disorders that affect the optic nerve.
Analyze Make a list of criteria and constraints a researcher would need

to consider when choosing a model organism for a human disease study.
Include factors related to the organism’s development and life cycle, the
genetic basis of the disease being studied, and any ethical considerations.

Homeobox Genes and Body Plan Expression
As an animal develops, its genes guide the formation of organs and the arrangement
of body parts. If we have much of our DNA in common with other organisms, such as
mice or birds, why then does a bird’s body plan look so different from our own? From a
very early stage, certain types of homeobox genes, called Hox genes, help to guide the
process that results in the development of an organism’s characteristic body plan. The
process begins by instructing embryonic cells where in the body they will be located—
head, midsection, or tail. From there the genes define the location and number of eyes
and limbs, the location of the gut, the development of a wing instead of a leg, and so
forth. If a mutation arises in these genes, drastic changes can occur in the body plan of
the animal. Scientists think that random mutations in these genes over time account
for the incredible diversity of body types seen today.
FIGURE 4: Differences in fruit fly and human body plans arise from variations in
Hox genes.
Analyze When do
duplication mutations
usually occur? In which type of
cells would these mutations have
to occur to be passed down from
HOXA parents to offspring?
HOXB
HOXC
HOXD
Collaborate Analyze the model of Hox genes in fruit flies and humans. Write your
answers to the questions below, and then discuss your answers with a partner.
1. What patterns do you see in the similarities and differences between Hox genes
in humans and in fruit flies?
2. How do your observations support the claim that humans and fruit flies share
a common ancestor?
Vertebrates have multiple sets of the same Hox genes that insects and other
arthropods have. For example, the Hox genes that direct the organization of the
vertebrate body plan are actually just different versions of the Hox gene that directs
the body plan in fruit flies and other insects. The difference suggests that over time,
mutations have caused the original Hox gene to be copied repeatedly, forming a
series of similar genes along a chromosome. Mutations in these genes are typically
duplications, and with each duplication, the developing organism may show slightly
different traits.
Explain Archaeopteryx is seen by some experts as a link between reptiles and birds.
What types of cellular or molecular evidence might a scientist study in order to determine
the evolutionary relationship between the chicken and modern reptiles?

EXPLORATION 2
Developmental and Anatomical Evidence
At a very early stage, and before homeobox genes begin to make differences in body
form, many seemingly different animals show striking similarities. As a general rule,
organisms that resemble each other in their development are more closely related
than others with different patterns of development. Even after an embryo begins to
take on its adult form, many organisms share anatomical features with each other.
Scientists use developmental and anatomical features to make inferences about
evolutionary relationships among species.
Developmental Similarities
Language Arts Invertebrates have an initial larval stage in which many organisms look quite similar,
Connection suggesting an evolutionary connectedness. At an early stage, some of these animals
Evolutionary developmental look exactly the same to the untrained eye. For example, barnacles and crabs show
biology is a field of science that striking similarities as larvae even though as adults they take on very different
compares developmental processes body forms and behaviors. Barnacles become stationary animals, attaching to solid
structures or larger animals. They must rely on their food to come to them. Crabs, on
in different organisms. Use library
the other hand, use their legs to move around and capture food.
and Internet resources to research
some of the latest advances in this All vertebrates have three basic body features as embryos—a tail, limb buds, and
field. Choose a study to focus on pharyngeal arches. Note these common features in all four vertebrate embryos
and make an informational guide to shown in Figure 5. Human embryos have a tail and pharyngeal arches, just as fish do.
explain how this research has Homeobox genes direct the future development of these structures. Structures that
once appeared very similar eventually differentiate in both structure and function.
added to our knowledge of
For example, pharyngeal arches become gills in adult fish. In mammals, however,
development and evolution. Discuss
pharyngeal arches develop into ear and throat structures. Biologists use shared
the evidence used to support the
developmental patterns as evidence of common ancestry.
researchers’ claims and explain how
it supports their conclusions. FIGURE 5: All vertebrates go through a stage of development with common features.
pharyngeal arches pharyngeal arches
tail tail
fish reptile bird human

fish reptile bird human
Analyze What similarities do the vertebrate embryos in Figure 5 share? How does this
pattern of similarities help support common ancestry?

Anatomical Evidence
Homologous structures are features found in different organisms that share structural
similarities but may have very different functions. Their appearance across different
species offers strong evidence for common descent. It would be unlikely for many
species to have such similar anatomy if each species evolved independently. For
example, all four-limbed vertebrates, or tetrapods, share homologous bones in
their forelimbs. Figure 6 compares the forelimbs of humans, bats, and dogs. In all of
these animals, the forelimbs have several bones that are very similar to each other in
appearance despite their different functions.
FIGURE 6: Homologous structures are different in detail but similar to each other in
structure and relative location.
Gather Evidence What
patterns do you notice in
these structures in terms of
similarities? How do the similarities
support common ancestry?
a Human hands b Bat wings c Dog feet
Analogous Structures
Homologous structures such as the bat wing and human hand are based on the same
underlying body plan, but have diverged into distinct structures because of their use.
We do not use our arms and hands the same way that a bat uses its wing. In contrast,
analogous structures are structures that perform a similar function but are not similar
in origin. Think about the wings of a parrot and those of a dragonfly. Both bird and
insect wings have similar shapes and structures because they are both used for
flight. However, wings develop differently in birds and insects, and they are made of
different tissues. For example, bird wings have bones. In contrast, insect wings do not
have bones, only membranes. The similar function of wings in birds and flying insects
Image Credits: (tl) ©domin_domin/iStockPhoto.com; (tc) ©Nick Veasey/Getty Images; (tr) ©Irina
evolved separately.
FIGURE 7: Bird wings and dragonfly wings are examples of analogous structures.
Alyakina/Fotolia; (bl) ©Peter Schoen/Moment/Getty Images; (br) ©asfloro/Fotolia
a Parrot wings b Dragonfly wings
Explain What is the difference between homologous and analogous structures? Which
type of structure indicates common ancestry? Explain your answer.

Vestigial Structures
Anatomical comparisons can shed light on evolutionary relationships between species.
Common body structures can become more similar or less similar over time. But what
about structures which seem to serve no function at all? Early scientists had trouble
explaining why flightless birds have wings or why humans have a tail bone. What we
now know is that these vestigial structures are remnants of once-important structures
that gradually have lost all or most of their function over time. Vestigial structures
provide clues to an organism’s evolutionary past. Consider the traces of pelvic bones
present in the humpback whale shown in Figure 8. The pelvis normally sits near leg
bones, such as the femur in humans.
FIGURE 8: Many whale species have vestigial pelvic and leg bones.
Analyze How does the evidence in Figure 8 support the idea that whales evolved from
land mammals?
An example of a vestigial structure in humans is the arrector pili muscle, which makes
your hair stand up when you are cold or scared. Goose bumps are caused by this
muscle contracting and pulling the hair upward. This process normally creates air
pockets to trap air and insulate the body. It also helps animals fluff up their fur to
frighten off possible attackers. Humans still have this response, because we share
a common ancestor with other mammals. However, we do not have enough hair for
the response to serve its original function.
Explain What similarities in anatomical structures provide evidence of a link between

the chicken and the Archaeopteryx? What additional evidence would help support the
claim that these organisms share a common ancestor?

EXPLORATION 3
Geological and Fossil Evidence
Scientists study clues left behind in ancient rocks and discover traces of organisms that
have long been extinct. Fossils are an important piece of evidence used to determine
the evolutionary history of a species.
Geological Evidence
The age of Earth was a key issue in the early debates over evolution in the early 19th Explain Why are the
century. The common view was that Earth was created about 6,000 years earlier, and concepts that Earth
that since that time, neither Earth nor the species that lived on it had changed. undergoes change and is billions of
Georges Cuvier, a French zoologist of the late 1700s, did not think that species could years old important for evolutionary
change. However, his observations of fossil remains convinced him that species could theory?
go extinct. He found that fossils in the deepest layers of rock were quite different from
those in the upper layers, which were formed by more recent deposits of sediment.
He supported the theory of catastrophism which states that natural disasters such as
floods and volcanic eruptions have happened often during Earth’s long history. These
events shaped landforms and caused species to become extinct in the process.
In the late 1700s, the Scottish geologist James Hutton proposed that the changes he
saw in landforms resulted from slow changes over a long period of time, a principle
that became known as gradualism. He argued that the layering of soil or the canyons
formed by rivers cutting through rock did not result from large-scale events. He
thought, rather, that they resulted from slow processes that had happened in the past.
One of the leading supporters of the argument for an ancient Earth was the British
geologist Charles Lyell. In Principles of Geology, published in the 1830s, Lyell expanded
Hutton’s theory of gradualism into the theory of uniformitarianism. This theory states
that the geologic processes that shape Earth are uniform, or remain the same, through
time. Uniformitarianism combines Hutton’s idea of gradual change over time with
Lyell’s observations that such changes have occurred at a constant rate and are ongoing.
Uniformitarianism soon replaced catastrophism as the favored theory of geologic change.
FIGURE 9: This model shows evidence of slow, gradual change over time.
youngest rock layer

Cause and Effect
Explain How do the geological

features shown in Figure 9 support
the claim that slow, gradual
changes add up over long periods of
time to cause great change?
oldest rock layer

Fossil Evidence
A fossil is the preserved remains of an organism, or the trace evidence of an organism’s
existence in the past. Most fossils form in sedimentary rock, which is made by many
layers of sediment, or small rock particles. The best environments for any type of
fossilization include wetlands, bogs, and areas where sediment is continuously
deposited, such as river mouths, lakebeds, and flood plains.
Layers of rock form gradually over long periods of time, with more recent layers
typically on top of older layers. Fossils that differ from each other slightly and are
embedded in different layers of rock provide evidence for gradual change in species
over time. The conditions needed for an organism’s body to fossilize are rarely met. An
organism’s remains may be eaten by scavengers, it may decompose before it has time
Collaborate With a
to fossilize, or it may simply be wiped away by erosion. Because of this, the fossil record
partner, create a chart to will always be incomplete.
explain how the traits described in
Figure 10 would have helped the Scientists have been able to fill in some of these gaps by finding fossils of transitional
species. These “missing links” demonstrate the evolution of traits within groups as
ancestors of living tetrapods adapt
well as the common ancestors between groups. For example, Tiktaalik roseae is a
to walking on land.
transitional species between fish and tetrapods. Figure 10 shows where Tiktaalik fills in
the gap in the evolutionary history of fish and tetrapods.
FIGURE 10: This diagram shows the evolutionary relationships between ancient fishes and modern-day tetrapods.
millions of years ago

420 410 400 390 380 370 360 present day
ray-finned fish
bony skeleton, lungs coelacanth

(later lost in many
living fish)
lungfish
lobe fins (single
large bones in fins Eusthenopteron
attached to shoulder
and pelvic girdle)
Panderichthys
single large limb bone

attached to two smaller bones, Tiktaalik
nostril connected to mouth
Acanthostega
weight-bearing elbows, bending wrist, neck
Ichthyostega
forelimbs and hind limbs with digits, pelvis attached to rest of
skeleton, loss of thick bony scales covering the back and flanks
Tulerpeton
gills lost, tail fin reduced
wrist makes contact along the entire span of the hand, ankle makes
contact across the entire span of the foot, each hind limb has two shin
bones (tibia and fibula) living tetrapods
five digits, wrists and ankles turned forward for walking on land,
loss of external fin rays
Source: Zimmer, Carl, The Tangled Bank, Roberts & Company, 2009, as quoted by “The origin of tetrapods.”
Understanding Evolution http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evograms_04.

FIGURE 11: Fossil remains of Tiktaalik, a transitional species that lived about 370 million
years ago, has both fish and tetrapod characteristics.
Analyze How do the
neck ear notches presence of gills and lungs,
scales fins as well as a bone structure that is
homologous to that of tetrapods,
support the idea that Tiktaalik fills
in the gap between aquatic and
land-dwelling species?
flat head
ribs shoulder bones
As you can see in Figure 11, Tiktaalik has both fish and tetrapod qualities. It has fins
and scales like a fish. It also has the beginnings of limbs, including digits, proto-
wrists, elbows, and shoulders, along with a functional neck and ribs similar to that of
a tetrapod. Its discovery in 2004 helped to fill in the gap in the fossil record between
early fish and the first land-dwelling species that evolved about 25 million years later.
But that’s not all it does. The structure of a recently discovered pelvic bone from
Tiktaalik suggests that this creature used its hind legs in a more significant way than
previously thought. The finding contradicts the previously held idea that primitive land
animals used only their front legs to drag themselves across an ancient beach.
By studying the fossils found in individual rock layers, scientists can determine the
approximate age of each fossil. Then by comparing one fossil to another, or examining
fossils from different geographic areas, scientists can determine details about the
environment in which each species lived.
Closer examinations of fossils and comparisons to living species can indicate

anatomical and physiological similarities. Through analysis of the fossil record,
Image Credits: (t) ©Corbin17/Alamy; (bl) ©Natural Visions/Heather Angel/Alamy;
we can begin to put together a clearer picture of a species’ evolutionary history.
FIGURE 12: Archaeopteryx and modern-day bird skulls share common characteristics.
(br) ©danilo ducak/Shutterstock
a Archaeopteryx skull replica b Chicken skull
Explain Look at the Archaeopteryx and chicken skulls. What are the similarities, and
what are the differences? How does the fossil evidence support the idea that birds share
a common ancestor with dinosaurs?

Data Analysis
Radiometric Dating Radiometric Dating

FIGURE 14: Carbon-14 Decay
Scientists can determine the age of a fossil through
the process of radiometric dating. This technique uses
calculations that are based on a radioisotope’s steady rate
of decay. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have 100 Percent of
carbon-14
different numbers of neutrons. For example, all carbon atoms
Percent of
have six protons, but the number of neutrons may vary. The 1 half-life nitrogen-14
Percent of 14C remaining

most common carbon isotope has six neutrons in its nucleus.
Because the atomic mass of an atom is equal to the sum of
50
2 half-lives
protons and neutrons in its nucleus, this isotope is known as
12 14
carbon-12, or C. In the isotope carbon-14, or C, there are 3 half-lives
4 half-lives
still six protons but eight neutrons, which add up to 14. 25
12.5
Many elements have multiple isotopes, most of which are 6.25
0
stable. However, some isotopes are unstable, or radioactive. 0 5730 11 460 17 190 22 920
This means that they give off radiation as they decay or break Time passed in years
down over time. Decay rates differ widely and are known for
each isotope. Figure 13 lists a few radioactive isotopes that
are used in radiometric dating. 14
The half-life of C is roughly 5700 years, which means that
14
after 5700 years, half of the C in a fossil will have decayed
FIGURE 13: Isotopes Used in Radiometric Dating 14 14
into N, its decay product. The other half remains as C. After
14
Isotope (parent) Product (daughter) Half-life (years) 11,400 years, or two half-lives, 75 percent of the C will have
14
decayed. One quarter of the original C remains.
rubidium-87 strontium-87 48.8 billion
The predictability of radiometric dating gives scientists a
uranium-238 lead-206 4.5 billion reliable tool to calculate the age of almost any fossil or rock
potassium-40 argon-40 1.3 billion sample. The oldest known rocks have been dated using
radioisotopes. These were small crystals discovered in Australia
carbon-14 nitrogen-14 5730 that were calculated to be about 4.4 billion years old. Advances
in the technology have made the process so precise that the
This decay of any radioisotope happens at a known, constant
margin of error is reported to be less than one percent.
rate and is expressed as the isotope’s half-life. A half-life is
the amount of time it takes for half of the original mass of
the isotope to decay into the product, or daughter isotope. Use the figures to answer the following questions.
By measuring the amount of parent isotope remaining along 1. If a rock contains 75 percent of the decay product, how
10-19-16
with the amount of daughter isotope remaining, Leslieyou
Kell can many half-lives have passed?
calculate a ratio. This is known as the decay-product ratio. 2. If you measured the age of a fossil using 14C dating
14
The isotope C is commonly used to date recent remains. and determined its age to be about 17,000 years old,
Organisms absorb carbon through eating and breathing, so how much of the rock should be made of 14N?
14
C is constantly being resupplied. When an organism dies, its 3. If you are examining rock layers that are suspected
14
intake of carbon stops, but the decay of C continues. to be about 20 million years old, which radioactive
isotope would you use? Explain your answer.
Go online to choose one

CAREER: EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGIST WHALE EVOLUTION
of these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 15: Modern birds such as chickens are thought to have descended from the
same ancestor as feathered dinosaurs such as Archaeopteryx.
a Modern chicken b Archaeopteryx fossil
Archaeopteryx has been called both the first bird and a ‘feathered dinosaur.’ Either
way, it shares features of both birds and dinosaurs. First discovered around 1860, it has
been studied vigorously for over a century, although only 12 very detailed and well-
preserved fossils have been found in that time. The evolutionary history of modern
birds may never be completely understood, but Archaeopteryx helps to fill in the gaps
of this evolutionary timeline.
Explain What evolutionary evidence supports the conclusion that chickens and other
modern birds are descendants of dinosaurs? Refer to the notes in your Evidence
Notebook and write a short explanatory text that cites specific evidence from this
lesson about lines of evidence for evolution to support your claim, and explain your
reasoning.
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The fossil record gives a rich history of the changing diversity of life on our planet.
Anatomical details such as homologous and vestigial structures help to link species
together. By examining the earliest developmental stages of organisms, we can see
shared features among different species, such as a similarity in appearance between
barnacle and crab larvae and similar developmental patterns in vertebrate embryos.
In addition, molecular and genetic evidence such as DNA and amino acid sequences
provide evidence that can be used to determine the evolutionary relationships among
different species. Taken together, these forms of evidence, put forth by different
branches of science, overwhelmingly support the concept that living things change
over time, yet are all descendants from a common ancestor.

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS

FIGURE 16: Anatomical Structures
1. By examining the fin of a primitive fish, scientists have
found similarities in bone structure to that of modern-day
reptiles, birds, and mammals. What type of evidence does
this describe?
a. vestigial structures
b. embryonic structures
c. analogous structures
d. homologous structures
2. Astyanax mexicanus is a species of tetra fish that dwells

in bodies of water deep inside caves. Even though they 6. Which of the following statements correctly describes the
cannot see, these fish still have small, nonworking eyes. evidence shown by the structures in Figure 16?
Their eyes are examples of which type of structures? a. The bat and the dog share analogous bone structures
a. embryonic in their forelimbs.
b. vestigial b. Only the human and the bat share homologous bone
structures in their forelimbs.
c. homologous
c. The human and the bat share analogous bone
d. analogous
structures in their forelimbs.
3. The idea that present geologic processes are the key to d. All three species share homologous structures in their
the past is a tenet of which geologic theory? forelimbs.
a. gradualism
7. How are genes and proteins similar to homologous
b. catastrophism
structures when determining evolutionary relationships
c. uniformitarianism among species?
d. metamorphism
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8. The hummingbird is more closely related to a lizard than
4. As embryos, all vertebrates have which of the following it is to a dragonfly. How can you explain why two species
structures? Select all correct answers. that look similar are not necessarily that closely related?
a. pharyngeal arches
b. limb buds 9. How can the location of a fossil reveal its age? Explain
c. tail your answer.
d. lungs
10. Paleontology is the study of fossils or extinct species.
Explain how this field is important to the study of
5. The similarity in homologous structures between
evolutionary biology.
different species is evidence that they
a. share a common ancestor.
11. You have discovered the fossil remains of three
b. are members of the same genus. organisms. One is mammalian, one is reptilian, and the
c. use the similar structures in the same way. third has both mammalian and reptilian characteristics.
d. evolved from each other. What techniques could you apply to determine possible
relationships among these organisms?

FIGURE 17: Shared DNA In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
human supports the main idea from this lesson:
chimpanzee Multiple lines of evidence support common ancestry and

evolution.
mouse baker’s yeast Remember to include the following information in your

100% 0% study guide:
90% 10% • Use examples that model main ideas.
80% 20%
zebrafish
70% 30% other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
60% 40% Consider how evidence from various fields of science can be used
50%
to support the idea of evolution and common ancestry. Remember
roundworm that the same processes that formed fossil remains millions of
chicken
fruit fly years ago are still at work today.
Use Figure 17 to answer Questions 12 and 13.
12. Humans share the most DNA with which of the following
species of animal?
a. zebrafish
b. fruit fly
c. roundworm
d. chimpanzee
13. Which organism do you think would be the best choice

to use as a model organism in human health studies?

8.2
Theory of Natural Selection
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?

When camouflaged,
an animal such as this
crocodilefish can be FIGURE 1: The orchid mantis (Hymenopus coronatus) resembles a flower in shape, but some
almost impossible to spot. scientists think it attracts insects for another reason.
Gather Evidence
gather evidence for how natural
selection results in species that are
Image Credits: (t) ©Scubaponnie/Getty Images; (b) ©Chris Parks/Image Quest Marine/Alamy
adapted to their environment.
With its brilliant colors and petal-shaped legs, the orchid mantis resembles the flower
it is named for. This species’ habitat consists of pink and white flowers in bushes and
trees. Its diet is made up mainly of flying insects. You might think that the orchid
mantis catches its prey by camouflaging itself as a flower. However, researchers have
found that when it was placed beside the most common flower in its habitat, the
orchid mantis attracted insects more often than the flower.
Predict How do you think the orchid mantis developed the traits that make it so
attractive to insects?

EXPLORATION 1
Hands-On Activity
Modeling Natural Selection:

Owls and Field Mice
We know from molecular, anatomical, and fossil evidence that species have changed
FIGURE 2: Barn owls are
over time. This change is called evolution. But how does evolution actually occur
predators. They feed mostly on
in nature? In this lab, you will model one mechanism of evolution called natural small mammals, such as mice,
selection. You will represent the predator, an owl in search of field mice. Your group voles, and shrews.
will “consume” all the field mice that you can easily see until only 25 percent of the
population remains. These surviving field mice will then reproduce. As with the orchid
mantises, the mice will pass on an important trait for survival to their offspring. You will
continue the process for several generations of mice, with some being consumed and
others surviving to pass on the traits that made them successful.
PREDICT
How does a population change as a result of natural selection?
PROCEDURE
1. Spread out the fabric habitat given to you on the tabletop.
2. Count out 20 pieces of paper of each of the five different colors for a total of 100
pieces. This will be your initial population of field mice.
3. One person should spread the pieces out randomly over the entire fabric habitat,
making sure that none of the pieces cover the others. The remaining members of
the group should not watch this process. MATERIALS
4. The other members of the group are now owls. They should pick up 75 pieces • construction paper, five colors
(field mice) as they see them, one by one, until a total of 25 of the field mice remain • piece of fabric
in the habitat. Be sure to count carefully.
5. Carefully shake off the habitat to remove the surviving mice (a total of 25).
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6. Group the survivors by color and record the numbers in your data table. See
Figure 3 for an example data table.
7. Next assume that each survivor has three offspring. Place three additional pieces
of the same color with each survivor. Record the number of each color in the table.
Note that there should again be 100 total pieces.
8. Mix up the new set of pieces and have a different person spread them over the
habitat.
9. Repeat the entire process (Steps 3 to 8) two more times, making a total of three
generations of field mice being preyed upon.
Analyze Explain how you will model predation in this activity.
Lesson 2 Theory of Natural Selection 397

DATA TABLE
FIGURE 3: Effect of Predation on Field Mice Populations Over Time
Color 1 Color 2 Color 3 Color 4 Color 5

Number at start 20 20 20 20 20
Number after first predation
Number after first
reproduction
(Add rows for two more
generations.)
ANALYSIS
1. Graph your data. What patterns can you identify in the data?
2. Which traits appear to be the most beneficial for survival in this environment?
3. Explain why the number of some mouse varieties increased over time
while others decreased.
4. How do you think the data would have changed if the experiment were
continued until a total of five generations of field mice were preyed upon?
Mice can reproduce rapidly. In fact, their population could increase exponentially
FIGURE 4: Mice can reproduce
if given enough resources and few predators. However, the greater the population,
rapidly. The large number of
offspring must compete with the more individuals must compete for resources such as food, water, and mates.
one another for resources. In addition, mice must escape predators to survive long enough to pass on their traits.
Any traits that help them survive and pass on their genes are considered beneficial
in this environment. Natural selection is a mechanism by which individuals that have
inherited beneficial adaptations show differential reproductive success.
If the environment were to change, the traits that are beneficial could also change.
If the grass in a field were to change colors due to a change in weather, different traits
would be “selected for.” This does not mean that nature actually “chooses” traits.
It simply means that some traits are passed down more often than others because
organisms with those traits are better able to survive and reproduce more than others
Image Credits: ©Steve Downer/ardea/Mary Evans Picture Library Ltd/age footstock

in their population.
Explain Answer these questions about the concepts explored in this activity.
1. Name an animal that uses camouflage to avoid predators. What habitat is it most
likely to survive in? What are some other traits that could help an animal survive in the
presence of predators?
2. What kinds of resources might field mice compete for? What types of traits would give
a field mouse a competitive advantage over other members of its own species?

EXPLORATION 2
Developing the Theory of Natural Selection
Charles Darwin was one of the most famous people to consider the question of how
living things evolve; however, the concept of evolution had been discussed for more
than 100 years when Darwin proposed his theory of evolution.
Early Ideas About Evolution

Early scientists observed relationships among organisms and how they seemed to be
well adapted for specific environments. Darwin built upon the work of these scientists
to develop a theory for how evolution occurs. A theory is an explanation based on
evidence that has been repeatedly confirmed through experimentation or observation.
Today, we have a wide body of evidence that supports Darwin's theory of evolution.
FIGURE 5: Ideas about evolution have developed over time.

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1735 Systema 1794-1796 Zoonomia Darwin's

Naturae Carolus grandfather, Erasmus Darwin,
Linnaeus proposed considered how organisms could
a new system of evolve through mechanisms such
organization for as competition.
plants, animals,
and minerals 1809 Philosophie Zoologique
based upon their Jean-Baptiste Lamarck presented
similarities. evolution as occurring due to
environmental change over long
periods of time.
1749 Histoire 1798 An Essay on the Principle of

Naturelle Georges- Population Thomas Malthus argued that
Louis Leclerc, Comte the increasing human population would
de Buffon, discussed challenge the world’s ability to supply
important ideas about enough food for everyone.
relationships among
organisms, sources of 1830 Principles of Geology
biological variation, Charles Lyell proposed the
and the possibility of theory of uniformitarianism.
evolution. This theory states that both
gradual and catastrophic
geological changes have
occurred at a constant rate
on Earth and are ongoing.
Analyze How does the information in Figure 5 support the idea that theories change
and develop over time as new evidence is discovered?

DO NOT EDIT--Changes must be made through "File info" DO NOT
LONumber=9B1_0250; CorrectionKey=NL-B LONumb
Darwin’s Voyage
In 1831, the ship HMS Beagle set sail from England on a five-year journey to map
FIGURE 6: At Cape Verde,
the coast of South America and the Pacific islands. The ship captain saw it as an
Darwin saw a band of seashells
far above sea level. opportunity to collect specimens and study natural history. An invitation was extended
to Charles Darwin, a recent graduate from the University of Cambridge. To prepare
for the trip, Darwin collected scientific tools, as well as books, one of which was Lyell’s
Principles of Geology, which he read along his travels.
The first stop occurred at the Cape Verde Islands, where Darwin noticed a band of
seashells on a cliff high above the shoreline. Darwin was curious about how the shells
ended up there. During the following year, the young naturalist explored the rain
forest to collect specimens of plants, animals, and rocks. As he worked, Darwin kept a
diary, recording each new observation. This approach allowed him to do comparative
studies, such as noting the differences between fossils found on a later stop in the
Falkland Islands and those found on the coast of South America. Darwin also noted
geological phenomena that made him wonder how environments changed.
FIGURE 7: Darwin’s Journey on the HMS Beagle Explore Online
Plymouth
Azores
ATLANTIC PACIFIC
OCEAN Cape Verde OCEAN
Galápagos Islands
Islands Bahia INDIAN
Image Credits: (t) ©Arterra Picture Library/van der Meer Marica/Alamy; (bl) ©Gail Tanski/Alamy; (br) ©John Warburton-Lee Photography/Alamy
PACIFIC (Salvador)
OCEAN
OCEAN Callao
Lima Cape
Rio de Town Mauritius Sydney
Valparaíso Janeiro N
Hobart
km 0 2,000 Falkland Islands W E
mi 0 2,000 S
Near the end of his journey, the Beagle arrived in the Galápagos Islands. At this stop,
Darwin would make some of his most widely known observations, which are still
studied today. Darwin noted that the species found on one island looked different
from those on nearby islands and on the mainland. He was struck by the variation
of traits among similar species. Some traits seemed well suited to the animals’
Image Credits: (tr) ©Michelle Gilders/Alamy; (cr) ©Arco Images GmbH/Alamy

environments and diets.
FIGURE 8: Galápagos tortoises (Geochelone elephantopus) had variations in their traits that
Predict Which variety of seemed to match their environment.
tortoise (saddle-backed or
domed) would most likely live in an
environment with mosses and short
plants? Which would most likely
live in an area with tall plants?
a The high shell edge of saddle-backed b Domed tortoises have a short neck and
tortoises allow them to stretch their short legs.
long necks.

Among all of Darwin’s observations, the most well known are those of the Galápagos
finches. These small birds, sometimes known as “Darwin’s finches,” are closely related,
but with significant differences. These observations led Darwin to infer that species
must somehow be able to adapt to their surroundings. An adaptation is a feature that
allows an organism to survive and reproduce in its environment. It was this analysis
that eventually helped shape Darwin’s theory about how organisms change over time.
FIGURE 9: Variation in Galapagos Finches
a Large cactus finch (Geospiza

GALÁPAGOS ISLANDS Isla Marchena N
conirostris)
(Bindoe)
W E Species in the genus
PACIFIC Geospiza have thick beaks
OCEAN Isla San Salvador S
(Santiago, James) and can feed on large, hard
Ca
Isla Fernandina seeds that require strength

na
(Narborough) Isla San for crushing.

l Is
Cristóbal
ab
(Chatham)
ela
Isla Isabela b Small tree finch

(Albemarle) Isla Santa Cruz
(Indefatigable) (Camarhynchus parvulus)
Species in the genus
Isla Santa María Camarynchus have biting
km 0 30 60 (Floreana, Charles) Isla Española
strength at the tips of their
(Hood)
beaks, which is useful for
mi 0 30 60 tearing vegetation.
Analyze Use Figure 9 to answer these questions: How do these finches' adaptations
help them survive and reproduce in their environment? What type of beak would you
expect to see on a finch that eats insects? Explain your answer.
Several years before Darwin landed in the Galápagos, the Beagle anchored near Bahia
Blanca in Argentina. While there, hunters brought back an armadillo. This was Darwin’s
introduction to this strange, armored animal. While on a fossil-hunting trip in the
area, he found fossils of huge animals, including Glyptodon, a giant armadillo. The fact
that these fossils looked like the living species suggested that modern animals might
have some relationship to fossil forms. These fossils suggested that in order for such
changes to occur, Earth must be much older than previously thought.
FIGURE 10: Darwin found fossils of Glyptodon, which resembles the modern armadillo.
Image Credits: (tr) ©Michelle Gilders/Alamy; (cr) ©Arco Images GmbH/Alamy
Explain How do the

Glyptodon fossils Darwin
found in Argentina show that
species have changed over time?
armadillo glyptodon

Predict Give three During his voyage, Darwin also found fossil shells of marine organisms high up in the
examples of geological Andes Mountains. Darwin later experienced an earthquake during his voyage and
processes that could cause fossils of observed the effects on the surrounding land. The land that had been underwater was
organisms to be found in areas they moved above sea level. This experience explained what he saw in the Andes. Darwin’s
did not historically inhabit. observations on his voyage supported Lyell’s theory that daily geologic processes can
add up to great change over a long period. Darwin later extended the ideas of an old
Earth and slow, gradual change to the evolution of organisms. These observations led
to the concept of evolutionary gradualism.
After his voyage, Darwin spent more than 20 years building on his research and
knowledge of how evolution occurs. Although he had traveled the world, Darwin
also found great insight in his home country of England. One important influence on
Darwin’s research was the work of farmers and breeders.
Artificial Selection
In England, Darwin observed a lot of variation in domesticated plants and animals.
Farmers explained to him that, for example, some cows grew big and strong and
produced a lot of milk. Others would be smaller and produce far less milk. The farmer
would only breed those cows that were larger and that produced more milk. These
productive traits were then passed on to the following generations. Through selection
of certain traits, breeders could produce a great amount of diversity.
The farmers and breeders were not causing one cow to be more productive than
another. Rather, they were controlling which cows would be used to breed offspring.
The process of changing a species by breeding it for certain traits is called artificial
selection. In this process, humans make use of the genetic variation in plants and
animals by acting as the selective agent. Humans determine which traits are favorable
and then breed individuals that show those traits.
Humans have been using artificial selection to select for desirable traits in plants and
animals for thousands of years. Virtually all of the fruits and vegetables we eat have
been greatly altered from their wild forms through the process of artificial selection.
FIGURE 11: Domesticated dogs evolved through artificial selection. The common
ancestor for domesticated dogs was the gray wolf.
Collaborate Discuss
this question with a
partner: How is artificial selection gray wolf
(common ancestor)
different than genetic engineering?

Although Darwin had no knowledge of genetics, he observed that, with human
intervention, certain individuals could be selected to produce offspring with desirable
traits. When selected and allowed to breed, these individuals would pass their traits
onto their offspring. In order for artificial selection to occur, the trait must be heritable.
Heritability is the ability of a trait to be passed down from one generation to the next.
Darwin related what he learned about breeding to his ideas on adaptation. In artificial
selection, individuals with desired traits are bred over generations, but only if the traits
are advantageous to breeders. However, breeders also might select against features
that are not desirable or “useful.” During artificial selection, humans act as the selective
agent. In nature, however, the environment generates the selective pressure that
determines if a trait is passed on or not.
Cause and Effect
Selection of Exercise Ability

FIGURE 12: In artificial selection, humans can make use of genetic variation by
acting as the selective agent. Analyze Answer
these questions about
Number of revolutions per day
12 000 Control group the data in the graph:

10 000 1. What is the difference in
Experimental
group results between the mice in
8 000
the control group and the
6 000 mice in the experimental
4 000 group?
2. Use the trend in the data
2 000
to make a prediction about
0 the number of revolutions
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
on the wheel per day for
Generations
mice in Generation 10 of the
Source: Swallow et.al, Behavior Genetics, 28:3.
experimental group.
Scientists used mice to study whether exercise ability can improve in animals
over several generations. In this experiment, mice were artificially selected for
increased wheel-running behavior. The mice that were able to do the most
wheel running were selected to breed the next generation. The control group
represents generations of mice that were allowed to breed randomly.
Darwin applied this thinking to develop his theory of evolution by natural selection. In
nature, the environment is the selective agent. Similar to artificial selection, in natural
selection the characteristics are selected only if they give an advantage to individuals
in the environment as it is right now. Furthermore, Darwin realized that desirable traits
would only emerge gradually in a population. He knew that it sometimes took many
generations for breeders to produce the varieties he had observed.
Explain Make a graphic organizer to summarize Darwin’s findings and illustrate how
each observation relates to the processes that lead to changes in species.

EXPLORATION 3
Principles of Natural Selection
Charles Darwin was not the only person to develop a theory to explain how evolution
may take place. An English naturalist named Alfred Russel Wallace independently
developed a theory very similar to Darwin’s. Both Darwin and Wallace had studied
the huge diversity of plants and animals in the tropics, and both had studied the
fossil record. They also were both influenced by the work of Thomas Malthus and his
principles of economics.
Malthus had published a book in 1798 in which he discussed how increasing human
populations would challenge the world’s ability to produce enough food for everyone.
Both Darwin and Wallace applied Malthus’s ideas to the pressures experienced by
plants and animals as populations increased. They noted that no species dominated
the world, because some resource limited their ability to reproduce and survive. In an
environment where resources are limited, individuals must compete for them. Those
organisms that compete successfully go on to reproduce and pass on their traits.
Predict Why were In 1858, the ideas of Darwin and Wallace were presented to an important group of
Darwin and Wallace’s ideas scientists in London. The next year, Darwin published his ideas in the book On the
presented to other scientists before Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. The theory of natural selection explains
how evolution can occur. Natural selection is a mechanism by which individuals that
they were published?
have inherited beneficial adaptations show differential reproductive success. This
theory is built on the premise that more individuals are produced in each generation
than can survive in any environment where resources are not infinite.
Genetic Variation
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection was based on observed patterns
FIGURE 14: Variation in coat
among plants and animals he and others studied. What he did not understand was
color can be seen in jaguars and
how these changes occurred. About six years after the publication of The Origin of
their offspring.
Species, a little-known monk named Gregor Mendel published his research on genetics
and the basic principles of heredity.
Mendel’s work showed that traits are passed down from parents to offspring and that
traits are inherited independently of one another. We now know that traits are coded
for by genes and that alleles are different variations of the same gene. Variation in the
alleles between individual organisms within a population is called genetic variation.
Genetic variation is the basis for natural selection.
For example, the jaguar cub in Figure 14 inherited a combination of alleles that
resulted in it having a different color than its mother. Therefore, there is variation in
coat color in the jaguar population, and some variations may prove more beneficial
than others in a given environment.
Collaborate In the owl and field mouse simulation, how did you model both
Image Credits: ©AP Images
variation in traits and parents passing down traits to offspring? Write your answer and
discuss it with a partner.

LONumber=9B1_0250; CorrectionKey=NL-B
Genetic variation is increased by sexual reproduction and meiosis. In sexual

FIGURE 15: Sexual reproduction
reproduction, the offspring receives two forms of each gene, one from each parent.
increases genetic variation.
Genes are segregated during the formation of gametes. If the genes are not linked,
they will segregate separately, or undergo independent assortment. As genes are lined
up and shuffled in different ways during meiosis, various combinations of genetic
material are generated. As a result, sexually reproducing organisms exhibit variety
in their traits. For example, Figure 15 shows the variation that can be seen in color
patterns on Asian beetles. It is this type of variation that natural selection acts on.
Crossing over during meiosis also allows for new combinations of genetic material.
This generates an even higher number of possible combinations of genes.
FIGURE 16: Chromosomes separate independently during meiosis. As a result, gametes

have many different combinations of genes.
Possibility 1 Possibility 2
two equally probable

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I
metaphase II
daughter
cells
combination 1 combination 2 combination 3 combination 4
Heritable mutations also increase genetic variation. Damage to DNA is often caught at Model Explain how you
checkpoints in the cell cycle. The cell cannot proceed through the cell cycle until the could have modeled a new
damage is repaired or the cell self-destructs. However, sometimes the checkpoint fails, trait arising from a mutation in the
and cells with mutations proceed with replications. If a mutation is heritable, or passed owl and mouse simulation.
on to an organism’s offspring, it can increase genetic diversity within a population.
Keep in mind that natural selection acts on phenotypes, or physical traits, rather than
on the genetic material itself. New alleles are not made by natural selection—they
occur by genetic mutation. In addition, these mutations must
be heritable, or passed down to offspring. Only mutations that FIGURE 17: Malthus predicted that population growth
occur in sex cells are passed on to offspring. would outpace food production, causing a “Malthusian
catastrophe.”
population
Overproduction food
production
It was the work of Thomas Malthus that inspired many
Image Credits: (r) ©blickwinkel/Hecker/Alamy
Malthusian
of Darwin’s ideas about modification by natural selection. catastophe
In his work, Malthus pointed out the potential of human
Quantity
populations to grow exponentially if there was a constant

Image Credits: ©AP Images
birth rate and ideal conditions. Such conditions would

include unlimited resources and an absence of predators or
disease. However, populations do not grow in an unchecked
way. As Malthus pointed out, human populations are limited
Time
by many factors, such as disease, war, and limited resources.
BI_CNLESE861787_U08L02EXP3.indd 405 4/28/2017 1:06:37 AM

FIGURE 18: Individuals compete Competition
for resources such as food.
Darwin noted that more offspring are born than can survive and that, without
limits, any one species might overrun Earth. However, environments place limits
on population growth, where some individuals are more successful at survival than
others. Those individuals that survive better and produce more offspring will have
their traits passed on to subsequent generations.
Building on Malthus’s ideas that there were limits to human population growth,
Darwin reasoned that a similar struggle for resources took place in nature. The
challenge is for each individual to be better at obtaining available resources, such as
food, water, and shelter.
Predict The birds in

Figure 18 are competing for Adaptation
a piece of food. What are some
traits that might allow a bird to Sometimes, a certain variation allows an individual to survive better than other
outcompete other birds for food? individuals it competes against in its environment. More successful individuals are
“naturally selected” to live longer and to produce more offspring that share those
adaptations. Over time, natural selection will result in species with adaptations that
are well suited for survival and reproduction in an environment. More individuals will
have the trait in every following generation, as long as the environmental conditions
continue to remain beneficial for that trait.
A well-studied example of natural selection in jaguars is shown in Figure 19. About
11,000 years ago, many species faced extinction. Large cats, including jaguars, faced
a shortage of food due to the changing climate of that time. Fewer mammals were
available to eat, so the jaguars had to eat other animals, such as reptiles. The jaguar
population showed variations of jaw and tooth size that became important for survival.
FIGURE 19: Natural selection has led to changes in the jaguar species over time.
skull 1 skull 2
Image Credits: (t) ©RooM/10kPhotography/ Getty Images
a Like many other species, jaguars can b Jaguars with large jaws and teeth are
produce more offspring than can be able to eat armored animals, such as
supported by the environment. Some shelled reptiles. These jaguars are more
jaguars may be born with slightly larger likely to survive and to have more
jaws and teeth (skull 1) due to natural offspring than jaguars that can eat
variation in the population. only mammals.
Explain Why did larger jaws and teeth become more common in the jaguar species
over time? How do the four principles of natural selection explain these changes?

In biology, the term fitness is a measure of the ability of an organism to survive and
Cause and Effect
produce more offspring relative to other members of the population in a given
environment. An individual with high fitness is well adapted to its environment. After Natural selection causes
the change in climate, jaguars that had larger teeth and jaws had a higher fitness than populations to adapt over time.
other jaguars in the population. Jaguars that ate less did not necessarily all die or stop The main principles of natural
producing altogether; they just reproduced a little less. selection are:
It is important to note that fitness does not simply mean being the biggest and Genetic Variation There
strongest individual. For example, being small is beneficial for some types of male is natural variation in the
spiders. Their lower body weight makes it easier for these males to cast a strand of silk population.
into the air and be carried by the wind to a new location. As a result, these males have Overproduction More offspring
more opportunities to find mates and pass on their genes. are produced than can survive.
Competition Individuals must
compete for resources, and some
Understanding Natural Selection will outcompete others.
Adaptation Over time, beneficial
traits become more common in
In order to fully understand the theory of natural selection, it is important to consider
how changes in the environment can influence fitness. It also is useful to examine the population, as individuals
some of the common misconceptions about how natural selection occurs. with those traits survive better
and reproduce more often.
Changing Environments
As an environment changes, different traits will become beneficial. Ecologists Peter
and Rosemary Grant observed an example of natural selection acting on existing
traits within a population of medium ground finches on one of the Galápagos Islands.
A drought in 1977 reduced the number of the small, soft seeds that the finches
preferred. However, there were still plenty of large, tough-shelled seeds. Analyze How did the
distribution of beak sizes
The two graphs in Figure 20 represent the number of birds with each size of beak. In
1976, a total of 751 birds were measured. The distribution of beak size is shown in the
change after the 1977 drought?
histogram on the left. After the drought, the Grants again measured the beak sizes of Explain how changes in the
the 1978 survivors. There were 90 birds measured to construct the histogram on the environment and the process of
Grants’
right. The Grants noticed that the distribution Finch
of beak Study
sizes Data
changed after the drought natural selection resulted in these
affected the types of available food in the environment. changes.
1976 All Daphne Birds

Grants’
FIGURE 20: The data in these graphs showsFinch
finchStudy
Grants’
beak Data
Finch
size Study
before andData 1978 Survivors
after a drought.
90 12
1976 All Daphne 751
1976Birds
All birdsBirds 1978 Survivors1978 Survivors 90
Daphne birds
90 90 12 12
751 birds 751 birds 90 birds 90 birds
Number of finches
Number of finches
Number of finches
60 60 60 8 8 8
30 30 4 4
30 4
0 0 0 0
6 8 10
6 12
8 14
10 612 814 106 12
8 14
10 12 14
Beak depth (mm) Beak depth (mm)
Beak depth (mm) Beak depth (mm)
0
The numbers
0
Source: of large-beaked
Grant, P. R.Source: finches
1986. Grant,
EcologyP. and on this
R. 1986.
Evolution Galápagos
Ecology
of Darwin's island
and Evolution
Finches. kept rising
of Darwin's
Princeton until
Finches.
University 1984,
Princeton
Press, University Press,
6Princeton, 8
N. J., as 10
Princeton,
quoted inN. 12 14 6 8 10
http://www-tc.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/6/pdf/l_016_01.pdf
J., as quoted in 12
http://www-tc.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/6/pdf/l_016_01.pdf
when the supply of large seeds went down after an unusually wet period. These 14
Beakproduction
conditions favored depth of(mm) small, soft seeds, and small-beaked Beakbirds depth
were now (mm)
better adapted for the environment. With evolution, a trait that is an advantage today
may be a disadvantage in the future.
Source: Grant, P. R. 1986. Ecology and Evolution of Darwin's Finches. Princeton University Press,
Princeton, N. J., as quoted in http://www-tc.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/6/pdf/l_016_01.pdf
Misconceptions About Natural Selection
It is tempting to assume that any feature on an organism must be the ideal trait for
that organism’s environment. However, not all traits are adaptations. For example,
humans have a tail bone, but this anatomical feature is not the result of natural
selection in humans. A feature such as this may have resulted from natural selection for
a previous function, but it now serves no specific function. This trait is heritable, so it is
passed down from person to person, but it no longer serves its original purpose.
It also is important to keep in mind
FIGURE 21: This cartoon depicts a
that natural selection does not produce
misconception about natural selection.
individuals which are perfectly suited
Explain The cartoon in
to their environment. This is partly
Figure 21 depicts a cat who because organisms have combinations
has developed a can opener for a of traits that result from complex sets
hand. How does this cartoon of tradeoffs. For example, having large
demonstrate a misunderstanding of horns may help an organism fight
the theory of natural selection? successfully for mates, but they may
make it difficult for the animal to escape
predators as effectively as it could
with lighter horns. Therefore, it would
be difficult for selective pressures to
produce “ideal” traits, because a trait
that is ideal for one purpose may be less
than ideal in other contexts.
Another reason natural selection does
not produce ideal traits is that natural
selection acts only on traits that already
exist. Genetic variation within a population is what allows for the environment to
“select” for certain traits. New alleles are not made by natural selection—they occur by
genetic mutations.
Many mutations have harmful results and therefore are not likely to produce a trait
that is beneficial in a given environment. However, some mutations lead to traits that
might be advantageous to certain individuals. A mutation could change an organism’s
DNA in a way that leads to the production of a new type of protein. If this results in a
trait that increases an organism’s fitness, this trait would be selected for. Therefore,
new traits can occur, but they are not created through natural selection.
Another common misconception about natural selection is that individuals can
Image Credits: ©2008 Dan Piraro Distributed by King Features Syndicate, Inc.
Analyze You may have
adapt to their environment. Natural selection leads to changes in populations, not in
heard someone use the individual organisms. Evolution is a change in the proportion of alleles in a population
phrase “We’ll have to adapt” to over many generations. Therefore, individuals do not adapt to their environment over
describe the way people adjust to the course of one lifetime. Adaptations occur in populations, and those adaptations
their surroundings. Explain why this evolve over time through the process of natural selection. This process may take
phrase could lead to misconceptions millions of years, or it may occur very quickly, as it does in single-celled organisms,
about natural selection. such as bacteria.
Model Think back to the owls and field mice simulation. Were the four main principles
of natural selection modeled accurately? How could you improve this model to reflect the
principles of natural selection more effectively?

Guided Research
Natural Selection Today
The battle is on against bedbugs—those nasty little critters

FIGURE 22: Bedbugs show evidence of recent evolution.
that invade your home and can give you painful, itchy bites. New traits include a thick, waxy exoskeleton that repels
These pests were nearly vanquished from Earth in the 1940s pesticides and a more efficient process for making its natural
by the use of the pesticide DDT, but now they are back. And chemical defenses.
those that survived the onslaught of DDT have developed a
resistance to pesticides.
The DNA of bedbugs tells an interesting story about change
and adaptations for survival. At one time, bedbugs fed on
bats as much as they fed on humans. Although bats and
humans live completely different lifestyles, that was not
always the case.
Bedbugs started out as cave dwellers, feeding on bats. Early
humans made homes in caves and became a new food source
for the bedbugs. But technology changed everything, and
soon humans were building houses. Humans also sleep at
night, and bats nod off during the day. So, bedbugs that fed
on bats and bedbugs that fed on humans began to diversify.
The bats that followed humans from caves to houses had to
change their sleep schedule. Even as bats began to move
into barns and bat houses, they brought their own brand
of bedbug with them, and evidence suggests that the
populations of bedbugs never mixed. Language Arts Connection
Evidence further suggests that the two groups continue to Research another species whose evolution interests scientists.
diverge. For example, the bedbugs that maintained their Gather evidence to explain how this species’ traits have changed,
feeding relationship with humans now carry a genetic why these traits are beneficial, and how this species might continue
variation that makes them resistant to pesticides. This is not to change in the future. Be sure to cite specific textual evidence to
the case for the bat-feeding bedbugs. support your claims. Finally, present your findings in the form of an
Researchers are now studying bedbugs to learn how they essay, slideshow, or poster. Include a list of sources in the format
develop resistance to pesticides. Several genes have been specified by your instructor.
identified that may be related to this phenomenon. Many of Evidence is anything that helps in forming a conclusion or judgment.
these genes give rise to proteins in the insect’s exoskeleton. When drawing evidence from informational texts, ask yourself
This makes sense, because bedbugs are exposed to pesticides
these questions:
through contact with their exoskeleton.
• Are the facts verifiable—that is, can they be proven true?
Image Credits: ©Eye of Science/Science Source
For now, humans will have to rely on bedbug-sniffing • Are the opinions from an expert or experts on the topic?
dogs and a variety of pesticides, many of which lose their
• Is the evidence relevant to the topic?
effectiveness as these pests continue to adapt by developing
• Is there enough evidence to answer all reasonable questions?
resistances to them.
GENETIC DIVERSITY IN MODELING NATURAL BIOMECHANICS OF Go online to choose one

FLORIDA PANTHERS SELECTION STAG BEETLE JAWS of these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 23: The orchid mantis (Hymenopus coronatus) resembles a flower in shape. But it
attracts flies for another reason. Its color appears to be more important than its shape.
Recall the orchid mantis, the insect that resembles the flower after which it is named.
It is easy to assume that the insect has high fitness because it looks like a flower. In
fact, researchers have found that when placed beside the most common flower in its
habitat, the orchid mantis attracts insects more often than the flower.
Why would insects be more attracted to the mantis than a flower? Apparently, it has
more to do with the mantis’s bright color than its flowerlike shape. Many insects have
brains that are more attuned to color than to complex shapes. If an insect sees a color
it thinks is a nectar-bearing flower, it flies in to investigate. That is when the orchid
mantis makes its move—it captures the insect with lightning-fast speed.
Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook and use what you have
learned about natural selection to make a claim for how this trait could have evolved
over time. Include a discussion of each of the principles of natural selection and how
Image Credits: ©Chris Parks/Image Quest Marine/Alamy
they led to the adaptations we see in modern-day orchid mantises.

2. Use evidence to support your claim.
3. Explain how the evidence you cited supports the claim you are making.

CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 8. What effect did Darwin’s travels to the Galápagos
Islands have on the development of his theory of natural
1. Which two processes that occur during the formation selection?
of gametes contribute to increasing diversity within a
population’s gene pool?
9. Draw a timeline of events that influenced Darwin’s work
a. independent assortment and the people whose work he built upon.
b. cell signaling
c. transformation 10. Develop a model that can be used to illustrate natural
d. crossing over selection. Explain how your model demonstrates the four
e. segregation of alleles main principles of natural selection.
2. If the climate were to change in an environment, it is

more likely that some individuals within a population will
survive if ________ MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE
a. the individuals reproduce sexually.
b. the individuals are genetically identical. In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
c. there is genetic variation within the population. supports the main ideas from this lesson:
d. the individuals reproduce asexually.
Many scientists had made observations and developed ideas
about evolution, but it was Charles Darwin who developed the
3. The work of ________ most helped Charles Darwin
understand how bands of seashells could be found in
theory of evolution by natural selection.
rock strata high above sea level. Natural selection is a process in which overproduction,
a. Malthus variation, and competition lead to the adaptation of
b. Lyell populations over time.
c. Mendel
Remember to include the following information in your study
d. Leclerc guide:
4. Which of the following are key elements of Darwin’s
theory of evolution by natural selection? Select all correct
answers.
a. genetic variation
b. genetic engineering
c. fitness Consider how the models you observed demonstrate the four main
d. adaptation
principles of natural selection.
e. overproduction
5. Explain how mutations lead to genetic variation.
6. Construct an explanation as to how natural selection

might produce an effect of the giraffe’s neck length
changing over time.
7. How did the work of farmers and breeders in England

influence the work of Charles Darwin? Use examples to
support your explanation.

UNIT CONNECTIONS
Earth Science Connection FIGURE 1: Female marsupials care for

their undeveloped young outside of
Biogeography Biogeography is the study of the geographical distribution of their bodies in special pouches until
organisms and ecosystems over space and time. Similar to the way fossil evidence they reach independence.
was used to support the idea that Earth’s surface has changed over time due
to continental drift, biogeography can be used to support the idea that species
change over time due to evolution through natural selection. For example, what
might be indicated by the fact that marsupials only exist in the Americas and
Australia?
How does the geographical distribution of closely related species, and the
distribution of similar but not related species, provide evidence for evolution? Use
library and Internet resources to select a biogeographical example that provides a line of
evidence for evolution. Then, create a conceptual model to represent your example and
explain your model in a short story.

The Importance of Relationships As early humans evolved, so did their societies.
FIGURE 2: Social networking may
Humans began as small groups of hunter-gatherers. Some societies have shifted
actually reduce social connections
from hunter-gatherer to agriculture to industrialization and finally to urban, between peers.
post-industrial societies. Industrial and post-industrial societies may minimize
relationships that are common in other societies. For example, electronic socializing
Image Credits: (t) ©Moment Open/Angela East/Getty Images; (c) ©Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; (b) ©Sputnik/Alexandr Kryazhev/Science Source
has taken the place of other forms of communication, such as phone calls, letters,
and in-person conversation.
Using library and Internet resources, research the social structures that are in place
in hunter-gatherer, agricultural, industrial, and post-industrial human societies and
how each structure emphasizes or minimizes the need for social relationships. What might
explain a shift in social behavior in modern humans? Write a report that outlines your
position on whether electronic socializing is impacting the quality of relationships in modern
humans. Include background on the evolution or changing nature of relationships in human
societies. Make sure you provide evidence that supports your claim.

Domesticating Foxes Researchers in Russia have been exploring the
FIGURE 3: Domesticated Fox
domestication of foxes for over 50 years. From the parent generation onward,
only the least aggressive foxes have been allowed to breed. This experiment in
domestication has significantly changed both the behavior and the appearance of
the foxes over a relatively short time period.
Using library and Internet resources, research the Russian fox domestication
experiment. Develop a scientific poster that outlines the purpose, methods, and
outcomes of the fox domestication experiment, with a discussion about next steps and what
the outcomes indicate about the mechanism for domestication in dogs.



PRACTICE AND REVIEW
1. DNA nucleotides are said to be universal because they are 4. Natural selection acts on which of the following? Select
the same for all known organisms. What is this evidence all correct answers.
of? Select all correct answers. a. individuals
a. common ancestry b. populations
b. fossil record c. genes
c. evolution d. traits
d. natural selection
5. Which statement best describes the relationship between
2. Which lines of evidence did Darwin use to explain the natural selection and variation?
variety of finches on the Galapagos Islands? Select all a. All variations are acted upon by natural selection.
correct answers. b. Variations evolve during natural selection to make a
a. DNA evidence species better adapted to its environment.
b. fossil evidence c. Natural selection acts on variations that are selected
c. geological evidence for or against based on the environment.
d. anatomical evidence d. Natural selection creates variations that are selected
for or against based on the environment.
3. How did fossils contribute to Darwin’s ideas about
changes in species over time? 6. Which factor is not required in order for natural selection
a. Fossils supported Darwin’s ideas about common to take place?
ancestry and the relationship of living species to fossil a. adaptation
species. b. competition
b. Fossils showed that all species are the result of gradual c. overproduction
changes over time. d. sexual reproduction
c. Fossils explained how species develop different traits. e. variation
d. Fossils showed how humans had been impacting the
traits of organisms for thousands of years.

Use the following information and Figure 4 to answer 9. Model a likely sequence of events that would lead
questions 7–9. to herbicide resistance in plants.
Chemical herbicides are used in agricultural and landscape 10. Use these terms to complete the statement below:
maintenance to kill unwanted vegetation, such as weeds.
trait, evolution, DNA, genetic
As the use of an herbicide becomes more common and
widespread, weeds can evolve resistance to particular types
Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own ______.
of herbicide. The theory of endosymbiosis proposes that this ______
evidence may support the idea that mitochondria and
The Rise of Superweeds chloroplasts were once free-living prokaryotes that were
engulfed by larger prokaryotic host cells. The internalized
FIGURE 4: The number of weed species resistant to herbicides prokaryotes might have provided nutrients and energy
has increased since 1970.
The Rise of Superweeds to the host cell, and, in turn, received protection and a
150 stable environment in which to live. This endosymbiotic
Acetolactate
synthase inhibitor relationship may have led to the ______ of mitochondria
125 (including and chloroplasts. These organelles would be an
Number of resistant species
imazethapyr)
advantageous ______ selected for in populations.
100 Triazines (including
atrazine)
75 11. Why is the fossil record an imperfect line of evidence
Glyphosate
for evolution?
Ureas, amides
50
Dinitroanilines
25 UNIT PROJECT
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 Return to your unit project. Prepare your research and
Year materials into a final presentation to share with the
Source: Heap, Ian. “International Survey of Herbicide Resistant Weeds.” as quoted in Gilbert, class. In your final presentation, evaluate the strength
Natasha, (2013) “Case Studies: A hard look at GM crops,” Nature, 497(7447).
of your predictions, analysis, and conclusions about
the evolution of eyes.
7. Weeds first evolved resistance to which herbicide class?
a. acetolactate synthase inhibitor
b. dinitroanilines • Look at the empirical evidence—evidence based on
c. glyphosate observations and data. Does your line of evidence
support the idea that eyes have evolved over time?
d. triazines
• Consider if the explanation is logical. Does it
e. ureas, amides contradict any evidence you have seen?
• Is there enough evidence to answer all reasonable
8. What is most likely indicated by the fact that the number questions? How might you develop tests for any
of species resistant to a class of herbicide does not additional questions?
decrease over time?
a. Individual weeds evolve herbicide resistance and pass
the trait to their offspring.
b. The herbicide resistance trait is maintained in resistant
populations.
c. The weed populations frequently lose then evolve a
resistance to herbicides again.
d. Whenever one weed species loses herbicide
resistance, one or more species gains resistance,
leading to a net increase in resistant species.

Investigating Evolution in Unique

Environments
FIGURE 5: These organisms were found in Movile Cave.
Movile Cave in Romania is closed to the public. In fact, fewer 4. C O N S T R U C T A N E X P L A N A T I O N

than 100 people have ever entered the cave. Those who have Use your research and model to construct an explanation
been inside returned with reports and images of translucent for how the organisms in Movile Cave changed and evolved
organisms, many without eyes, that have extra-long antenna over time. What traits were selected for and how are they
and can breathe the toxic atmosphere. What do you think advantageous in the environment?
is happening in this cave, and what explains the unique
appearance of these organisms?
5. C O M M U N I C A T E
Present your research and your model as a multimedia
1. ASK A QUESTION
presentation that explains how evolution and natural
With your team, make a list of questions you have about the selection led to unique organisms in Movile Cave.
organisms and the environment in Movile Cave. Identify the
factors you will research to answer these questions.
CHECK YOUR WORK
2. CONDUCT RESEARCH
Investigate Movile Cave in Romania. What makes this cave A complete presentation should include
unique, and what has contributed to the evolution of unique the following information:
organisms within the cave?
• a set of questions about what caused the evolution of
Image Credits: (all) ©Patrick Landmann/Science Source
unique traits in organisms in Movile Cave

3. DEVELOP A MODEL • an explanation supported by evidence that details
Create a model that explains a likely sequence of events that how the organisms changed and evolved over time
led to the current organisms inhabiting Movile Cave. and the selective pressures that caused the changes
• a model to accompany your explanation that explains
a likely sequence of events that led to the appearance
and behavior of the current organisms inhabiting
Movile Cave

UNIT 9
Patterns of Evolution
Lesson 1: Evolution of
Populations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Lesson 2: Changes in Species . 434
Lesson 3: Adaptive Value

of Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Thing Explainer: Tree of Life . . 460
Unit Connections . . . . . . . . . . . 464
Unit Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Image Credits: ©Nazzu/Fotolia
Lemurs are primates that live only on

the island of Madagascar.
416 Unit 9 Patterns of Evolution

FIGURE 1: Butterflies collecting salt from a caiman.
While salt is a crucial nutrient for insects such as Amazonian butterfly species, it is often
difficult to find. Although the butterflies’ usual diet of nectar is rich in sugars, it does
not contain salt and minerals important for survival. While insects sometimes gather
these precious nutrients from mineral-rich pools and puddles, these sources are not
always available. Individuals of some species have adapted their behavior to collect
salt from the “tears” of reptiles such as caimans.
Predict How do new behaviors develop? Do newly adapted behaviors provide a

special advantage to individuals in a species?
DRIVING QUESTIONS
1. How does evolution lead to new species?
2. What causes the extinction of some species?
3. What are some of the patterns we see in evolution?
4. Can behaviors be inherited?
UNIT PROJECT
the Unit Project
Investigating Fogstand Beetle Adaptations Worksheet to help you
plan your project.
The beetle species Stenocara gracilipes, also known as the fogstand beetle, lives in the
Image Credits: ©Mark Cowan
Namib Desert in Africa, one of the most arid climates in the world. To survive there, the
fogstand beetle has adapted both physically and behaviorally to collect water from
the surrounding air. The beetles stand angled against moist desert breezes, relying on
hydrophilic and hydrophobic structures on their wings to catch and trap tiny water
droplets to drink. Explore the unique adaptations of this desert insect, and research
how scientists are copying its strategy for use in new technologies.
Unit 9 Patterns of Evolution 417

9.1
Evolution of Populations
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
These Asian beetles vary in

Ruffs are birds found mostly in parts of Europe and Asia. They typically make their
the color of their wings and
in the number and color of homes in marshes and mudflats where they feed primarily on insects and seeds.
spots on those wings. During breeding season, males gather in groups and participate in staged “fights”
to attract females. In this courtship ritual, three types of males in the population are
involved: the independents, the satellites, and the faeders.
FIGURE 1: Ruffs differ in body size as well as in the size and color of the feathers on their
heads and necks.
Image Credits: (t) ©blickwinkel/Hecker/Alamy; (bl) (br) ©Arco Images GmbH/C. Wermter/Alamy; (bc) ©Matthijs Kuijpers/Alamy
Gather Evidence
make a list of biotic or abiotic
factors that may have contributed
to the evolution of this population.
a An independent male b A satellite male c A female. Faeder

males greatly
resemble females.
About 84 percent of the male ruffs are “independent.” These ruffs fight hard and
expend a lot of energy to establish a territory and attract female ruffs. They can be
easily identified, as they are the largest males and have large black and brown neck
feathers. “Satellite” males are smaller and have white neck feathers. They move freely
between independents’ territories and do not fight. Though independent males may
dominate them to attract a female, the satellites are often able to mate with the same
females. The smallest males, called “faeders,” look similar to females and generally
mate with females by sneaking, often when independents and satellites are distracted
or fighting.
Predict How can three types of males evolve in one population?

EXPLORATION 1
Genetic Variation
Meerkats are mammals that live in the deserts of Africa. They live together in
cooperative groups.
FIGURE 2: Meerkats stand alert to look for predators.
Gather Evidence
Record the similarities and
differences you see between the
meerkats in Figure 2. Why do traits
vary between individuals in a
population?
Differences in the Gene Pool

As you looked at the physical traits, or phenotypes, of the meerkats, you might have Collaborate Meerkats
noticed variations in some of their traits. For instance, some are smaller than others. have a range of fur colors,
One has a light underside, while most have a darker underside. A few have more white from very light brown with more
on their faces, and others have more brown. silver to a medium brown with less
The phenotypic differences that you observed among the meerkats are due to silver. Imagine a plant species with
differences in genes that code for those traits. Certain differences may offer a similar colors to the darker brown
competitive advantage compared to the rest of the population. A particular phenotype meerkats starts to grow in their
may allow individuals to survive longer and reproduce more efficiently, both of habitat. With a partner, discuss
which increase the total number of offspring produced. So, over time the phenotype what would happen to the
becomes more prevalent. This gradual favoring of advantageous traits within a meerkats and why.
population is called natural selection, and it directly affects the population’s gene pool.
A gene pool is the collection of alleles found in all of the individuals of a population.
The different alleles in a gene pool ultimately result from mutations. When mutations
occur during meiosis, the gametes that result may carry these mutations. Genetic
Image Credits: ©EcoView/Fotolia
variation may also be a result of crossing over and recombination, which occur during
meiosis. During this process, chromosomes condense and homologous chromosomes
align. Homologous chromosomes have the same genes but could have different Explain How can
alleles. During the alignment, an exchange of genetic material may take place. This mutations in gametes
exchange could alter the rearrangement of the linked genes in the chromosomes. As a become widespread in the gene
result, the gametes are not genetically identical. pool?
Lesson 1 Evolution of Populations 419

Variation in Alleles
Different combinations of alleles in a gene pool can be formed when organisms mate
and have offspring. Alleles are different forms, or versions, of genes. For example, mice
with either one or two copies of the dominant B allele have brown fur, while mice with
two recessive b alleles have black fur, shown in Figure 3.
Gather Evidence FIGURE 3: Differences in fur color in mice are due to differences in allele combinations.
Use the image to determine Bb BB
how many total alleles, dominant BB
alleles (B), and recessive alleles (b),
are in the gene pool of this mouse
population.
bb
bb
BB
Math Connection You can use the total number of alleles, the number of dominant alleles, and the
number of recessive alleles to find the allele frequency in a population. Allele
Use Figure 3 and the allele frequency is the proportion of one allele, compared with all the alleles for that trait, in
frequency equation to answer the gene pool. To find the frequency of a particular allele, divide the number of times
the following questions: the allele is present by the total number of alleles in the population.
1. What is the allele frequency of Number of particular allele
the dominant allele B? Express Allele Frequency = ____________________
  Total
     
number of alleles
 
your answer as a decimal Allele frequency can also be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the frequency
rounded to the thousandths by 100. The frequencies of all the different alleles in a population should equal 1.0, or
place and as a percentage. 100 percent.
2. What is the allele frequency of Allele frequency is used to track genetic variation in populations and detect changes
the recessive allele b? Express in alleles. Imagine that periodic fires blacken the ground in the field mice habitat
your answer as a decimal in Figure 3. The black mice may be better camouflaged, providing more protection
rounded to the thousandths against predators. If they survive and reproduce more effectively than brown mice,
place and as a percentage. the frequency of the b allele may increase over time relative to the B allele frequency.
Analyzing Population Evolution

Some chickens, ducks, and other birds can lay eggs that have either white or blue
shells. Blue eggshells are dominant and are coded for by allele O. White eggshells are
recessive and are coded for by allele o. The outcome of a heterozygous-heterozygous
cross for eggshell color can be determined by creating a Punnett square. We can create
a Punnett square to represent any dominant or recessive allele in a population for this
type of cross. In this generic Punnett square, p represents any dominant allele and q
represents any recessive allele. The Punnett square that gives the possible genotypes
of the offspring of heterozygous parents for eggshell color is shown in Figure 4.

The Punnett square shows that the genotypic frequency of
2 FIGURE 4: In this Punnett square, p represents any dominant
OO is represented as p , Oo is represented as 2pq, and oo is
2 allele and q represents any recessive allele.
represented as q . The frequency of all possible genotypes in
a population must equal 1. If allele frequency can be found
2 2 O (p) o (q)
using the equation p + q = 1, then p + 2pq + q = 1. Scientists
use these equations to predict the genotypic frequencies in a
population. Then, they compare the predicted frequencies to
the actual frequencies in a population. O (p) OO (p 2) Oo (pq)
Predict What could a scientist conclude if the genotypic
frequencies in a population are different from the o (q) Oo (pq) oo (q 2)
predicted values?
Data Analysis
In a population of 1,000 chickens, 840 hens lay blue eggs and 160 hens lay white VARIABLES
2 2
eggs. Use the equation p + 2pq + q = 1 to determine the predicted genotypic
p = frequency of O
frequencies for this population. Then compare those values with the actual
(dominant allele, blue shell)
genotypic frequencies in the population.
q = frequency of o
2
S T E P 1 Solve for q by dividing the number of oo chickens by 1,000. (recessive allele, white shell)
2 160 2
p = frequency of chickens with OO
q = = 0.16
1000 (homozygous dominant genotype)
S T E P 2 Solve for q by taking the square root of each side of the equation. 2pq = frequency of chickens Oo
(heterozygous genotype)
q = √0.16 = 0.4
2
q = frequency of chickens with oo
S T E P 3 Determine p by substituting the value of q in the equation p + q = 1: (homozygous recessive genotype)
p + 0.4 = 1
p = 1 – 0.4 = 0.6
These are the predicted allele frequencies: p = 0.6 and q = 0.4.
S T E P 4 Calculate the predicted genotypic frequencies from the predicted

allele frequencies:
2 2
p = (0.6) = 0.36
2pq = 2 (0.6)(0.4) = 0.48
2 2
q = (0.4) = 0.16
1. What percentage of this population is expected to be OO, Oo, and oo? What do these
values mean?
2. Through genetic analysis, scientists discovered the actual genotypic frequencies
for the above population to be OO = 0.60, Oo = 0.14, and oo = 0.26. What can you
infer by comparing these data to the values predicted above?

The equation p + 2pq + q = 1 is known as the Hardy-Weinberg equation. A Hardy-
2 2
Weinberg population is in equilibrium, meaning it is stable and not evolving. Five

conditions must be met for a population to be in equilibrium: no mutations, very
large population, no natural selection, no new genetic material is introduced, and
individuals are equally likely to mate with any other individual in the population.
1. v
Cause and Effect
FIGURE 5: Peppered Moths Selection on Peppered Moth Populations
The peppered moth Biston betularia found in the English countryside, ranges in
color from light (Biston betularia typica) to dark (Biston betularia carbonaria). Before
the Industrial Revolution, light moths were more prevalent than dark moths. During
the Industrial Revolution, trees became covered in dark soot from coal burned in
factories. Over time, scientists observed that the number of dark moths increased
relative to light moths. More recently, clean air laws returned the trees to their
lighter coloring, and the dark colored moths decreased in frequency (Figure 6).
Recent studies found bird predation was one possible driving force behind the
population shift. When trees were covered with soot, birds preyed on light moths.
When the soot faded, birds preyed on dark moths (Figure 7). Other factors, such as
migration, may have also influenced the population and require further study.
Analyze Create a graph of the shift observed in the peppered moth population.
Place the color range on the x-axis and frequency of the trait on the y-axis.
Frequency of dark moths around Leeds, Effect of bird predation on the population of
England, from 1970-2000 light and dark moths
FIGURE 6: Frequency of Dark Moths FIGURE 7: Effect of Bird Predation
Decline of Dark Peppered Moths Bird Predation on Peppered Moths
1.0 1.0 typica

variation
Frequency of carbonaria moths
0.8 0.9 carbonaria

variation
Fraction surviving
0.6 0.8
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.2
0.5
0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Image Credits: (t)©Perennou Nuridsany/Science Sourcew
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Year
Year Source: Cook, L. M., B. S. Grant, and I. J. Saccheri, J. Mallet. "Selective bird predation
Source: John N. Thompson, Relentless Evolution (2013): 57, quoted in on the peppered moth: the last experiment of Michael Majerus." Biol. Lett. 2012.
http://phenomena.nationalgeographic.com/2013/10/09/ Published 8 February 2012. doi: 10.1098/rsbi.2011.1136.
evolution-in-color-from-peppered-moths-to-walking-sticks/
Explain How does the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium equation use genetic variation
and allele frequencies in a population to describe whether a population is evolving?

EXPLORATION 2
Selection on Populations
Though king penguins look similar, members of the population differ in some of their
physical traits. Some penguins may be larger and some smaller. Some individuals
may have long beaks, and some may have short beaks. The majority of penguins have
characteristics somewhere between these two extremes.
Normal Distribution
If penguin beak lengths and their frequencies are graphed, the result is a bell-shaped
curve, shown in Figure 8. The shape of the curve shows that the beak length of the
majority of the individuals is close to the mean length. Mean (also called average) beak
length is determined by adding the beak lengths of all the
individuals and then dividing the sum by the number of Normal Distribution
individuals. The graph also shows that there are not many FIGURE 8: Most individuals in this population have traits that
individuals with extreme traits (very short or very long beaks). fall between two extreme phenotypes.
Normal Distribution
mean
Analyze Why do few individuals have very extreme
phenotypes, such as very long or very short beaks, and
more individuals show a trait somewhere in between?
Frequency
A normal distribution shows an arrangement of data in

which most of the values fall in the middle of the data set,
represented by the mean. The curve that results is bell-shaped
and symmetrical. The frequency is highest near the mean
value and decreases toward each extreme end of the range.
This means that for a population showing normal distribution,
the alleles for the mean phenotype are more advantageous
Range of variable
than the alleles associated with either extreme phenotype.
Changing Populations
King penguins live and breed on islands around Antarctica.
FIGURE 9: King Penguins
Like other penguin species that live in cold areas, king
penguins have features that allow them to live in this type
of environment. They have layers of feathers as well as thick
layers of fat to help keep them warm. Suppose the climate in
this area warms up and continues to warm up. How might this
Image Credits: (b) ©Digital Vision/Getty Images
continuing change in temperature affect the population?
Collaborate Suppose as a result of increasing

temperatures, the trait for having a thick layer of fat was
11-1-16
selected against and the thinner layer of fat L.was
Kellselected
for. With a partner, discuss how the normal distribution
graph will be affected.

In populations, natural selection favors phenotypes that allow individuals in the
population to adapt to their environment and selects against phenotypes that make
individuals less able to adapt to their environment. This “favoring” and “selecting
against” result in observable changes in the allele frequencies in a population.
Microevolution is the observable change in the allele frequencies of a population over
time. Microevolution occurs on a small scale—within a single population.
Stabilizing Selection
In humans, very low or very high birth weight can cause complications that affect a
baby’s health. Many infants with very low or very high birth weights do not survive
to adulthood. Over many generations, these two phenotypes were selected against.
More average birth weights, which had fewer weight-related
Stabilizing Selection Explore Online complications, were selected for. Today, the frequency of
individuals with an average birth weight is higher than those
FIGURE 10: In stabilizing selection, intermediate phenotypes with extremely low or extremely high birth weights.
are selected over phenotypes
StabilizingatSelection
both extremes.
This type of selection is called stabilizing selection. This is the
mean type of natural selection in which intermediate phenotypes
are selected over phenotypes at both extremes. In the
example of birth weight in humans, individuals with average
birth weights were more successful than those with very low
or very high birth weights.
Frequency
In stabilizing selection, extreme phenotypes are selected

against. Over time, the survival rate of the individuals with
these phenotypes decreases, so the frequency of these traits
in the population also decreases. Phenotypes near the mean
are selected for, so individuals that express these traits survive
and reproduce more effectively than individuals without
Range of variable these traits. This results in an increase in the frequency of
these phenotypes in the population.
Directional Selection
Another type of selection can be seen in the case of the peppered moth. Recall that
before the Industrial Revolution, there were more sightings of light-colored (typica)
moths and few sightings of dark-colored (carbonaria) moths. As factories were built
during the Industrial Revolution, pollution increased. At this time, scientists observed
that the number of typica moths decreased, while the number of the carbonaria moths
increased and became more abundant in the population than the typica variety.
Model In your Evidence Notebook, draw a normal distribution graph for peppered
moth coloration before the Industrial Revolution. Then, show how the frequencies of
the phenotypes changed during the Industrial Revolution.
The type of selection observed in peppered moths is called directional selection. This
is the type of natural selection in which one extreme phenotype is selected over the
other extreme phenotype, shifting the mean toward one of the extremes. In the case
of the peppered moths, the dark phenotype was selected over the light phenotype
during the Industrial Revolution.

Explore Online
Directional Selection
FIGURE 11: After directional selection occurs, an extreme phenotype becomes the more
abundant phenotype. Directional Selection
mean mean
Frequency
Range of variable
In directional selection, one extreme phenotype becomes more advantageous in the

environment. Over time, individuals with this trait are more successful than individuals
without the trait. Directional selection shifts the phenotypic frequencies, favoring
individuals with genotypes that code for the extreme phenotype. The mean value of
the trait shifts in the direction of the more advantageous phenotype.
Disruptive Selection
Lazuli buntings are birds found in the western part of the United States. The male birds Analyze In your Evidence
have feathers with colors that range from brown to bright blue. The dominant adult Notebook, compare and
males have the brightest blue feathers. They are the most successful in winning mates contrast stabilizing, directional, and
and have the best territories. For young buntings, the brightest blue and the dullest disruptive selection.
brown males are more likely to win mates than males with bluish-brown feathers.
Research suggests that dominant adult males are aggressive toward young buntings
they see as threats, including bright blue and bluish-brown males. The dullest brown
birds can therefore win a mate because the adult males leave Explore Online
them alone. Meanwhile, the bright blue birds attract mates Disruptive Selection
simply because of their color. FIGURE 12: In disruptive selection, the extreme phenotypes
Disruptive Selection
are selected over the intermediate phenotypes.
The type of selection observed in male lazuli bunting birds is
called disruptive selection. This is the type of natural selection mean
in which both extreme phenotypes (brown and bright blue
feathers) are favored, while individuals with the intermediate
539273_542aphenotype (in between brown and blue) are selected against.
Frequency
In disruptive selection, both extreme phenotypes are favored,

while intermediate forms are selected against. The middle
of the distribution graph is disrupted: individuals with
genotypes that code for intermediate phenotypes are less
successful that those with genotypes that code for extreme
phenotypes. By favoring both extreme phenotypes, disruptive Range of variable
selection can lead to the formation of new species.
Explain Using evidence from this lesson, explain why populations, and not individuals,
evolve.

EXPLORATION 3
Effects of Gene Flow
Predict Explain how the Roses can grow in the wild or be cultivated. A bee may transport pollen from a farm
difference in gene flow that cultivates roses of different colors to a nearby area where wild red roses grow. The
between populations could cause pollen can fertilize a wild rose flower, introducing new genetic material into the wild
them to evolve in different or population. This is an example of gene flow, which is the movement of alleles from one
similar ways. population to another. Gene flow can cause a population to evolve.
Genetic Drift
Small populations are more likely to be affected by chance than large populations.
Let’s look at how a chance event can affect the alleles that code for a lizard’s tail shape.
Hands-On Activity
Modeling Population Changes
Use a deck of cards to represent the lizard population. The four suits represent four
different alleles for tail shape. The allele frequencies of the original population are
25% spade, 25% heart, 25% club, and 25% diamond tail shapes.
Predict How can random chance affect the allele frequencies in a population?
MATERIALS PROCEDURE
• deck of cards 1. Shuffle the cards. Holding the deck face down, turn over 40 cards. These
cards represent the alleles of 20 offspring produced by random mating of the
individuals in the initial population.
2. Separate the 40 cards by suit and then find the allele frequencies for the
offspring by calculating the percentage of each suit. Record these values in
your Evidence Notebook.
3. Suppose a storm isolates a few lizards on another island where they start a
new population. Reshuffle the deck and draw 10 cards to represent the alleles
of five offspring produced in this smaller isolated population.
4. Repeat Step 2 to calculate the resulting allele frequencies. Record the results in
your Evidence Notebook.
ANALYZE
1. Compare the original allele frequencies to those calculated in Steps 2 and 4.
How did they change?
2. Does this activity demonstrate evolution? Why or why not? Does it
demonstrate natural selection? Why or why not?

What you observed in the activity is called genetic drift, which is a change in allele
frequencies due to chance. For example, chance events such as natural disasters or
birds dropping seeds on an island can change allele frequencies in a population. This
phenomenon of genetic drift is typically observed in small populations because small
populations are more likely to be affected by chance alone than large populations. The
chance event causes some alleles to decrease in frequency, which may cause them
to eventually disappear from the population all together. It causes other alleles to
increase in frequency and possibly become fixed in the population.
Scientists have identified two processes that can cause population sizes to decrease
enough for genetic drift to occur. Each of these processes results in a population with
different allele frequencies than those that existed in the original population.
Bottleneck Effect
In the late 1800s, northern elephant seals were severely overhunted for their blubber,
which was used in lamp oil. It is estimated that by 1890, there were fewer than 100
individuals left. After hunting ended, the population rebounded, and now there are
more than 100,000 individuals.
FIGURE 13: The hunting of northern elephant seals greatly depleted the species’
numbers and genetic diversity. Analyze Use the model
in Figure 13 to explain the
initial
change in genetic variation
population between the initial elephant seal
population and the population after
it rebounded.
population
in 1890s
current
population
The northern elephant seal suffered from the bottleneck effect. This is genetic drift
resulting from an event that drastically reduces the size of a population. Through
genetic drift, some alleles can be completely lost from the gene pool and others can be
Image Credits: (l) ©National Geographic Magazines/Marc Moritsch/Getty Images
fixed in the population, resulting in lower genetic diversity.
Founder Effect
The Old Order Amish communities were founded in North America by small numbers
of migrants from Europe. The gene pools of these smaller populations are very
different from those of the larger populations. For example, the Amish of Lancaster
County, Pennsylvania have a high rate of Ellis-van Creveld syndrome. Although this
form of dwarfism is rare in other human populations, it has become common in this
Amish population through genetic drift. Geneticists have traced this syndrome back to
one of the community’s founding couples.

Consider what would happen to a population of beetles that were nearly wiped out
due to a natural disaster, such as the population shown in Figure 14. The original
population had high levels of genetic diversity. After the disaster, two smaller
populations of beetles survived, but there was no gene flow between the populations.
The descendants of founding population A would have a different gene pool from the
descendants of population B. For example, founding population A had beetles with
genes coding for black exoskeletons. The descendants of these individuals also had
black exoskeletons. Founding population B, however, had no individuals with genes
for a black exoskeleton, so this gene was lost in population B.
Gather Evidence FIGURE 14: Genetic variation decreases when a small number of individuals colonize
How does the genetic new areas.
variation of the new population
sample of descendants
compare to that of the old original population
population? Use evidence to founding population A
support your answer.
founding population B
The founder effect is genetic drift that occurs when a small number of individuals
become isolated from the original population and colonize a new area. Figure 14
demonstrates genetic drift due to the founder effect in a beetle population. The
founding populations each represent a distinct gene pool observed in the founding
population. As a result, allele frequencies within the founding populations change
from the original population reducing genetic variation.
Sexual Selection
Male peacocks have elaborate tails made of long, colorful feathers. These tail feathers
not only make male peacocks easy targets for predators, they also make flying away
from predators harder. Female peacocks, though, are a muted, brown color and do
not possess long tail feathers like the males. These flashy colors and ornamental traits
FIGURE 15: The winner of a fight
seem to be in contrast with what should have evolved from natural selection, so how
increases his chances of mating did they evolve? Image Credits: (b) ©Corbis/W. Perry Conway/Getty Images
with a female. In general, mating is less costly to a male than a female. Males produce many sperm,
so they can invest in mating without much cost. Females, on the other hand, produce
a limited number of offspring. They tend to select males that will give their offspring
the best chance of survival. This difference in reproductive costs can make females
choosier than males about mates. Sexual selection occurs when certain traits increase
reproductive success.
Prior to the mating season, male animals like deer, elk, and moose fight other males.
The winner in this competition establishes his dominance over other males and his
fitness to mate with the females in the population. This type of competition among
male members for the right to mate is known as intrasexual selection.

The superb bird of paradise, like other species of birds of
FIGURE 16: The male superb bird of paradise has bright
paradise, engages in courtship behavior that increases mating
feathers and large plumes to attract females.
success by attracting females. Superb males have feathers on
their backs that are not used for flying. During courtship, the
male birds use the back and chest feathers to form a funnel-
like structure around their heads. This posture highlights their
bright-colored breast feathers. They also flick their feathers
and dance. Other birds of paradise have bright colors, large
plumes, and long tail feathers and perform dances to attract
the attention of females.
Intersexual selection is a form of sexual selection in which
males display certain traits that attract females. Males
involved in intersexual selection are often more brightly
colored, have larger features, or have other characteristics to
attract females.
In birds of paradise, long feathers, bright plumes, and courtship behavior are due to Collaborate With a
intersexual selection. These traits are costly to develop, so males who possess them partner, discuss what a
are usually healthy and strong. Scientific data show that, in some species, bright colors female might learn about a male
indicate parasite resistance. Sick males may have muted coloring and likely do not through his color, size, and
possess characteristics attractive to females. Females are able to pick the males in the
ornamental features, like bright
best condition or that have better genes for mating.
tail feathers.
A population is stable and in genetic equilibrium when its genetic makeup does
not change over time. Because the conditions that lead to this genetic stability
are rare in the natural world, evolution occurs.
There are five mechanisms that can lead to evolution:
• Mutation can lead to the formation of new alleles. Mutations produce
genetic variation.
• Natural selection affects populations, acting on traits that increase an
individual’s ability to survive and reproduce.
• Sexual selection selects for traits that give members of a population a
competitive advantage in mating and reproducing.
Image Credits: ©National Geographic Magazines/Tim Laman/Getty Images
• Genetic drift affects small populations and is caused by random events

that affect the population.
• Gene flow occurs when individuals move in and out of populations.
This movement introduces and removes alleles from the gene pool.
Explain Why is genetic drift more likely in small populations than in large populations?
Consider the male ruffs from the beginning of this lesson. How could genetic drift or
sexual selection explain the different types of males in the population? Use evidence from
the lesson to support your claims.

Data Analysis
Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria
Antibiotics are medicines used to
N. gonorrhoeae Resistance, United States, 1987-2011
kill disease-causing bacteria. Studies
have shown that certain species of FIGURE 17: N. gonorrhoeae shows someResistance,
N. gonorrhoeae level of resistance to many types of antibiotics.
U.S., 1987–2011
disease-causing bacteria evolved to be 30 Tetracycline
resistant to antibiotics. The Centers for resistance
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) 25 Penicillin
found that doctors were prescribing resistance
antibiotics when they weren’t necessary. 20 Fluoroquinolone
Additionally, patients were not taking resistance
Percent
their full antibiotic doses. Both practices 15 Reduced

have led to bacteria developing cefixime
resistance against various antibiotics. 10 susceptibility
Consider a population of bacteria. In

the population, most bacteria have 5
genes that make them susceptible to
antibiotics, but a very small percentage 0
1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012
of the population do not have these
Year
genes. These bacteria are antibiotic Source: The Gonococcal Isolate Surveillance Project (GISP),
resistant. When exposed to antibiotics, quoted in "Antibiotic Resistance Threats in the United States, 2013" (CDC)
the bacteria population experiences
the bottleneck effect. The bacteria in
N. gonorrhoeae is also developing fluoroquinolones around 2000. This
the population that are susceptible to
resistance to the drug cefixime. It is can be attributed to the increased use
antibiotics are killed. The remaining
recommended that cefixime be used of this antibiotic during this time. It
resistant individuals reproduce,
with other antibiotics, or not at all, also shows that the bacteria has been
passing on the resistance genes to
so the bacteria do not become fully resistant to penicillin since the 1980s
their offspring. Eventually, the
resistant to it. and continues to be resistant. For this
population consists of more antibiotic-
reason, scientists need to continuously
resistant bacteria. Figure 17 shows resistance patterns
develop new antibiotics to treat
of N. gonorrhoeae. This graph
The bacterium N. gonorrhoeae causes gonorrhea. However, new antibiotics
shows an increased resistance to
the disease gonorrhea. This disease can lead to new resistances.
affects organs of the reproductive
system, as well as parts of the urinary
tract. If not treated, an affected
Data Analysis
person may lose the ability to produce
offspring. The bacteria are transferred Answer the following questions in your Evidence Notebook:
from one person to another through 1. What happened to penicillin resistance from 1987 to 1990?
sexual activity. 2. What type of natural selection is observed in antibiotic-resistant bacteria?
N. gonorrhoeae has now developed 3. Make a model to show the changes in the population of bacteria over
varying levels of resistance to most
bi_cnlese811966_897a time as they are were exposed to antibiotics.
antibiotics, including penicillin.
Final
11-8-16
EXAMINING NATURAL SELECTION IN RUNAWAY Go online to choose one of
SELECTION Leslie Kell AFRICAN SWALLOWTAILS SELECTION these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 18: There are three types of male ruffs, and all can occur in a single population.
a An independent male b A satellite male c A female. Faeder

males greatly
resemble females.
Recall that there are three types of males in the ruff population. The dominant
“independent” males are territorial and fight other independent males to attract
females. The smaller “satellite” males do not fight. Satellites freely move between
independents’ territories and are able to mate with some females. The “faeder” males
look like female ruffs. They generally mate with females sneakily while the other males
are distracted or fighting.
Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook to explain how three very
different types of males evolved in a single population.
Scientists think that the independent males expend a lot of energy and incur the
Image Credits: (l) (r) ©Arco Images GmbH/C. Wermter/Alamy; (c) ©Matthijs Kuijpers/Alamy
risk of being injured in a fight when establishing a territory to attract females. The
independents (84 percent of the population) attract females by showing dominance.
Types that pay fewer of these costs also have evolved within the population. The
satellites (14 percent of the population) mate with the females in the independent
males’ territories. Though independent ruffs may mate with more females, they are at
risk of being injured in territorial fights and are more susceptible to predators because
of their elaborate plumage and larger size. The faeders (1 percent of the population)
are able to reproduce by sneaking into an independent male’s territory and quickly
mating with a female.
Interestingly, scientists have discovered that the behavior and physical traits that
differentiate the three types are controlled at a single genetic location, a “supergene.”
Studies indicate that the faeders are a result of a chromosome inversion that occurred
3.8 million years ago. The satellite type was a result of a chromosomal rearrangement
between the original sequence and the inverted sequence that happened about 0.5
million years ago. The differences in traits and behavior among these types allow them
all to be successful and persist in the population.

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 7. Widowbirds are members of a bird species found in the
southeastern part of Africa. The females have dull brown
feathers and the males have black feathers, including tail
Use the following information to answer Questions 1-4.
feathers that measure an average of 41 centimeters long.
Studies have shown that females prefer and choose to
In a population of 900 pea plants, 530 are homozygous
mate with males that have longer tails. Which outcome
purple, 250 are heterozygous purple, and 120 are
can be expected to occur in this scenario?
homozygous white. Purple color (P) is dominant and white
color (p) is recessive. a. Over time, there will be more males with 41 centimeters
tails.
1. Determine the genotypic frequency in the population for b. Over time, there will be more males with tails longer
PP, Pp, and pp individuals. than 41 centimeters.
c. Over time, there will be more males with tails shorter
2. What is the total number of alleles in this gene pool? than 41 centimeters.
d. Over time, there will be more males with no tails.
3. What is the allele frequency of P? Express the frequency
as a decimal rounded to the nearest hundredth. 8. Model how the bottleneck effect can lead to evolution
by putting the following events in order.
4. What is the allele frequency of p? Express the frequency a. Many of the individuals die in the population.
as a decimal rounded to the nearest hundredth.
b. Population increases with less variation.
c. A random event acts on a population.
Use the information in the table below to answer Question 5. d. Surviving individuals reproduce.
Frequency in Original Frequency in New
Color Variation 9. Determine if the scenarios will likely result in an increase
Population (%) Population (%)
or a decrease in genetic variation over time. Copy and
Gray 15 45 then complete the table below in your notebook by
Gray and white 60 20 writing “increase” or “decrease” in the second column.
White 25 35 Genetic Variation within

Scenarios
Individual Population
5. The frequencies of a color trait among rabbits living in a Mosquitos become resistant to
mountainous area have changed over time. What type of pesticides.
selection most likely occurred?
Arabian horses mate with wild
a. directional
horses.
b. disruptive
c. stabilizing A population becomes lactose
d. sexual
intolerant through mutation.
A smaller body is selected for in
6. Scientists observed a population of monkeys on an island. cheetahs.
The monkeys were observed to have different finger
lengths. Some monkeys had long fingers, some had short
fingers, but the majority of them had finger lengths that
were closer to the short finger length. Explain how this
trait in the population of monkeys would evolve over
time if tree branches on the island grew thicker.
Would this be an example of stabilizing, directional, or
disruptive selection?

10. The Florida panther is a type of mountain lion. About

a hundred years ago, Florida panthers scattered and In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
mated with other subspecies of mountain lions in nearby supports the main ideas from this lesson:
populations.
Changing allele frequencies can be an indication of the
a. Explain how the gene flow in this population would be evolution of a population.
affected by the introduction of the Florida panthers.
b. Would genetic variation increase or decrease in the Selective pressures, such as competition and predation, can
mountain lion population? shift the distribution of traits in a population.
Small populations are more susceptible to genetic drift
11. Give an example of the way sexual selection can cause because large populations are able to lessen the impact of
extreme phenotypes in a population.
random events.
Remember to include the following information in your study
Use the information in the table below to answer Question 12.
guide:
Trait Frequency of Trait (%) • Use examples that model main ideas.
Predicted Frequencies Observed Frequencies
Color Variation Using the Hardy- after Three
Weinberg Equation Generations
Large flowers 75 44
Consider how the evolution of populations relates to the
Medium flowers 10 22 assumption that natural laws operate today as they did in the past
Small flowers 15 34 and will continue to do so in the future.
12. Study the table to compare predicted and actual

frequencies of flower size in a flower population. What
conclusion is best supported by the data in the table?
a. The population is evolving.
b. The population’s gene pool remained the same.
c. The population is in equilibrium.
d. The population selected for an intermediate trait.
13. Why must allele frequencies in a gene pool always add up

to 100 percent?
14. Explain how the process of genetic drift occurs

completely by chance.
15. What are the differences and similarities between natural

selection and sexual selection?

9.2
Changes in Species
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 1: Plants in the silversword alliance are closely related and yet show
Islands often have unique remarkable diversity.
populations of species.
Image Credits: (t) ©W. Scott/Fotolia; (c) ©MODIS Land Rapid Response Team/Jacques Descloitres/NASA Goddard Space Flight Center;
(tcl) ©Mark W. Skinner at USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database; (tcr) ©National Park Service, Hawaii Haleakala National Park; (bl) Photo by
A. C. Medeiros, courtesy of Smithsonian Institution; (bc) (br) Photo by J. Price, courtesy of Smithsonian Institution
Gather Evidence If you were asked to compare the plants in Figure 1, you might note that each of them
As you explore the lesson, looks very different from one another. These plants are all members of the silversword
gather evidence that supports the alliance, a group of over 30 related species native to the Hawaiian Islands. Like other
claim that changes in environmental groups of related species, the silversword alliance shows huge variety in appearance
conditions result in the emergence even though the plants are closely related. In fact, all of the plants in this group are
thought to be descended from a single tarweed species found in the dry shrublands of
of new species over time and the
California and Mexico.
extinction of other species.
Predict These plants have a common ancestor. How did they develop different
characteristics?

EXPLORATION 1
Mechanisms of Speciation
In general, a species is a group of similar organisms that can breed and produce fertile
FIGURE 2: These squirrels
offspring. The millions of species that live on Earth today emerged over time, with each
are closely related but have
new species arising from an already existing species. This diversification of one species different characteristics.
from another is supported by genetic, developmental, and anatomical similarities
among species. In addition, geological and fossil evidence show how species have
changed over time.
Collaborate Kaibab and Abert’s squirrels live on opposite sides of the Grand
Canyon. Though closely related, they do not share all of the same characteristics. How
did these differences come about? Make a list with a partner to explain your reasoning.
Speciation
a Kaibab squirrel
Where do new species come from? Speciation is the rise of two or more species from
a single existing species. Experiments can be used to model speciation. In one such
experiment, an existing population of fruit flies, Drosophila melanogaster, was divided
into two groups. One group was given maltose-based food and the other was given
starch-based food. The goal of the experiment was to determine what changes would
occur from the isolation of species and the presence of different food sources.
maltose-based
maltose-based FIGURE 3: Changes
food
foodpopulation
population in fruit flies can
occur due to
differing food b Abert’s squirrel
sources.
Image Credits: (t) ©Emmanuel Rondeau/Alamy; (b) ©iStock/David Parsons/Getty Images Plus
starch-based
starch-based
food population
food population
Many generations later, the mating preference of the flies was analyzed. The scientists
found that the flies raised on maltose-based food, called maltose flies, preferred to
mate with other maltose flies. The flies raised on starch-based food, called starch flies,
preferred to mate with other starch flies. However, cross-breeding between the two
groups could still occur. This experiment shows a distinct mating preference and the
beginning of reproductive isolation within a species. If the two groups of fruit flies
were eventually unable to breed successfully, then speciation would occur.
Analyze What happened during the many generations that these flies were
kept separated? How might this period of isolation have contributed to the mating
preferences shown?
Lesson 2 Changes in Species 435

Reproductive Isolation
Predict How can If gene flow is interrupted between two populations of the same species, the
reproductive isolation lead populations are said to be isolated. Isolated populations are prevented from mating
to speciation? and exchanging genes. This means natural selection acts upon a different gene pool
for each population. Different mutations will accumulate, different variations will be
selected for or against, and eventually adaptations will occur that prevent mating
between the two populations. Isolated populations that are in different environments,
and therefore exposed to different selective pressures, will diverge from one another
more quickly. It becomes more likely that reproductive isolation will occur as the two
populations become more different. Even isolated populations in similar environments
can undergo speciation if genetic drift takes the two gene pools in opposite directions.
Reproductive isolation occurs when members of different populations can no longer
mate successfully. Sometimes members of the two populations are not physically able
to mate with each other. In other cases, they cannot produce offspring that survive
and reproduce. Reproductive isolation is the final step of becoming a separate species.
Physical Separation
An isthmus is a strip of land with sea on both sides that links two larger landmasses.
The Isthmus of Panama formed through a combination of volcanic island formation
and uplift of the ocean floor. These two geological factors made solid land where there
was once an open passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.
Collaborate Around 3 million years ago, the isthmus closed in, permanently separating populations
With a partner, make a list of snapping shrimp. Once separated, each population of shrimp adapted to a different
of other physical barriers that can environment and became genetically different. Over time, the groups became different
lead to geographic isolation as enough to be reproductively isolated and speciation occurred. The physical separation of
two or more populations can lead to speciation through geographic isolation.
happened with snapping shrimp.
FIGURE 4: Speciation in snapping shrimp occurred due to geographic isolation.
Caribbean Sea N
COSTA
RICA W E
Colón El Porvenir
Bocas del Toro Golfo de los S
Mosquitos
Panama Panama
Canal
David
P A N A M A City
Penonomé La Palma
Santiago Chitré Gulf of Yaviza
Golfo de Chiriquí Panama
Jaqué COLOMBIA
Arenas
km 0 50 100
mi 0 50 100 PACIFIC OCEAN

Source:
Source: CarlandHansen
Carl Hansen and2001,
Nancy Knowlton, Nancy Knowlton,
The Smithsonian 2001,
Institution, The
as quoted Smithsonian
by PBS, Institution,
Evolution Library; Arthur Anker, 2016,as quoted
Smithsonian by
Newsdesk
PBS, Evolution Library; Arthur Anker, 2016, Smithsonian Newsdesk

Behavior and Timing
Behavioral isolation is caused by differences in courting or mating behaviors. If two
populations do not use the same courting or mating behaviors, then mating, and
therefore gene flow, between the two groups is unlikely to occur. When gene flow
is interrupted, natural selection acts upon the different gene pools. Reproductive
isolation and speciation may eventually occur.
Male songbirds sing to defend their territories and attract mates. An eastern
meadowlark and a western meadowlark are shown in Figure 5. As you can see, they
look almost the same. The major difference between these species is their songs. The
eastern and western meadowlarks use completely different songs to attract mates. This
means eastern meadowlark males cannot successfully attract western meadowlark
females, and western meadowlark females cannot give eastern meadowlark males the
correct breeding cues. The two species have become behaviorally isolated.
FIGURE 5: The eastern meadowlark and western meadowlark Explore Online

look almost identical but use different songs to attract mates.
a Eastern meadowlark b Western meadowlark

Image Credits: (tl) ©Sarah Jessup/Shutterstock; (tr) ©William Leaman/Alamy; (bl) ©Chris Mattison/Alamy; (br) ©Vibe Images/Fotolia
The red-legged frog and the yellow-legged frog are closely related. The development
of mating seasons that occur at different times caused these species to become
temporally isolated. Temporal isolation occurs when timing prevents reproduction
between populations. Red-legged frog populations breed from January to March
while yellow-legged frog populations in the same area breed from late March to May.
Speciation from a common ancestor occurred as the overlap in mating seasons shrank.
The flow of genes between the two groups also shrank and the two groups diverged.
FIGURE 6: Red-legged frogs and yellow-legged frogs have different mating seasons.
a Red-legged frog b Yellow-legged frog
Data Analysis Draw a graph to explain why different mating seasons were likely
the cause of red-legged frog and yellow-legged frog speciation.

Adaptive Radiation
Speciation through the diversification of one ancestral species into many descendant
species is called adaptive radiation. Adaptive radiation typically happens quickly
as species benefit from less competition, new niches, or specializations that give a
selective advantage.
FIGURE 7:
large ground large cactus small green
The diverse finch ground finch ground finch warbler
finches of the large
grey finch
Galápagos tree finch
medium tree
warbler
Islands came finch
sharp beaked woodpecker finch
from a common ground finch medium finch
ancestor.
ground finch
cactus small
ground mangrove tree finch
omnivorous finch finch
seed eater vegetarian

seed eaters
finch
cactus flower eaters
insect eaters insect eaters

bud eater
Tiaris sp.
common ancestor
Darwin’s finches are an example of adaptive radiation that occurred on an island

system. The 14 species of finch found on the Galápagos Islands came from a common
ancestor. The descendants have diversified and specialized to take advantage of
different niches. The finch species minimize competition among themselves by
specializing in different food sources. For example, populations of finches with
larger beaks can crack harder and larger seeds. Populations of finches with smaller,
pointy beaks can catch insects. Darwin’s finches are a classic example of changes in
environmental conditions driving the adaption and expansion of species.
Analyze What factors would support the idea that adaptive radiation occurred in the
finches of the Galápagos Islands?
For adaptive radiation to take place, there must be adaptation by a species that
leads to speciation. For example, dinosaur extinctions led to more resources and
fewer predators for mammals. The open niches left by dinosaurs may have been the
trigger for adaptive radiation of mammals after dinosaurs became extinct. Mammals
diversified and adapted to new niches producing new species in many cases. This is an
example of a catastrophic change in the environment leading to the expansion of an
entire family of species.
Explain Which type of reproductive isolation could have led to the speciation of plants
in the silversword alliance? Use evidence to support your claim.

EXPLORATION 2
Expansion of Species
Natural environmental changes such as droughts can lead to the expansion of a

species’ range. For example, a long-lasting drought can change an ecosystem to make
it more suitable for plants adapted to dry conditions. These plants could expand into
the ecosystem and outcompete plants that are less well-adapted to the dry conditions.
Humans can also cause environmental changes that lead to the expansion of species.
Increasing Populations
Historically, the barred owl lived in the eastern United States. The Great Plains served
as a barrier to the westward expansion of many species that lived in forests, including
the barred owl. The Great Plains were maintained in part due to regular burning by
Native Americans and the disturbance caused by massive herds of buffalo. Much has
changed in these ecosystems over the past 100 years. The plains are no longer burned,
herds of buffalo no longer shape the landscape, wildfires are put out, and the climate
has warmed. These environmental changes are potential causes for the barred owl
range expansion across British Columbia in Canada into Washington, Oregon, and
northern California in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The warming
climate could have made Canada’s northern boreal forests more suitable for the barred
owl. The owls may have used this habitat as a bridge to reach the Pacific Northwest. Gather Evidence
Another possibility is that the barred owl worked its way across the plains as settlers Why might it be easier
planted trees and encouraged tree growth along streams. The owls could have used for plants than animals
these intermediate habitats to journey from eastern forests to western forests. to expand their ranges?
FIGURE 8: Barred owls benefited from environmental changes that increased suitable habitat.
km 0 250 500
mi 0 250 500
CANADA
W E
U N I T E D S TAT E S
S
Barred owl
Image Credits: (l) ©donyanedomam/Fotolia
range expansion ATLANTIC

Historic range OCEAN
1910 –1940
1940 –1960
Gulf of
1960 –1980 MEXICO Mexico
1980 – today
Source: The University of Minnesota and The Oregonian as quoted by Bryant, Peter J., “Draft
Recovery Plan for the Northern Spotted Owl” 26 August 2016 <http://darwin.bio.uci.edu/~sustain/
issueguides/Northern Spotted Owl/index.htm>.

Climate Change and Species Expansion
Climate change is affecting different areas in different ways, from rising sea levels
to an increase in average global temperature. As areas warm, they may become
more suitable for organisms that were previously kept out due to uninviting habitat
conditions. For example, polar bear habitat in northern Canada was once too cold and
inaccessible for grizzly bears. As this area warms, it becomes more suitable habitat
for grizzly bears. Because of these environmental changes, grizzlies have expanded
their range into polar bear habitat. This movement could lead to a wider expansion of
grizzly bear populations in the long term.
Language Arts
FIGURE 9: Grizzly bears have expanded their range into polar bear habitat.
Connection Using
library and Internet resources,
research the potential long-term
effects of grizzly bears moving into
polar bear habitat. Is this a
problem? Write a short magazine-
style article detailing your findings
and position. Use images, graphs,
and data to support your claims.
Analyze How can climate change lead to the expansion of a species?
The expansion of species into new territories can also lead to hybridization.
Hybridization occurs when two distinct, but closely related, species are able to
successfully mate together. Sometimes, the features shown by the hybridized
species fall within the range of characteristics shown by one or both of the original
populations. Over time, as the two species continue to interact with one another, they
Image Credits: ©Photo by Hoberman Collection/UIG via Getty Images

may become a single species.
In the case of grizzly bears, as climate change lets them expand their territories
northward, they are interacting more and more with polar bears. Because both bear
species are closely related, they are able to successfully mate and produce viable
offspring. Some scientists worry that this inbreeding may result in the disappearance
of the polar bear as a separate species, particularly as it is already being threatened by
habitat loss due to climate change.
Explain How would population expansion most likely occur in the silversword alliance,
assuming these plants underwent adaptive radiation?

EXPLORATION 3
Extinction of Species
Just as birth and death are natural events in the life of an individual, the rise and fall of
FIGURE 10: The northern
species are natural processes of evolution. The elimination of a species from Earth is
spotted owl is native to the
called extinction. Extinction often occurs when a species as a whole cannot adapt to a Pacific Northwest region of the
change in its environment. United States.
Causes of Extinction
Let’s return to the example of the barred owl territory expansion. The expansion
has been good for the barred owl, as seen by its increasing success and growing
population numbers. Unfortunately, the appearance of the barred owl in the forests of
the Pacific Northwest has negatively impacted a closely related species, the northern
spotted owl. This bird is listed as a threatened species under the Endangered Species
Act. Historically, the northern spotted owl has been most threatened by habitat loss
due to logging, land development, and natural disasters. Now, the small amount of
northern spotted owl habitat that remains is being invaded by the barred owl.
Barred owls and northern spotted owls use the same habitat in many of the same
ways. Both species use old growth forests for food and nesting. Advantages of the
barred owl over the northern spotted owl include a larger body, more aggressive
behavior, smaller overall territory needs, the hunting of a wider range of prey, and
more breeding success. In short, the barred owl is outcompeting the northern spotted
owl. If the northern spotted owl is driven from its entire range, then the species could
become extinct.
Comparing Owl Populations

FIGURE 11: The northern spottedOwl
owlPopulations
is being displaced by the larger barred owl.
1.0
0.9
Owl Ranges Today
Northern
0.8 spotted owl
0.7 Barred owl
0.6 CANADA
Proportion
0.5
0.4
0.3
Image Credits: (t) ©Stone Nature Photography/Alamy Images
0.2
0.1
UNITED STATES
0
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Year
km 0 500 Gu l f o f
Barred owl
Me x i c o
Spotted owl MEXICO
mi 0 500
Source: Forsman, Eric D. et al. Demographic characteristics of spotted owls in the Oregon Coast Ranges, 1990-2014.
Source: Smithsonian Magazine, 2009
Collaborate Discuss with a partner how the expansion of a species into a new
habitat might affect the native species that are already living there.

Extirpation, or local extinction, occurs when a species no longer exist in a specific
portion of their range but still can be found elsewhere. For example, wolves have
been extirpated from much of their historic range due to overhunting and habitat
loss. Extinctions have occurred throughout time as shown in the fossil record. Natural
events such as droughts, volcanic eruptions, and floods can cause extinctions if species
cannot adapt to the new environment.
Background Extinctions and Mass Extinctions

Extinctions that occur continuously but at a very low rate are called background
extinctions. These extinctions occur at roughly the same rate as speciation. This type
of extinction typically affects one or a few species in relatively small areas. Background
extinction is common and occurs due to factors such as disease, loss of habitat, or loss
of a competitive advantage. Mass extinctions are more rare, but have a larger impact
on Earth’s biodiversity. Entire orders or families may be wiped out by mass extinction
events. Mass extinctions are thought to occur suddenly in geologic time, usually
because of a catastrophic event such as an ice age or asteroid impact. An example of a
mass extinction is the K-T event that occurred at the end of the Cretaceous period 65
million year ago. A large meteor that crashed on Earth triggered this mass extinction.
The aftermath of the meteor strike caused the extinction of 70 percent of Earth’s
species. The fossil record confirms that there have been at least five mass extinctions in
the past 600 million years.
Cause and Effect
FIGURE 12: Comparing Extinction Rates Humans and the Extinction Crisis
Extinction Rates through Time
20 Extinction rate 60,000 8,000
Extinction rate (families per million years)
Approximate 7,000
50,000
background
Population (in millions)

6,000
15 extinctions
40,000 5,000
Extinctions
30,000 4,000
10 3,000
20,000
2,000
10,000
1,000
5
0 0
1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050
Year
0
600 400 200 0 Human population
Extinctions
Millions of years ago
Source: University of California, Berkeley Source: Scott, J.M. 2008. Threats to Biological Diversity: Global, Continental, Local. U.S.
Geological Survey, Idaho Cooperative Fish and Wildlife, Research Unit, University of Idaho.
a Extinction Rates Through Time b Human Population Growth and Extinction Rates
Analyze Use the graphs in Figure 12 to answer the following questions:
1. What patterns or trends are shown in the first graph (a)? What is the cause of
these patterns?
2. What patterns or trends are shown in the second graph (b)? What is the cause of
these patterns?
3. Is there a relationship between the two graphs? Explain your answer.

Climate Change and Extinction
Many scientists think that Earth is currently experiencing a sixth mass extinction. The
sixth mass extinction is characterized by extinction rates that are 1000 to 10,000 times
the background rate. The current extinction event is caused almost entirely by human
behaviors such as the burning of fossil fuels, destruction of habitat, and introduction of
invasive species.
Analyze What is the cause-and-effect relationship between humans and the sixth
mass extinction? Describe the relationship in terms of the growing human population
and the causes and effects of climate change.
Climate change is caused by the release of large amounts of greenhouse gases—such

as carbon dioxide—into the air, mostly from the burning of fossil fuels. Climate change
is causing rapid changes to environments, from increasing temperatures to rising sea
levels. Some species may find an increase in suitable habitat due to climate change.
Other species may go extinct if their populations cannot adapt quickly enough to the
changing environmental conditions. Corals are an example of a group of species that
are being negatively affected by climate change.
Increasing Sea Temperature FIGURE 13: Coral Bleaching

Coral bleaching is a stress response in corals. When conditions
are poor, the corals lose the symbiotic algae living inside of
them. The photosynthetic algae are the corals’ main source
of food. Without the algae, the corals weaken and turn white.
Rising sea temperatures are the leading cause of bleaching
events on coral reefs. Other causes include pollution,
increased intensity of sunlight, and extremely low tides.
Ocean Acidification
Ocean acidification occurs when carbon dioxide is absorbed
by seawater. The reaction between carbon dioxide
and seawater also uses dissolved carbonate ions, which results in a decreased
concentration of carbonate ions in the water. Many corals need carbonate in the form
of calcium carbonate to build their skeletons. Coral reef growth will decline without
enough carbonate for skeleton formation. If reef growth is slower than reef erosion,
the reef could eventually stop functioning.
Extreme Weather Events

Many coral reefs are located in areas with extreme weather events such as hurricanes.
The reef structure and species have adapted to recover after storms, though the
recovery period can take a long time. It is predicted that climate change will increase
Image Credits: ©Ethan Daniels/Shutterstock
the frequency and intensity of severe storms in some areas. Corals affected by more
frequent storms may be unable to maintain reef structures. The increasing effects of
coral bleaching, ocean acidification, and extreme weather present a bleak outlook for
coral reefs in the future.
Explain What might happen if a species that is well adapted to lower pH and higher
temperatures was introduced to coral reefs in the Hawaiian Islands?

Patterns in Evolution and Speciation
FIGURE 14: The stinging ant (Pseudomyrmex ferrugineus) and acacia are an example of coevolution.
Species interact with each other in many different ways. The bullhorn acacia is a plant species found throughout
For example, they may compete for the same food Central America that has branches covered in hollow thorns.
source or be involved in a predator-prey relationship. Although the thorns protect the plant from being eaten by
Most of these interactions do not involve evolutionary large animals, small herbivores such as caterpillars can fit
changes. However, sometimes the evolutionary paths between them. A species of stinging ants (Pseudomyrmex
of two species become connected. ferrugineus) is a key part of the plant’s defense against these
smaller predators. As shown in Figure 14, these wasp-like ants
Coevolution live inside the plant’s thorns and feed on its nectar. The ants
Image Credits: (t) ©Carol Farneti-Foster/Oxford Scientific/Getty Images

The process of coevolution occurs when two or more protect the plant by stinging animals that try to eat the leaves.
species evolve in response to changes in each other. These In turn, the acacia plant provides the ants with both the
relationships might be mutually beneficial, or they might be shelter and food resources they need to survive.
good for one species, but bad for the other, such as predator-
The relationship between the acacia and the ants is much
prey or parasite-host relationships.
more than a simple cooperation between two species.
Many types of flowers and pollinators have coevolved to The acacia and the ants share an evolutionary history. The
maximize pollination success for the plants and nectar hollow thorns and nectar-producing leaves of the acacia and
capture for the pollinators. The plant-pollinator dynamic is the stinging of the ants have evolved due to the beneficial
typically mutually beneficial. The plants gain the pollination relationship between the two species. Relatives of these
necessary for reproduction and the pollinators gain a food species that are not involved in this type of relationship do
source. For example, the hawk moth has an especially long not have these same traits.
tongue that lets it drink from the narrow, nearly foot-long
structure of a star orchid that holds the flower’s nectar.

Evolutionary Arms Race Patterns in Speciation
Coevolution does not just occur in species that share a Speciation often occurs in patterns, including gradualism
beneficial relationship. It also occurs in two species that and punctuated equilibrium. Gradualism is the steady,
have a competitive relationship with one another. These gradual change of species as mutations slowly give rise to
competitive interactions can lead to “evolutionary arms variations and adaptations. Gradualism is closest to the type
races,” in which each species responds to pressure from the of evolution predicted by Charles Darwin that supports his
other through a series of adaptations over the course of ideas of descent with modification. That is, each generation
many generations. is slightly different than the last, individuals with increased
fitness preferentially breed, and advantageous alleles slowly
For example, many plants produce defense chemicals to build in a population. These small changes add up to become
discourage plant-eating species from nibbling on them. the wide variety of characteristics seen among species on
Natural selection then favors herbivores that can overcome Earth today.
the effects of the chemicals. After many generations, some
Punctuated equilibrium is characterized by long periods of
herbivore species may build up a level of resistance to the
no change interspersed with short periods of big change.
chemicals and are again able to safely eat the plant without
Punctuated equilibrium is often tied to speciation events,
getting sick. Natural selection then favors plants that
such as a natural disaster, in which species are forced to adapt
have evolved even more potent chemicals to thwart their
or die off. For example, the isolation of a small population in
herbivore predators.
a new environment with unique selective pressures can drive
One researcher is using a mustard plant and a fruit fly short bursts of evolution as beneficial and harmful traits are
relative to model coevolution in insects and plants. The selected for or against.
research shows that the flies use the plants for all stages in
A new species can arise through either gradualism or
their life cycle. The plant has developed proteins that cause punctuated equilibrium. Some lines of evolution show
the digestive tract in the flies to malfunction. Now it’s up gradualism patterns and some lines of evolution show
to the fly population to develop a resistance to this latest punctuated equilibrium patterns. Gradualism occurs at a
defense mechanism. constant background rate, much like the rate of background
Arms races can be seen in animals as well, as shown in extinction. Punctuated equilibrium occurs irregularly and is
Figure 15. Crabs are predators that feed on snails as their more intense, much like mass extinctions.
prey. This makes a selective pressure for the snails to
develop spines and a harder shell as a defense from crabs. Language Arts Connection Does evidence support
As a result, the crabs then develop bigger claws and more the claim that species can evolve through either gradualism
powerful jaws to break into the harder shells. This pattern in or punctuated equilibrium?
speciation continues as evolution is influenced by evolution
in another species. Find support for the information given in this text by researching
and finding evidence of gradualism and punctuated equilibrium in
FIGURE 15: Evolutionary Arms Race Earth’s history.
Prepare a one-page blog post that analyzes how two different
species evolved (one through gradualism and one through
punctuated equilibrium), and include an image that represents the
pattern of speciation each species experienced.

CAREER: BIOINFORMATICS MIMICRY HYBRIDIZATION
these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 16: Plants in the silversword alliance are descendants of a common ancestor.
Image Credits: (c) ©MODIS Land Rapid Response Team/Jacques Descloitres/NASA Goddard Space Flight Center; (tl) ©Mark W. Skinner at USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database; (tr) ©National Park Service, Hawaii Haleakala National Park;
(bl) Photo by A. C. Medeiros, courtesy of Smithsonian Institution; (bc) (br) Photo by J. Price, courtesy of Smithsonian Institution
The silversword alliance in the Hawaiian Islands is the product of the adaptive
radiation of a tarweed ancestor. Each species in the silversword alliance is adapted to
use a particular ecological niche. The radiation has caused extreme differences in the
characteristics of each plant even though they are all very closely related.
Explain The plants in the silversword alliance have a common ancestor. Refer to the
notes in your Evidence Notebook to explain how they developed different characteristics.
In your answer, consider how changes or differences in the environment affect the
emergence and disappearance of species.
Scientists think that this plant family came from a species similar to Muir’s tarweed.
This alpine shrubland species is found in California and Mexico. It has barbed fruits,
and scientists think that it might have been carried to Hawaii by a bird. Over the course
of millions of years, this single ancestral species evolved into over 30 separate species.
Three distinct lines of genetic evidence—including analyses of nuclear ribosomal DNA,
chloroplast DNA, and a comparison of two specific developmental gene sequences—
support the idea that this group of plants came from a mainland ancestor. Because there
were so few species that originally colonized the newly formed Hawaiian Islands, there
were plenty of habitats open to new species. Over time, the original tarweed species
adapted to the conditions in these different environments, leading to a diversification
of characteristics. Each plant is well adapted to its habitat as shown by their diverse sizes
and shapes, ranging from small shrubs and mat-like formations to large trees and vines.

CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 10. Use the following words to complete this statement:
adapted, common ancestor, niches
1. Two tree species that grow on the Monterey Peninsula A species of lizard arrived on an island after a big storm.
in California are very closely related. However, they have The population expanded into all of the empty ________
different pollination periods. Which type of reproductive on the island. Speciation occurred as populations
isolation do these two tree species exhibit? ________ to different environments. Over 20 descendant
a. adaptive radiation species trace their lineage back to a ________.
b. geographic isolation
c. temporal isolation Use the graph in Figure 17 to answer Question 11.
d. physical isolation
FIGURE 17: ReproductiveTemporal Isolation
Isolation
Wood frog
2. What environmental changes caused by climate change Leopard frog
may be leading to the extinction of corals? Select all
correct answers.
a. extreme weather
Mating activity
b. air pollution
c. ocean acidification
d. rising sea temperature
3. What adaptations in an isolated population would likely

contribute to speciation? Select all correct answers.
a. higher-pitched alarm call
March 1 April 1 May 1
b. adoption of daytime feeding over nighttime feeding
c. female enzyme targets eggs fertilized by individuals 11. Wood frogs and leopard frogs are found in the same
outside of the isolated populations ecosystems, but they do not interbreed. Use evidence
d. development of different sexual anatomy from the graph to explain what type of reproductive
e. higher temperature range tolerance isolation these frogs exhibit.
4. Why are island systems favorable to adaptive radiation? MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE
5. How can extinctions and expansions occur in the same

habitat? Explain your answer.
6. Give examples of how climate change may lead to the Changes in the environment can lead to the emergence of a
emergence, expansion, and extinction of species. new species, the expansion of some species, and the extinction
of some species.
7. Draw a map that shows a parent population, a
geographically isolated population, abi_cnlese539273_559a
behaviorally Remember to include the following information in your
isolated population, and a temporally11-4-16
isolated population study guide:
of the same species. L. Kell • Use examples that model main ideas.
8. What are some of the causes of background and mass • Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
extinctions? include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions, and
9. What process keeps the number of total species on Earth
Consider how cause and effect is demonstrated by the sequences of
from growing exponentially through speciation?
events that lead to speciation, expansion, and extinction.

9.3
Adaptive Value
of Behavior
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?

Hamadryas baboons
can live in groups with
hundreds of individuals. Naked mole rats are native to parts of Africa. Unlike their relatives, including guinea
pigs and porcupines, naked mole rats have long ratlike tails and pink, wrinkly skin
that is nearly hairless. They spend almost their entire lives in darkness, living in
underground community burrows. With an average 30-year life span, naked mole rats
live longer than any other rodent.
FIGURE 1: A colony of naked mole rats has a single queen and many workers.
Gather Evidence Naked mole rat communities are organized in caste systems. A caste system places Image Credits: (t) ©Wouter Tolenaars/Fotolia; (b) ©Raymond Mendez/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes
As you explore the lesson, people or organisms in groups according to their jobs or roles in society. The two
make a list of questions you have primary groups in a naked mole rat colony are reproducers and non-reproducers.
about the social system of the Typically, a colony has one breeding female—the queen—and a few breeding males.
naked mole rat. Return to your list The non-reproducers, both male and female, will never mate. They are the workers of
throughout the lesson. the colony. They carry food, build nests, clean, dig tunnels, and care for the queen and
her young. The significantly larger queen steps over the workers as she moves about
the burrow, using chemical odors to establish her dominance.
Predict How could a population, such as the naked mole rats, evolve to the point where
not all individuals reproduce?

EXPLORATION 1
Evolution of Behavior
Explore Online
FIGURE 2: Normally motionless, this sea anemone
will swim away when it detects a sea star.
a Sea Star, Dermasterias imbriacata b Sea Anemone, Stomphia coccinea
The sea anemone, Stomphia coccinea, has no brain or spinal cord and usually sits Predict How does the
motionless. Yet, when it comes in contact with the sea star, Dermasterias imbriacata— sea anemone know when
its predator—the anemone detaches itself from its perch and swims away to safety. At it comes into contact with a sea star
other times, with other organisms, the anemone will not swim away. versus some other object?
Responsive Behavior
The environment of every organism constantly changes. In order to thrive, organisms,
such as the sea anemone, must respond to these changes. Anything that triggers a
response is called a stimulus (pl. stimuli). An internal stimulus triggers a response to
a change in an organism’s internal environment, such as an infection. An external
stimulus is any change in the external environment, such as contact with a predatory
Image Credits: (l) ©David Hall/Science Source; (r) ©National Geographic/Taylor S. Kennedy/Getty Images
sea star, that causes a response.

Sense organs have specialized cells with receptors that detect changes in the Model Draw a model of
environment and communicate information through nerves to the brain. The brain the processes that occur
then sends a message back to the appropriate system telling it how to respond. This when you interact with an internal
works well in organisms with complex nervous systems. However, this feedback or external stimulus, such as
mechanism also works in organisms such as the anemone, which only has a network of
touching something very hot.
neurons with no centralized brain. Receptor cells on the outer surface of the anemone
detect an external stimulus, which elicits an escape response.
The sea anemone in Figure 2 never learned to swim away from the sea star, but it still
knows to move to safety. This is an example of an innate behavior, sometimes called
an instinctive behavior. Innate behaviors are passed from generation to generation
without learning. An innate behavior is performed correctly the first time an animal
tries it, even when the animal has never been exposed to the stimulus that triggers the
behavior.
Innate behaviors are typically found where mistakes can have severe consequences. A
sea anemone that does not swim away from the sea star, Dermasterias imbriacata, may
be attacked. By having set reactions to particular stimuli, animals can automatically
respond correctly in a life-or-death situation.
Lesson 3 Adaptive Value of Behavior 449

Function of Behavior
Collaborate With a A lizard sunning itself on a rock is likely not just relaxing. If the rock becomes shaded,
partner, discuss how the lizard will shift its position to a warmer part of the rock. These behaviors actually
innate behaviors help organisms help the lizard regulate its internal body temperature. Too hot? No problem. The lizard
maintain homeostasis. simply moves to a shadier spot. This behavior explains how ectotherms interact with
their external environment to control their internal body temperature.
Maintaining a balanced internal state, or homeostasis, is critical to the health and
functioning of an organism. When your internal temperature is below a normal
temperature of 37 °C (98.6 °F), your body responds by shivering to produce heat. This is
a biological response to an internal stimulus. Behavioral responses to the environment
also help organisms maintain homeostasis. These responses are often movements or
reactions that will help support a balanced state, increasing the chance of survival.
Cause and Effect
FIGURE 3: Red crabs migrate Migration

during mating season.
To survive and reproduce, animals need water, food, and shelter. For many species,
this requires individuals to move from one location to another or migrate. Each
species has one or more triggers that cue migration. Certain species of birds often
migrate from one area to another in a seasonal pattern. Each season brings changes
in temperature, availability of food, and length of day.
Some migration cues are biological. In some species, depletion of energy reserves
may signal a need to travel to available food sources. In others, changes in hormone
levels or reproductive life cycles trigger mass movements. The breeding ritual of the
Image Credits: (t) ©Universal Images Group/Auscape/Getty Images; (b) ©John Carnemolla/Corbis Documentary/Getty Images
red crabs of Christmas Island starts at the beginning of the rainy season. The crabs
must migrate at this time because their eggs must be released in the sea before
sunrise during the last quarter phase of the moon.
Predict According to what you know about natural selection and evolution, how
does a behavior evolve, such as mass migration of a species, where all individuals
respond in the same way at the same time?
FIGURE 4: A Swarm of Locusts Weighing the Costs of Behavior

Every behavior has benefits and costs. A swarm is a large, dense group of animals, such
as insects or birds. A swarm offers many advantages to living and traveling. Swarms
confuse predators, which protects individual members. A swarm also may be better at
finding food than an individual.
A swarm has disadvantages too. The size of a swarm can actually attract predators,
leaving individuals on the outer edges of the swarm particularly at risk. A group with
more individuals requires greater resources, which must be shared.
Gather Evidence When would swarming behavior be beneficial and when would it
be too costly? How might a behavior such as swarming evolve among species?

Costs of Behavior FIGURE 5: Fighting can result in
serious injury or even death.
Behavioral costs can be measured in terms of energy, risk, and opportunity.
Energy costs describe the difference between the energy used in carrying out an
activity and the energy used if the individual had done nothing. For example, it takes
energy for a lizard to move from a shady spot to a sunny spot. However, it is worth that
energy cost in order to maintain body temperature.
Risk costs are the increased chance of being injured or killed by carrying out a certain
behavior versus doing nothing. Consider the wolves in Figure 5. Wolves risk injury or
even death by fighting with other wolves. However, they may win access to mates or
better territory if they win. Sometimes, the benefits outweigh the risks.
Opportunity costs result when an animal spends time doing one behavior and loses
an opportunity to do a different behavior. For example, when a songbird defends its
territory from rivals, it is using time that could have been spent foraging or mating.
Benefits of Behavior
If a predator approaches an animal suddenly, the stimulus elicits an involuntary, Analyze Some spiders
or innate, behavior such as running that is meant to protect the animal. One of the build webs that include
main benefits of an innate behavior is that it increases survivorship, or the number of visible zigzag lines. But more visible
individuals that survive from one year to the next. This will in turn increase an animal’s webs catch fewer insects than do
fitness by natural selection. A behavior will be expressed if its benefits outweigh its
less visible webs. What benefits do
costs. So, the benefit of maintaining homeostasis by basking in the sun outweighs the
you think the spider gets by
risk cost of a lizard exposing itself to predators. Behaviors that improve an individual’s
fitness will be passed on to future generations.
building such a visible web?
All organisms require food to survive. At times it is more beneficial for an individual
to gather food alone. A solitary hunter only needs to find enough food for itself or its
young. In other species, such as lions, group hunting is more beneficial. The division FIGURE 6: Lions hunt in a group.
of labor reduces the energy cost and risk cost per individual. Group hunts increase
the potential to take down bigger or more prey and the group has greater protection.
However, a group must find more food and there is more competition for that food.
In some group hunts, the pack works together to pursue and take down the prey. In
other groups, such as bottlenose dolphins, individuals have specific roles. Bottlenose
dolphins forage in groups of three to six, with one individual acting as the driver
to herd the fish toward other dolphins lined up as barriers to prevent the fish from
escaping. The driver slaps its tail, causing the fish to leap into the air. This makes it
easier for the dolphins to catch the fish. Clearly the energy cost per individual and risk
from predators is less for the group, which gathers far more fish than a solitary hunter.
Image Credits: (t) ©johny87/Fotolia; (b) ©Digital Vision/Getty Images
Murmurations
Murmurations are a form of group behavior in which thousands of starlings flock
together as shape-shifting clouds. The birds fly together as one, creating incredible
patterns as the flock twists and turns in the sky. Murmurations are often triggered by
the presence of a predator, which is outmaneuvered by the rapid pattern changes.
Explain Murmurations require a great deal of energy expenditure. Explain the function
of this behavior and the cost-benefit relationship. Does the benefit derived from the
behavior outweigh the cost?

EXPLORATION 2
Social Interactions
Explore Online
FIGURE 7: When a predator is near, individuals in a group will move in unison for protection.
Similar to flocking of birds, schooling in fish is a group activity that benefits the
individual members. Fish school for several reasons, including foraging for food,
defending themselves from predators, and reproducing. Swimming in a group also
may improve hydrodynamics, or the dynamics of fluids, and reduce the energy cost
associated with traveling through water. In the absence of predators, schools will often
break apart, or the fish will take cover when in danger.
Analyze How do you think schooling behavior evolved over time? How does it
increase the fitness of individuals in the school?
Image Credits: (tl) (tc) (tr) ©Mark Doherty/Fotolia; (cl) ©Gallo Images/Gerald Hinde/Alamy; (bl) ©The Image Bank/Getty Images
FIGURE 8: Springbok Pronking
Living in a Group
Sometimes, springboks hop on all four legs rather than run away when they spot a
predator. This behavior, called pronking, alarms the rest of the herd but makes the
individual visible to predators. Pronking gives the herd enough time to escape and
signals to the predator that the herd already spotted it. Social behaviors include any
and all interactions between individuals of the same species. Social groups interact in
many ways, such as through communication, mate selection, and defense.
Explain Pronking carries with it a high energy costs and high risk costs. Why would
an individual put itself at risk to alert and protect the rest of the group? What are the
Explore Online potential benefits?
FIGURE 9: Chimpanzee Pant-
hooting Communication
Communication is the sharing or exchange of information and is critical to the survival
of individuals and groups, as well as for the species itself. Vocalizations, plumage,
songs, mutual grooming, and pheromone trails are all forms of animal communication.
Chimpanzees live in dense tropical rain forests where it is easy to lose sight of others.
They use a variety of vocalizations to stay in touch and let each other know where they
are located. Other vocalizations are used to show excitement, greet group members,
and alert the group to predators. Chimpanzees also communicate through facial
expressions and body postures.

Mate Selection Explore Online
Courtship displays are behaviors most often used by male members of a species to FIGURE 10: Blue-Footed Booby
attract females. Scientists theorize that females use courtship displays to judge the
condition of their potential mate or the quality of his genes. For example, as shown
in Figure 10, blue-footed boobies high step and strut to show off their blue feet to
potential partners. The pigment that gives the blue-footed booby its bright blue feet
comes from its food. So an individual that is more successful at finding food will have
brighter feet. The courtship “dance” helps females find the most fit partner.
Defense
Defensive behaviors are responses to threatening stimuli from the environment.
These various behaviors are meant to reduce harm to the individual. Animals will often Explore Online
put themselves in harm’s way to protect their young as well. For example, the adult
FIGURE 11: Penguins protecting
penguins in Figure 11 put themselves between their young and a petrel, who will eat their young from a petrel.
young penguins. Groups of animals also will warn each other of danger with different
vocalizations. Vervet monkeys, for example, use one call to indicate that a predator is
a snake and another to indicate that it is a large cat or bird. This tells group members
where to look and where to escape.
Model Make a model that explains how different types of behavior benefit the
individual, and thereby the group. For each type of behavior, include elements that
explain how this trait evolved over time.
Cooperation
Image Credits: (t) ©Picture Press/J & C Sohns/Getty Images; (c) ©Fred Olivier/naturepl.com; (b) ©Johner Images/Getty Images
Lions hunt together in packs, called prides, to increase their chances of success. Most
prey can outrun a single lion but not an entire hunting group. The group works
together to stalk the prey and make a barrier to prevent its escape. They then pounce
together to take down the prey. This behavior is an example of cooperation, which
involves behaviors that improve the fitness of the individuals involved.
Reciprocity
FIGURE 12: Vampire bats share
Vampire bats live together in tightly knit communities, providing protection and food with other bats.
warmth to each other. A female vampire bat will donate food that she has collected
from her hunt to a bat that is unable to hunt for its own food, voluntarily regurgitating
and sharing part of its meal. This comes at a cost to the donor bat, because it has used
energy to gather the food and is losing some energy by sharing.
Vampire bats keep track of which bats share food and, in turn, will share food with
those bats. This is an example of reciprocity, another form of cooperative behavior
among animals. The idea is that one action, such as sharing food, will result in a future
beneficial response, such as being the recipient of shared food. Research has shown
that bats in need of food received more donations if they had previously shared food
with other bats.
Gather Evidence Which individuals within a larger community of bats would be

most beneficial to feed after missing a meal or two?

Explore Online Altruism
FIGURE 13: Meerkats show
Meerkats, such as those shown in Figure 13, stand and watch for predators. When
altruistic behaviors.
an individual sees a predator, it raises an alarm to the group. This signaling brings
attention to itself and increases its own risk of being attacked but may save other
individuals. This type of behavior is known as altruism. Altruism is a kind of behavior in
which an animal reduces its own fitness to help other members of its social group. In
other words, the animal appears to sacrifice itself for the good of the group.
Model Explain how you could model the cost-benefit relationship exhibited in
altruistic behaviors.
How can we explain the evolution of altruism if behavior is supposed to increase

fitness? British evolutionary biologist William Hamilton realized that alleles can be
transmitted and therefore spread in a population in two ways, either directly from an
individual to its offspring or indirectly by helping close relatives survive.
When an animal reproduces, its offspring gets half of its alleles. But its relatives also
share some of the same alleles, in the following proportions:
• Parents and siblings share 50 percent of the animal’s alleles.
• Nephews and nieces share 25 percent of its alleles.
• First cousins share 12.5 percent of its alleles.
The total number of genes an animal and its relatives contribute to the next
generation is called inclusive fitness. It includes both direct fitness from reproduction
and indirect fitness from helping kin survive. When natural selection acts on alleles that
favor the survival of close relatives, it is called kin selection.
Eusocial Behavior
Among colonies of insects, such as wasps, bees, and ants, only a small number of
FIGURE 14: Weaver ants work
reproductive females exist. In honeybee colonies, one queen produces a few male
together in eusocial colonies.
offspring along with thousands of sterile female workers. These worker bees are
incapable of reproduction and spend their short lives maintaining and protecting the
hive, gathering food, producing wax and honey, and feeding the young. The workers
live for about six weeks during the summer, while the queen can live for several years.
Female offspring that will one day take the queen’s place are raised in a separate cell
and are fed a special diet.
Image Credits: (t) ©Alta Oosthuizen/Fotolia; (b) ©Noppharat4569/Shutterstock

If you were to look across many eusocial colonies, you would find that they share a
common feature, haplodiploidy. This means their sex is determined by the number of
chromosome sets in an individual. Males are haploid and females are diploid. Female
Analyze How is it social insects produce daughters through eggs fertilized by sperm. Unfertilized eggs
possible for a behavior to produce sons. In these animals, daughters share half of their mother’s alleles but all of
evolve when there is only one their father’s alleles. Sisters therefore share up to 75 percent of their alleles overall with
reproductive female and the rest of one another, compared with 50 percent in humans and most other animals. The close
the colony never reproduces? relationship between sisters in a colony may influence the evolution of eusociality.
Explain Compare and contrast individual behaviors and group behaviors.

What requirements are there for these behaviors to evolve?

EXPLORATION 3
Learned Behaviors
Young chimpanzees learn how to perform many tasks, some requiring the use of tools. Explore Online
Chimpanzees can learn to use leaves to drink water or to use rocks to crack open hard-
FIGURE 15: A chimpanzee
shelled nuts and fruits. The chimpanzee in Figure 15 is using a twig to fish termites out termite fishing.
of a mound. These are all examples of behaviors that must be learned. Chimpanzees
are not born knowing how to use tools. They learn by watching and trying to imitate
the behavior from their mother or other individuals in their social group.
Gather Evidence Why might some animals need to learn behaviors? What are
some advantages of learned behaviors over those that are part of genetics?
Learning
Some aspects of behavior are influenced by genes, but many can be modified by
experience. Learned behaviors are actions that change with experience. Learning takes
many forms, ranging from changes in behaviors that are largely innate to problem-
solving in new situations. In each case, learning involves the strengthening of nerve
pathways. Most behaviors are not simple reactions to stimuli using preset pathways
in the animal’s brain. Instead, they represent a combination of innate tendencies
influenced by learning and experience. Learning allows animals to quickly adapt to
changes in their environment, increasing their ability to survive and reproduce.
Analyze Is learning genetically controlled? Consider the example of the chimpanzee

learning to use tools. Can the chimpanzee pass on what it has learned? Can the
chimpanzee pass on the ability to learn? Use evidence to support you claims.
Image Credits: (t) ©DLILLC/Corbis/VCG/Getty Images; (b) ©Pablo Cersosimo/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes
Cultural Behavior
Cultural behavior is behavior that is spread through a population largely through Explore Online
learning, rather than selection. The key to cultural behavior is that the behavior is
FIGURE 16: Orcas learn to hunt
taught to one generation by another, known as cultural transmission. through cultural transmission.
For example, the orca shown in Figure 16 intentionally beaches itself to hunt seals in
the shallow waters. Only orcas in certain parts of the world, and only certain groups,
exhibit this behavior. Orcas learn this from their mothers and other members in their
group and will teach it to their offspring as long as the behavior is advantageous.
The development of cultural behavior does not require living in complex societies. The
transmission of birdsong in some taxonomic groups of birds is an example of cultural
behavior. However, living close together in social groups may help to enhance the
transmission and expression of cultural behaviors.
Explain Construct an explanation as to how learned and cultural behaviors can increase
an individual’s fitness.

The Evolution of Play Behavior
The polar bear cubs in Figure 17 may

FIGURE 17: Play is often a juvenile form of adult behavior such as hunting or fighting.
look like they are fighting, but they are
actually just playing. Play fighting, also
known as rough-and-tumble play, carries
the risk of injury and uses energy. Why
risk so much to play?
Determining what play behavior is
can be tricky, as there is sometimes
a fine line between what is play and
what is genuine fighting. According to
researchers, play involves behaviors that
are an adaptation of normal behaviors,
such as fighting, fleeing, or feeding. It
also involves communications, such
as postures or facial expressions, to let
other individuals know that this is play.
Although play is fun, it is hypothesized
that this activity also builds skills among
juveniles that will be beneficial to them
as adults. Play is observed in many may be familiar in animals, such as
forms; however, researchers classify it interactions between wolves. Different
into three categories—play as physical postures signal different messages. One
Write an explanatory blog post that
training, social training, and cognitive signal may be described as a “play bow,” supports the claim that play behavior has
development. Cognition is the mental which sends a message that the wolves evolved because it benefits the individual
process of knowing through perception want to play. As juveniles, play provides by giving them practice for events later in
or reasoning. the opportunity to learn social signals life. What evidence is there that play has
Many young mammals engage in
that may be used for other purposes, evolved for these reasons? As you write your
such as gaining attention, courting, argument, consider following these steps:
physical play as they wrestle and nip
or showing aggression. Cognitive
at each other with juvenile teeth. This • Introduce your claim, or the point
development occurs as playful peers
physical play strengthens growing your argument makes.
learn from one another.
muscles and is thought to develop skills
• Develop your claim by providing
that may be needed later for hunting Scientists are still researching why
strong, logical reasons and evidence.
or protecting themselves or their own animals play and how the behavior
• Link ideas to show how your reasons
offspring as adults. evolved. They do know that the benefits
relate to your claim.
of play, like those of other animal
Social training involves learning from • End with a conclusion that wraps up
behaviors, outweigh the associated risks.
others. Think about behaviors that your argument.
Image Credits: ©nikkusha/Fotolia
EXAMPLES OF USING AN CAREER: ANIMAL Go online to choose one of

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR ETHOGRAM BEHAVIORIST these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 18: Naked mole rats live in a eusocial colony.
Naked mole rats live underground, as moles do. Each solitary, underground colony
typically has only one reproductive female, the queen, and a few breeding males.
The remainder of the colony consists of non-reproducing individuals that spend their
entire lives as workers, maintaining and protecting the colony, gathering food, and
taking care of the queen’s offspring.
Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook to explain why animals, such
as naked mole rat workers, evolved not to reproduce.
Many of the eusocial insects investigated in this lesson are haplodiploid. Naked mole
rats, however, are diploid animals. Their colonies, though, are still made up of closely
related animals. These animals often live in areas where it is difficult for individuals
to survive on their own. For example, naked mole rats live in colonies of 70 to 80
individuals. Most of the colony are the queen’s siblings or offspring. Non-reproducing
Image Credits: ©Raymond Mendez/Animals Animals/Earth Scenes
adults are either soldiers or workers. Soldiers defend the colony, while workers work
together as a chain gang to dig through the soil to find edible tubers.
This eusocial behavior may have evolved due to the amount of work needed to find
food. If leaving the colony leads to starvation, kin selection may favor staying in the
burrow to work together as a group instead.

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 5. A female ground squirrel may send out a call warning
her offspring that a predator is near. Often, the mother
1. How does a behavior that actually increases risk to an sacrifices her own life since the predator can more easily
individual, such as pronking in springboks, ensure that locate her from the call. Even though this behavior results
genes will be passed along to offspring? Select all correct in death, it is beneficial to her in that:
answers. a. half of her alleles are preserved in each offspring.
a. The behavior draws attention to the herd. b. all of her alleles are preserved in each offspring.
b. The behavior alerts the herd. c. the predator may be less likely to attack the
c. The behavior confuses predators. population again.
d. The behavior uses energy. d. the alleles that caused her behavior will no longer be
e. The behavior decreases opportunity costs. in the gene pool.
2. Classify each behavior as innate or learned. 6. How does cooperative behavior contribute to the survival
a. Chimpanzees use tools to fish for termites. of animals?
b. Newly hatched sea turtles crawl into the sea. a. Cooperative behavior puts one individual at risk for
the survival of the whole group.
c. Bats fly out of caves at night to eat mosquitoes.
b. Cooperative behavior benefits one individual, which
d. Bears fish for salmon out of a running stream.
will be reciprocated in the future.
e. Birds avoid eating monarch butterflies because they
c. Cooperative behavior enables individuals to work
taste bad.
together toward a common goal that will benefit the
f. Penguins dance ecstatically to attract a mate.
group.
g. Honeybees associate certain colors and fragrances
d. Cooperative behavior engages all members of a group
with nectar.
to work together for the benefit of a few.
h. Cockroaches run for dark spaces when lights are
turned on. 7. Use the following terms to classify each type of behavior:
communication, reciprocity, altruism, defensiveness,
3. Which of the following best explains how behaviors, such migration. You may use each response more than once.
as swarming and flocking, help protect organisms?
a. A bat shares a part of its food with another.
a. Individuals in swarms or flocks act as decoys to distract
b. A monkey brings attention to itself when sounding an
predators.
alarm to the group.
b. Working together in swarms or flocks requires less
c. Bison respond to a threat stimuli from the
energy.
environment.
c. The movement and size of the swarm or flock confuses
d. Ants leave a pheromone trail to food.
predators.
e. Black bears leave an established territory to find new
d. Swarms and flocks can overtake larger predators.
sources of food.
f. Nonbreeding female workers care for the queen’s
4. Which of the following characteristics is the best criteria
offspring.
for classifying a colony as eusocial?
g. A male peacock fans its feathers and struts.
a. Female workers engage in group foraging.
b. Opportunistic mating occurs randomly between males
and females.
c. Within the colony there are only a few breeding
females.
d. The colony is characterized by the defensive behavior
of females.

8. Identify the most likely costs of each behavior using the v

following terms: opportunity costs, risk costs, energy costs. In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
a. A group of bats tend to their young rather than flying supports the main ideas from this lesson:
out to gather food. A behavior is anything an organism does in response to a
b. Two worker termites guard the entrance to the stimulus and helps the organism maintain homeostasis in a
mound. changing environment.
c. A leopard chases down a gazelle in an attempt to
eat it.
A behavior is selected for if the benefit of the behavior
outweighs the cost or risk.
9. An antelope is grazing on the savanna and feels thirsty. Behaviors may be classified as innate or learned. Innate
It takes a drink from a nearby watering hole. As the behaviors are those that are instinctive and are heritable.
antelope drinks, another antelope in the herd signals Learned behaviors are acquired through observation, practice,
danger. The antelope and herd members sprint away.
and experience and may be culturally specific.
After running, the antelope feels hot and goes to lie in
the shade. Remember to include the following information in your

Identify each of the following as a stimulus or a response. study guide:
If you identify it as a stimulus, decide if it is an internal or • Use examples that model main ideas.
external stimulus. • Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
a. feels thirsty • Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
b. drinks water include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions, and
c. sprints away other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
d. lies in shade Consider how any behavior that increases the survival of an
e. feels hot individual or its reproductive success will likely be passed from one
generation to the next.
10. Two separate groups of chimpanzees, living in separate
regions, both use tools to gather honey. One group uses
long sticks as tools to gather honey from a log and the
other uses chewed leaves to collect the honey. Which of
the following would best explain these two behaviors
used for the same purpose?
a. cultural transmission
b. cooperation
c. transitive behavior
d. migratory behavior
11. Which of the following best explains how a certain

behavior may be more likely to be selected for and evolve
as an innate behavior?
a. The behavior is easily learned.
b. The behavior has very low risk and opportunity costs.
c. The benefits of the behavior for survival outweigh the
costs.
d. The behavior is in response to a stimulus.

A BOOK EXPLAINING
COMPLEX IDEAS USING
ONLY THE 1,000 MOST
COMMON WORDS
TREE OF LIFE
All living things as part
of the same family
You’ve learned that organisms can be classified based on
physical and genetic characteristics, which reveal their
evolutionary relationships. Tree diagrams are used to
RANDALL MUNR
describe the relationships between organisms, both living XKCD.COM
OE
and extinct. Here’s one that uses easy-to-understand

language.

This tree shows how different kinds of life
branched off from one another.
This tree doesn’t show all living things, or even
most of them. It just shows some of the living
things you might know, along with which branch
of life’s family they’re in.
This is just a tiny part of the tree of life. The
whole tree is too big to fi t in any single picture,
and there are too many kinds of life for anyone to
give names to all of them—no matter what kind of
words they use.
And really, a true tree of life wouldn’t just have
a line for every kind of life. It would have a line
for each living thing that ever was, every one of
them crossing and joining and winding across
the page, slowly changing from one kind of life to
another, in a path that reaches all the way back,
without a single break, to that very first life.
No one really knows how many living things
there are in the world, but we can make some
guesses, and they’re big. Not only can we never
fi nd enough words to talk about all those lives, we
have a hard time talking about the number itself.
Here’s one way to think about how many things
have lived on Earth: The world is covered in seas
that are ringed with beaches of sand. One day,
when you’re walking on a beach, pick up some
sand and look at it. Imagine that every tiny piece
Image Credit: ©Vudhikrai/Shutterstock
of sand under your feet is a whole world of its

own, each one with its own seas and beaches,
just like Earth.
The full tree of life has as many living things as
there are bits of sand on all those beaches on all
those tiny sand worlds put together.
Next to the world we’re talking about, all our ANIMAL THAT LIVES DEEP IN THE SEA AND HAS
words are small. BEEN ON EARTH FOR A VERY LONG TIME

BIG BRAINS WITH LOTS OF ARMS
(WRITING WATER ANIMALS)
TREE OF LIFE STOMACHS WITH HOUSES
WHAT THIS TREE IS GOOD FOR FLAT STONES THAT BREATHE WATER
You can use the tree to tell how much one creature is like another by
following their paths. An animal whose path broke off from ours earlier is BITERS
WITH EIGHT HOUSE FLIES
different from us in more ways than one whose path broke off later, like FAST
how an aunt or uncle is different in more ways than a brother or sister. LEGS FLYING
STICKS DANCING PAPER
Sometimes, these families can be a little surprising. Birds and humans COLOR FLIES
are closer to one another than we are to the fish we keep in our houses, LUCKY
which makes sense. But those fish are closer to humans than to the big HILL MAKERS
RED
bitey fish that sometimes eat people, which is strange! ANIMALS YELLOW-AND-BLACK
FLOWER HELPERS
FLIES WITH POINTY
BURNING ENDS
THE START STRANGE GROWING THINGS This is a big group of
This is the start of all known life. These look like tiny trees, but are ANIMALS animals from several
Here, pieces that send information closer to animals than trees. Some WITH parts of the tree.
from parents to children somehow of them are good on food, but some CUTTING
ended up together in a bag of can make you sick. HANDS LITTLE ANIMALS
water, and the bag started making This is a very big group
more of itself. PLATE WASHERS of very small animals.
We don’t know FIRST GROUP CLEAR SEA BAGS GRASS JUMPERS
exactly how (Tiny living WATER
that happened; things) LAND BUILDERS BEARS HOUSE EATERS
that’s one of the These like to eat the wood
biggest questions THIRD under houses, which can
humans are GROUP make them fall down.
working on (Big living
answering. things,
and some
tiny ones,
too)
???
We’re still figuring
out exactly which ANIMALS
things came ROUND FOOD
together here which shares its name with a round bird
STUFF YOU
and when. WON’T FIND ON A LIGHT DRINK THAT WAKES YOU UP
ROLLING STONE
TWO GROUPS LITTLE ROUND BLUE THINGS
Early on, life DARK DRINK THAT WAKES YOU UP
broke into two
big branches. SOFT RED GARDEN FOOD
SECOND COOL-
The things in both SHAPED BROWN ROCK FOOD
branches were GROUP LEAVES This food looks like a brown rock, but is white inside.
made of single (Tiny living
bags of water and things) THINGS WITH TREE THAT STOPS
were pretty simple. FLOWERS HEAD PAIN
The things in these CRYING TREE JUMPS
branches look a lot GROWING (flowers used to make beer)
like each other—it
took us a while to
THINGS
TIRE
figure out that they This group is made TREE
were from such of growing things like SWEET THINGS
different parts of trees and flowers. This group has a lot
life’s family tree. Most of them are of the sweet round
green. colorful things we eat.
TINY TREES SMALL FOOD THEY SAY BIG

HOW THE THIRD GROUP STARTED GRAY ANIMALS LIKE
At some point, probably when the Earth was about CLOTHES
half as old as it is now, some of those bags ate other FOOD OFTEN IN CANS
bags, and the eaten bags started living inside them. THE STUFF IN DARK SWEETS
Those new living things, made from the two groups
put together, formed a third group. After a while, TREES WITH SWEET BLOOD
the little living things in that group started sticking
together to make bigger living things. All living PRETTY YELLOWS AND YELLOW-REDS
things made from more than one bag of water—like FLOWERS
trees, flies, and humans—come from this group. FOOD FIXERS
The other two groups are still around, and in FOOD THAT MAKES YOU CRY WHEN YOU CUT IT
many ways they’re much bigger than our group.
The creatures in those groups are very small, but BENT YELLOW
there are so many different kinds of them that no FOOD
one has come close to counting them all. They SWEET POINTY
live everywhere, from seas to the air to inside our FOOD YELLOW FOOD WRAPPED IN LEAVES
bodies and our food. Some of them are even found BEACH TREES
far below the land’s surface, where they live by
eating rocks and metal. (Until we found those, we SWEET STICK GRASS
didn’t know living things could do that.)
WHITE FOOD
OLD TREES GOLD FOOD GRASS
FAST-GROWING STICK GRASS
TREES THAT KEEP
THEIR POINTY FLOWERS YARD GRASS
LEAVES IN WINTER THAT EAT TREES
Go online for more
BIG BITEY FISH PRETEND SEA LADIES
These eat people sometimes, but not very often. These look nothing like sea
ladies, but people used to LONG BITEY DOGS
pretend they were. SMELLY DOGS
NORMAL FISH RIVER DOGS DOG-SHAPED
(Some of these bite, too.) BIG GRAY
ARM-NOSES
SEA DOGS
WATER JUMPERS SLOW
CLIMBERS BEARS
WATER JUMPERS THE DOG FAMILY
WITH LONG BACK
ENDS ROLL-UP DOGS (NOT OUR FRIENDS)
These are like water CATS WITH DOGS (OUR FRIENDS)
jumpers, but have long HARD SKIN SMALL DOGS CAT-SHAPED
back ends and don’t ANIMAL EATERS TINY
jump. SCREAMING SNOW CAT
These animals mostly eat DOGS SPOTTED CAT
other animals. There are (OLD WORLD)
ANIMALS WITH HAIR two main kinds: cat- DOG-SHAPED GREAT CAT
We’re part of this group. shaped and dog-shaped.
These animals usually have LAUGHING CAT CAT WITH LINES
(Cats and dogs SPOTTED CAT
hair, make white water for are in those FAST CAT
(NEW WORLD)
babies to drink, and don’t lay groups, of HOUSE CAT
eggs. STRANGE course, but
ANIMAL other animals MOUNTAIN CAT
This animal looks like bears This cat has many names. A lot
CAT-SHAPED of people don’t know they’re all
like it’s part cat, are too.) THE CAT
part fish, and FAMILY names for the same animal.
part bird. It broke
SKIN BIRDS ALMOST CAT
off from the other
People think these This animal looks like a cat with a long
hair animals
are close to the little neck. It’s the closest thing to a cat
early, so it’s very
house-food eaters that’s not actually in the cat family.
different and
with big teeth, but
strange.
they’re actually more PINK ANIMAL WE EAT
like huge air fish
and horses. LONG NECK
BIG FOOD ANIMAL
BODY HEAT RUNNER IN THE TREES

Some animals in SAND
BABY-FEEDING BAGS HORSE ANGRY RIVER ANIMAL
this group get POCKET
most of their heat These animals are joined AIR-BREATHING
BABIES to their babies with a FISH (NOT FISH)
from the world
around them instead Many of these feeding bag until the HORSE
of from their bodies. animals keep baby is born.
their babies SLOW NIGHT STORE CHECK-OUT HORSE
When the world gets
cold, they do too. in pockets WALKERS
and feed GRAY TRUCK ANIMAL
Not every animal in this FACE-BITING WITH A POINTY FACE
them there. DOGS
family is like that. A
few of them, like birds, JUMPERS WITH LITTLE HOUSE-FOOD EATERS
keep themselves warm POCKETS
ANIMALS WITH RIVER STOPPERS
the way we do. COLD BLOOD BIG FRONT
WALL WALKERS TEETH
LONG BITERS WITH GRAY TREE-JUMPERS
THE FAMILY NO ARMS OR LEGS
POINTY CATS
BIRDS ARE FROM SLOW ROCKS WITH
Birds are the living LEGS AND A HEAD JUMPERS WITH LONG EARS
members of a very
well-known family. Some ANIMAL THAT LOOKS
LIKE A TREE IN THE
of the animals from that BIG HAND-WALKERS
WATER. . . but it can eat you.
family were the biggest land
THE POINTY KIND FRIENDLY HAND ANIMALS
animals that ever lived.
HAND ANIMALS THAT
They lived, grew, and changed THE KIND USE STICKS
for a very long time. When a WITH PLATES HUMANS
space rock hit Earth, most of the HAND HUMAN-SHAPED
ones that were alive at that time died THE BITEY KIND STRONG ARMS
ANIMALS
out, but some groups didn’t. We call the TINY CLIMBERS
branch that those groups are from “birds.” BIRDS These animals
are good at Some of the animals in this
Sometimes, you’ll hear people say that birds THE LONG KIND climbing. We’re group are smaller than your
came from that family, but that they’re not in this group. hand!
really part of it. This is wrong! Just about any
way you count it, birds are part of that family.
ANIMALS WITH BONES

The animals in this part of the tree have bones inside
them. Some of the animals in other parts of the tree
have hard body parts, but they usually have them on
the outside. The animals in this part have bones on the
inside, with the soft parts hanging from them.

UNIT CONNECTIONS
Earth Science Connection FIGURE 1: Colorblind individuals may

have difficulty distinguishing colors.
Color blindness on Pingelap Catastrophic weather events can have significant
impacts on populations, sometimes for generations to come. In 1775, Typhoon
Lengkieki struck the Micronesian atoll of Pingelap. Today, roughly 1 in 10 residents
of Pingelap are entirely colorblind, compared with a rate of 1 in 40,000 individuals
worldwide.
Using library and Internet resources, research the link between color blindness in the
residents of Pingelap and Typhoon Lengkieki. Prepare a report discussing your
findings, including factors such as founder effect or genetic drift that may have contributed
to the phenomenon.
FIGURE 2: Trends in fashion change

Humanities Connection over time in most societies.
Evolution of Fashion Changes and adaptations in culture occur in human

populations—though mostly due to pressures different than those that drive
biological evolution. Fashion, for instance, has “evolved” in nearly every human
society as social norms, artistic trends, climate conditions, and other factors develop
and change. Many aspects of a society are reflected in the fashion preferences of
its people, and some fashion trends are uniquely representative of a particular time
and place.
Using library and Internet resources, research the evolution of fashion trends over
time in a particular society. Write a blog post about a specific change in fashion, and
describe some of the societal changes that may have led to this fashion evolution. Be sure to
include representative pictures to illustrate your findings.
Image Credits: (t) ©Steve Allen/Brand X/Corbis; (c) ©Chronicle/Alamy; (b) ©Volker Steger/Science Source
Engineering Connection
Animal Influence in Robot Design Research focused on the ways that animals FIGURE 3: Many robotic designs are
behave, react, and move has led to potential improvements in robotic design. influenced and inspired by adaptations
Engineers often use strategies evolved in animal species when developing robots. in animals.
For example, engineers have developed robots that climb using technology
modeled on how gecko feet “stick” to surfaces. Robotics engineers have also found
a way to add stability to robots based on studies of how fish use their tails to swim.
Using library and Internet resources, research the design and function of a robot that
has been influenced by animal behavior or movement. What specific characteristics
or strategies were “borrowed” from the animal in the robot’s design? What other
characteristics of the animal that inspired the design might be useful for the robot’s
function? Write a report detailing your findings and suggestions, and present it to the class.



PRACTICE AND REVIEW
1. In a certain species of sea snake, a single gene controls 3. Some individuals in a particular species of butterfly
tongue shape. The forked-tongue allele (T) is dominant, display coloration that mimics that of a different,
while the non-forked-tongue allele (t) is recessive. In this poisonous butterfly species living in the same habitat.
population, 16 individuals are homozygous recessive, 36 Place the elements in order to model what may happen
individuals are homozygous dominant, and 48 individuals to the first butterfly species if the poisonous butterfly
are heterozygous. Using this information, answer the species is removed from the habitat.
following questions: a. Predators will eat butterflies with mimicking
a. How many total alleles for tongue shape are in this coloration more often than before.
population? b. The proportion of individuals in the population with
b. How many T alleles are in the population? mimicking coloration will decrease.
c. How many t alleles are in the population? c. The pressure on predators to avoid eating poisonous
d. What is the frequency of the T allele? Express your butterflies will decrease.
answer as a percentage. d. The survival advantage for mimicking butterflies
e. What is the frequency of the t allele? Express your will decrease.
answer as a percentage.
4. In clam species, a thick shell can discourage potential
2. Bright green tree frogs are generally more common in predators such as sea otters who crack open the shells to
tropical rain forests than in temperate areas, where leaf eat the clams. In a habitat where sea otters are tending to
colors change with the season. Why might this be true? grow larger and stronger, which type of evolution might
a. The frogs’ numbers are similar in both environments be observed in local clams, in terms of shell thickness?
but are easier to spot in green tropical rain forests. a. disruptive evolution, with the thickest and thinnest
b. The frogs’ coloration provides better camouflage in shells becoming more prevalent
temperate forests, where leaves may turn brown or b. stabilizing evolution, with shells around the average
other colors, than in green tropical rain forests. thickness becoming more prevalent
c. The frogs’ coloration helps them stand out better in c. directional evolution, with the average tending toward
green tropical rain forests, compared with temperate thicker shells across the clam population
forests, where leaves may turn brown or other colors. d. directional evolution, with the average tending toward
d. The frogs’ coloration provides better camouflage in thinner shells across the clam population
green tropical rain forests than in temperate forests,
where leaves may turn brown or other colors.

7. Cichlids are a group of more than 2,000 species of fish

FIGURE 4: Founder effect in beetle populations.
that live in African lakes and are thought to have evolved
sample of descendants from adaptive radiation. Explain how so many species
original population
founding population A may have evolved from a common ancestor.
8. Explain a phenomenon related to climate change and

how it can have negative impacts on species, and even
founding population B directly lead to species extinction. Use a specific example
to support your claims.
9. Herring are small ocean fish that often swim together

in large schools. Though this behavior uses significant
energy and can increase competition for resources, what
advantages might the evolution of schooling behavior
5. Examine the image of founding beetle populations provide for herring? Select all correct answers.
in Figure 4. What may be observed in the descendant
a. the ability for many individuals to spot predators
populations that arise from a small number of founding
b. the possibility of diving deeper as a school
individuals? Select all correct answers.
c. greater efficiency in searching for food together
a. Individuals in descendant populations are all
heterozygous for traits. d. confusing potential predators by appearing to be one
large animal
b. Allele frequencies in one descendant population may
be very different from those in another descendant
population. 10. African wild dogs practice cooperative hunting, forming
packs to hunt animals such as antelopes, warthogs,
c. Some alleles may be completely lost in one or more
and wildebeest. Explain some of the advantages and
descendant populations.
disadvantages of group hunting.
d. The genetic variation of the descendant population is
usually lower than in the original population.
UNIT PROJECT
6. Individuals from two different species of firefly, species A
and species B, are brought together. It is determined that
the females from species A do not recognize the mating
materials into a presentation to share with the class. In
signals flashed by males of species B, and females from
your final presentation, evaluate the strength of your
species B do not recognize signals from males of species
analysis and conclusions.
A. Based on this finding, what past phenomenon may
have led to speciation in these fireflies? Remember these tips while evaluating:
a. sexual isolation • L ook at the empirical evidence—evidence based on
b. temporal isolation observations and data. Does the evidence support
c. behavioral isolation the explanation?
d. geographic isolation • Consider if the explanation is logical. Does it
contradict any evidence you have seen?
• Think of tests you could do to support and
contradict the ideas.

Genetic Diversity in Cheetahs

Today, there are fewer than 20,000 African cheetahs (Acinonyx
Changes in Population Size and Genetic Variation
jubatus). Before the last ice age, cheetah species could be
found in North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Around FIGURE 5: Genetic
Changesvariation andSize
in Population population size
and Genetic Variation
10,000 to 12,000 years ago, a mass extinction event occurred
that caused the extinction of almost 75 percent of the
world’s large mammals. A single cheetah species survived
this extinction event, with a range limited to parts of eastern,
central, and southern Africa. What effect did this mass
Genetic variation
Population size
extinction event have on cheetah diversity?

Time
on the problem and the information you need to solve it.
Population size
Genetic variation
2. ANALYZE DATA Source: “Low genetic variation." Understanding Evolution. University of California
Museum of Paleontology. 8 December 2016 <http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/
With your team, analyze the graph of genetic variation and article/conservation_04>.
population size shown in Figure 5. What effect does a sudden

decrease in population size have on genetic variation? Does
genetic variation within a species recover as the species’
population recovers?
3. CONDUCT RESEARCH CHECK YOUR WORK
On your own, use library and Internet resources to research

how the mass extinction event affected genetic variation A complete report should include the
in cheetahs. How does a change in genetic variation affect following information:
modern-day cheetah populations?
• a clearly defined problem with supporting questions
that are answered in the final presentation
4. CONSTRUCT AN EXPLANATION • an analysis of the mass extinction event that affected
Write an explanation of the evolutionary mechanism that genetic variation in cheetahs and how that event
affected genetic diversity in cheetah populations. Can continues to impact modern-day cheetah populations
cheetah populations recover lost genetic diversity? • an explanation of the evolutionary mechanism that
led to a change in genetic variation in cheetahs
5. COMMUNICATE • predictions about future changes in genetic variation
Write a report detailing your analysis and your predictions for in cheetah populations
what will happen to genetic variation in cheetah populations
in the future.

UNIT 10
Human Impacts on
the Environment
Lesson 1: Human
Population Growth and
the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
Lesson 2: Human Impacts

on Biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
Lesson 3: Engineering Solutions

to Environmental Impacts . . . . 498
Unit Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Image Credits: ©leeyiutung/Fotolia
Transportation networks cover Earth,

representing the extent of human
development.
468 Unit 10 Human Impacts on the Environment

FIGURE 1: This device collects trash floating in the ocean.
Millions of tons of trash enter oceans and other bodies of water every year. Many
animals mistake plastic objects for food and die from ingestion. Other animals may
become trapped in plastic pieces and other trash. As plastics accumulate in the water,
human and animal health suffers. Currently, there are many ways different groups are
trying to keep plastics and other trash out of the oceans. Cleaning beaches, increasing
public education about the problem, and creating more opportunities to recycle
plastic material are some ways people are trying to prevent more trash from entering
the ocean. Engineers are developing technology to capture and remove plastic and
trash already in the ocean.
Predict How can humans cause and solve the same environmental problems?
DRIVING QUESTIONS
1. How does human population growth affect the environment?
2. How can humans mitigate the effects of human development on biodiversity?
3. Why do solutions to environmental impacts need to consider a range of criteria,
including societal needs?
Image Credits: ©REX Shutterstock/Ne Bournemouth/AP Images
UNIT PROJECT
the Unit Project
To Dam or Not to Dam Worksheet to help you
plan your project.
Dams are important structures that provide energy and water for many human
populations. Dams also negatively impact the environment. How can the impact
of dams be assessed? How can humans reduce the negative impacts and restore
ecosystem function in landscapes affected by dams? Investigate the advantages and
disadvantages of dams to understand how these structures can help and harm the
modern world.
Unit 10 Human Impacts on the Environment 469

10.1
Human Population Growth

and the Environment
Human impacts on Earth

can be seen from space.
Geophysical Data Center). Suomi NPP is the result of a partnership between NASA, NOAA, and the Department of Defense.; (b) ©Kerry Whitworth/Alamy
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
Image Credits: (t) NASA Earth Observatory image by Robert Simmon, using Suomi NPP VIIRS data provided courtesy of Chris Elvidge (NOAA National
FIGURE 1: This lake contains an orange-red substance.
Gather Evidence
gather evidence for how human
activities affect the geosphere,
atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere.
Earth has existed for roughly 4.5 billion years. Our human species, Homo sapiens,
evolved around 200,000 years ago. As the human population has grown, so has our
dependence on Earth’s resources. Human activities impact natural resources and
Earth’s cycles. Some activities are beneficial; however, many activities are harmful
because they change the land, the air, and the waters of Earth.
Predict What do you think made the water in Figure 1 turn this color?

EXPLORATION 1
Population Growth and Natural Resources
The human population has changed over time as a result of many factors. Increased Predict Make a list of the
use of natural resources, along with improvements in areas such as transportation, most important resources
agriculture, health, and sanitation, have allowed the human population to grow. you use each day. Which of these
come from natural resources?
The Human Population

The graph in Figure 2 shows how the human population has changed over time.
Although humans existed for hundreds of thousands of years before Year 0 on the
graph, we will focus on more recent data for this analysis.
Data Analysis
Language Arts
Human Population Growth
Connection
FIGURE 2: This graph shows how the human population has changed over time. Populations can be analyzed in
Human Population Growth terms of the proportion of people in
8 different age groups. Data can be
7 used to make diagrams called
population pyramids, which show
6
the distribution of males and
Population in billions
5 females in various age groups in a

4 given population. Use Internet
resources to find population
3
pyramids for at least four different
2 countries, and research some of the
1 societal and environmental factors
that account for the patterns in
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 each pyramid. Make a poster or
Year digital presentation to display your
Source: U.S. Census Bureau; David Christian, Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big findings, and present the
History (University of California Press, 2003), 209, 343
information to your peers.
Use the graph of human population growth to answer the following questions:
1. What type of growth is the population experiencing? Explain your answer.
2. In what century did the population begin to increase rapidly? What factors
do you think might have caused this change?
3. What are some other factors that might have allowed the population to
continue to increase in more recent decades?
4. In what ways does the study of human population differ from the study of
wildlife ecology?
Lesson 1 Human Population Growth and the Environment 471

Malthus’s Prediction Carrying Capacity
FIGURE 3: Malthus predicted human population growth would
Will the human population continue to grow? Will there
outpace food production. ever be a time when Earth is not able to support human life?
Humankind’s quest to live by using Earth’s resources has
population
population modified the planet’s environment in many ways. Some of
food
food
production these changes have allowed Earth to support the growth
production
of the human population. In other words, human activities
Malthusian
Malthusian overall have increased Earth’s carrying capacity for humans.
catastrophe
catastrophe
What is Earth’s carrying capacity, or maximum number, for
Quantity
humans? This value can only be predicted because human

Quantity
population growth is affected by so many factors. In the

late 1700s, Thomas Malthus, an economist, wrote in a
controversial essay that the human population was growing
Time
faster than Earth’s resources could support. Furthermore, he
Time
said that if human population growth goes unchecked and
human population continues to increase, poverty and famine would result. These,
according to him, are natural ways in which human population growth is checked.
Predict List some of the factors Malthus may not have accounted for when he wrote
his essay about human population growth. What changes have occurred since the
1700s that have allowed the human population to avoid a “Malthusian catastrophe”?
Factors That Affect Population Growth

Malthus did not consider that the carrying capacity of an environment can change
as the environment changes. In this case, the environment has changed due to
technological advancements developed by humans. Industrial farming equipment
Image Credits: (bl) ©Center For Disease Control/Mary Hilpertshauser; (bc) (br) National Archives at College Park Still Pictures Division
has revolutionized the way we grow food, improvements in sanitation have reduced
disease rates, and advances in medicine have greatly increased the human life span.
These technologies have helped humans to live longer and have allowed the human
population to grow exponentially. The world population was estimated to be over 7
billion in 2015. At the current rate of growth, scientists predict that the population will
be around 9.5 billion in 2050.
Collaborate Write an FIGURE 4: In 1850, a physician named Ignaz Semmelweis, explained that doctors could
273_582a
73_582a
answer to this question, reduce the spread of infectious disease by washing their hands before surgery. It was
and discuss it with a partner: How many years before this idea was full accepted, but it eventually revolutionized health
might societal, scientific, and and medicine.
economic factors changing over
time influence the future growth
rate of the human population?

Natural Resources
Natural resources are any natural materials that are used by humans, such as water,
petroleum, minerals, forests, and animals. Natural resources can be classified as
renewable or nonrenewable.
Renewable Resources
A renewable resource is a resource that can be replaced at the same rate that it is Explain Why is lumber
consumed. Wind energy is a renewable resource. The wind’s kinetic energy, or energy from trees considered a
of motion, turns the blades of a turbine that spin a generator and produce electricity potentially renewable resource?
for homes and commercial infrastructures. Other forms of renewable energy include
biomass, geothermal, hydroelectric, and solar energy. Solar energy from the sun is
captured by solar cells that are used to generate electricity in calculators, homes, and
satellites. Some resources, like fresh water, are “potentially renewable,” or renewable
only if they are not used more quickly than they are replenished.
FIGURE 5: Some renewable natural resources are biomass, hydroelectricity, and geothermal energy.
a Biomass Biomass is material from b Hydroelectric Energy The kinetic c Geothermal Energy Geothermal
plants and animals used as a source energy of the falling water in dams is plants use heat from within Earth to
of energy. Ethanol, an alcohol that used to produce electricity. produce electricity.
can be derived from organic sources
such as corn, is a component of fuel.
Even though renewable resources can be replaced at the same rate they are
consumed, using these resources can still have impacts on the environment and
human health. For example, burning biomass releases carbon dioxide and can
Image Credits: (l) ©Jan-Otto/E+/Getty Images; (c) ©Samo Trebizan/Fotolia; (r) ©jarcosa/Fotolia
be dangerous for people who burn wood indoors for heating and cooking. The
building of dams to tap the energy of falling water can change the temperature and
composition of rivers. These changes affect the organisms that live in or near the rivers
and may upset the stability of the ecosystem where the dam is built.
Engineering
Biomass and Human Health Analyze Research

some of the current
It is estimated that about a third of the world’s population burns wood or other solutions being proposed to fix
biomass for heating and cooking. This produces carbon dioxide that pollutes this problem. Make a list of the
indoor air, which can cause respiratory disease. But in many countries around the proposed solutions, and evaluate
world, other sources of energy are not easily accessible. Cleaner, more efficient each based on how well it
stoves are needed to reduce these impacts on the environment and human health. addresses the problem.

Nonrenewable Resources
Nonrenewable resources are natural resources that are used faster than the rate at
which they form. In other words, nonrenewable materials are typically extracted from
Earth faster than they are replaced. Examples include minerals, nuclear materials, and
fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Minerals are solid substances that
are used in building materials, electronics, medical technologies, and even fireworks.
Language Arts Nuclear materials, such as uranium and plutonium, undergo reactions that produce a
Connection Most of the large amount of energy. This energy can be used to generate electricity.
plastics we use are made from fossil Fossil fuels are extracted by various means, including mining, hydraulic fracturing, and
fuels. Research some of the ways drilling. Mining involves the extraction of coal from artificial tunnels or from Earth’s
that plastics have impacted both surface. Hydraulic fracturing, also called fracking, is a process that injects a mixture of
human society and the water, chemicals, and sand into impermeable rock to create cracks or fractures. This
environment, and make an allows gases to be released and extracted as an energy source. Drilling involves boring
infographic to display your findings. holes into Earth to access and release oil and gas from the crust.
FIGURE 6: Nonrenewable natural resources include fossil fuels, nuclear material, and minerals.
a Fossil Fuels Fossil fuels, like b Nuclear Energy Nuclear reactions c Minerals Minerals like limestone,
petroleum and natural gas, can release heat, which can be converted granite, and marble can be used as
be accessed through drilling. into electrical energy. building materials.
Some methods used to extract natural resources can harm ecosystems and human
Image Credits: (tl) ©Bloomberg/Andrey Rudakov/Getty Images; (tc) ©Steve Allen/Getty Images; (tr) ©walter_bilotta/Fotolia
health. Oil spills from drilling or transportation accidents damage aquatic ecosystems
and pollute human drinking water. Coal miners who work below ground and inhale
coal dust can develop black lung disease, which may lead to respiratory failure. The
mixture injected to penetrate bedrock during hydraulic fracking is also a health
concern because it contains chemicals that could contaminate surface water or
groundwater and may be toxic to humans.
Per Capita Energy Consumption Analyzing Per Capita Consumption

FIGURE 7: Per capita energy consumption for selected
Alongside the increase in the human population over time
countries
Per Capita Energy Consumption is the increase of per capita consumption of resources.
9000
Australia Per capita consumption of resources refers to the average
Energy use (kg of oil equivalent per capita)
8000 China
India amount of resources an individual within a population uses
7000 Saudi Arabia or consumes. The graph in Figure 7 shows per capita energy
6000 United States
World consumption for the world and for some countries.
5000
4000 Analyze What is the general trend in per capita energy use for
3000 the world? Do all countries show the same trend? What societal
2000 and economic factors might explain these differences?
1000
0
1971 1976 1981 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006 2011 2016
Year
Source: Based on IEA data from Energy Use Data © OECD/IEA, www.iea.org/statistics,
License: www.iea.org/t&c; as modified by HMH.

EXPLORATION 2
Human Impacts on Air and Climate
What you see covering the city in Figure 8 is air pollution. This is one example of the
negative impacts that can result from using natural resources. Air pollution can have FIGURE 8: This city is covered
in a hazy material called smog.
adverse effects on human health and ecosystem function.
Air Pollution
Anything added to the environment that has a negative effect on the environment or
its organisms is called pollution. Pollutants, the substances that cause pollution, can
take the form of chemicals, particulates, or microorganisms. The most common air
pollutants are produced by fossil fuel emissions from driving cars and other vehicles.
Waste products from power plants, refineries, and industrial and manufacturing plants
contribute to air pollution because these facilities typically use fossil fuels.
Gather Evidence Have
FIGURE 9: Sources of air pollution include vehicles, agriculture, power plants, and cities.
you seen any evidence of
pollutant emissions human impacts on the air in your
town? What types of evidence
would indicate air pollution?
volcanoes
cities
airplanes
vehicles
power plants,
industry, and
sewage treatment
livestock
fertilizer
The hazy material in Figure 8 is called smog. Smog is a type of air pollution caused by Explain Some cities have
the interaction of sunlight with pollutants produced by fossil fuel emissions. Smog is “Ozone Action Days” when
composed of particulates and ground-level ozone. Particulates are microscopic bits carpooling or taking public
Image Credits: (t) ©beijingstory/E+/Getty Images
of dust, metal, and unburned fuel. Some particulates may stay in the atmosphere for transportation is encouraged. These
weeks before settling to the ground. When inhaled, they can cause health problems, days tend to be scheduled when it
such as asthma and other respiratory diseases. is hot and sunny outside. Why is
ground-level ozone worse on hot,
In the presence of sunlight, some chemicals react to produce ground-level ozone (O3).
When fossil fuels are burned, nitrogen oxides are produced. When these substances
sunny days?
react with oxygen in the air in the presence of light, they produce O3 that tends to
stay close to the ground. This is called ground-level ozone, which can be harmful to
ecosystems and human health. However, O3 does play an important role in Earth’s
upper atmosphere by protecting the biosphere from harmful UV rays in sunlight.

Explore Online Acid Rain
Hands-On Lab When water falls to Earth, water molecules react with carbon dioxide to form carbonic
acid. This weak acid breaks apart, leaving lone hydrogen ions. This gives rain a pH level
The Effects of Acid Rain
of about 5.6. When air pollutants such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides react with
Design and carry out an experiment water, sulfuric and nitric acids are produced, making the pH of rain drop below 5.6.
to determine the effects of acid rain Thus, the rain becomes more acidic and is called acid rain.
on plant growth.
Acid rain can have negative effects on soil. As pH decreases, reactions occur that cause
metal ions to be released into the soil. These ions prevent plants from absorbing
calcium, a nutrient that enhances plant growth and development. Aluminum can also
be carried to bodies of water and can cause the deaths of fish and fish eggs. Humans
are not affected directly by acid rain, but it can damage or destroy structures such as
buildings, bridges, and statues.
Climate Change
Earth is somewhat comparable to a greenhouse. Earth’s atmosphere acts like
the glass in a greenhouse. Solar radiation enters the atmosphere as high-energy
wavelengths of light that warm Earth’s surface. This energy is absorbed and reradiated
as infrared radiation from Earth’s surface. Some of the energy escapes into space. The
rest is absorbed by gases and warms the air. This phenomenon, referred to as the
greenhouse effect, keeps the temperature of Earth at a level that supports life.
When gases like carbon dioxide and methane are added to the atmosphere, they
increase the amount of infrared energy that is trapped in the air. Figure 10 shows the
properties of the main greenhouse gases, including their Global Warming Potentials
(GWP). GWP is a comparative measure of how much heat a gas may absorb.
As more energy is stored in Earth’s atmosphere and oceans, the cycling of matter and
energy among ecosystems is altered. Studies suggest that hurricanes, for example,
are becoming more intense on average. Scientists think this is because there is more
energy stored as heat in Earth’s oceans, and this energy provides the fuel for these
destructive storms. As global temperatures rise, glaciers and ice caps have been
observed decreasing in size, and the water contained in them is added to oceans. This
Math Connection
causes average global sea level to rise, which affects ecosystems and human societies.
Use the table in Figure 10 to answer
these questions: FIGURE 10: This table shows the Global Warming Potential of the main greenhouse
gases. The concentration of each gas in the atmosphere is shown in parts per million.
1. How many times greater is the
Global Warming
GWP for nitrous oxide than for
Concentration Potential (GWP) Duration in the
methane?
Greenhouse gases in 2016 over 100 years atmosphere
2. How much longer is the
duration in the atmosphere Water vapor variable <1 hours to days
for nitrous oxide than for Carbon dioxide 399.5 ppm 1 ~100 to 300 years
methane?
3. Which of these two gases is Methane 1.8 ppm 28 12 years
most likely to have the greatest Nitrous oxide 0.3 ppm 265 121 years
warming effect on Earth’s
Chlorofluorocarbons 0.9 ppm 4,670 to 10,200 45 to 100 years
climate? What other factors
might need to be considered to Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center. Recent Greenhouse Gas Concentrations. http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/ current_ghg.html.
form a valid conclusion? DOI: 10.3334/CDIAC/atg.032.

Analyzing Climate Data
One method to detect and measure climate change is to compare the amount of
atmospheric CO2 present in the past to the amount in the atmosphere now. To infer
CO2 levels in the past, scientists use ice cores. Ice cores are long tubes of ice drilled
from glaciers or ice sheets. As snow falls to Earth, the snow carries chemicals that are
in the air at the time. The substances contained in snow are buried with the snow, one
layer on top of another, over time. Air bubbles between snowflakes and grains become
trapped when the snow is compacted. These air bubbles can provide information
about the composition of the atmosphere. Scientists can also analyze ice cores to infer
global temperature over time.
Explore Online
FIGURE 11: Ice cores provide information about past temperature and CO2 levels.
Carbon Dioxide Levels and Temperature Change
300 4
280 2
Temperature change (˚C)

0
260
CO2 (ppm)
–2
240
–4
220
–6
200 –8
180 –10
400 000 300 000 200 000 100 000 0
Time (years before present)
CO2 (ppm)
Temperature change (˚C) compared to present-day temperature
Source: Petit, J. R., et al., "Climate and atmospheric history of the past 420,000 years from
the Vostok ice core, Antarctica." Nature Vol 399 (1999) as quoted in NOAA, National Climatic
Data Center, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/globalwarming/temperature-change.html
a Data from ice cores show fluctuations in CO2 concentration and b An ice core is extracted in the Antarctic.
temperature variations dating back 400,000 years.
Analyze Answer these questions about the graph in Figure 11.

1. Describe patterns you see in the CO2 and temperature data.
2. The CO2 concentration in Earth’s atmosphere has now reached 400 parts per million.
Image Credits: (r) ©British Antarctic Survey/Photo Researchers, Inc.
How do you think this will affect average temperatures on Earth? Explain your answer.
3. What additional evidence would you need to support the claim that changes in CO2
levels cause changes in average global temperatures?
Climate change poses many challenges for humans and ecosystems. If species cannot
adapt quickly enough to changes in their habitat, they may face extinction. Humans
are also experiencing the effects of climate change. As a result, many scientists,
engineers, and governments have begun searching for solutions to this global issue.
cnlese539273_585a
-31-16 Model Make a model illustrating how human activities change Earth’s atmosphere and
ell how these changes affect the hydrosphere and biosphere. Show how the flow of energy
and matter is changed, and include feedback loops as necessary.

EXPLORATION 3
Human Impacts on Water and Land
Human activities impact water and land. Humans convert rural areas to suburbs and
natural areas to farmland, changing the layout and use of the land. To sustain these
different communities, the flow of water is redirected to supply their needs. The
impact of these activities can be reduced if water and land resources are properly
managed.
Impacts on Water
Explore Online
The availability of fresh water, population sizes, and economic conditions affect how
Hands-On Lab
people use water. Worldwide, agriculture accounts for about 67 percent of water
Modeling Groundwater usage, industry accounts for more than 19 percent, and household activities such as
Contamination Use a model drinking and washing account for about 10 percent of water usage.
to determine how much land can
be contaminated by a leaking Water Pollution
underground storage tank (UST). Nearly every way that humans use water contributes to water pollution, though the
main causes are generally due to industry and human population growth. Humans rely
on water to manufacture many different products, and human population growth is
amplifying the problem.
Water pollution comes from two types of sources. Point source pollution is pollution
discharged from a single source. An example of point source pollution is a waste-release
pipe from a factory manufacturing plastic products. Nonpoint source pollution comes
from many different sources that are often difficult to identify. An example of this form
of pollution is excess fertilizer that comes from farmlands and homes.
FIGURE 12: Pollution that comes from an identified single source is a form of point source pollution, while pollution that comes from
many sources is a nonpoint source of pollution.
Image Credits: (l) ©KN/Shutterstock; (c) ©Aerial Archives/Alamy; (r) ©E+/Narvikk/Getty Images
a Rain can wash oil, pesticides, and b Feedlots can discharge high volumes c Industries can discharge waste with
fertilizers into storm drains. of animal waste, which can flow into heavy metals, pharmaceuticals,
bodies of water. hormones, and other chemicals.
Collaborate Write an argument that answers the questions below. Then, explain
your answers to a partner and note any differences in your arguments.
1. Which of the images in Figure 12 are point sources and which are nonpoint sources?
Are any difficult to classify as one or the other? Explain your answers.
2. Which would be easier to prevent—point sources or nonpoint sources? Explain
your answer.

Managing Water
One of the biggest advances in improving human health has been the development
of sanitation and wastewater management technologies. Wastewater is water that
contains waste from homes or industry. A wastewater treatment process can filter and
treat water to make the water clean enough to return to a river, lake, or ocean where it
becomes part of the water cycle again.
Wastewater treatment can remove organic material, such as human body waste,
as well as scum like oil and grease. Bacteria, which can be harmful to humans and
other organisms, are killed in the process. However, some countries do not have
wastewater management systems, making people more likely to be exposed to
disease-causing agents. Obtaining safe drinking water is a problem for people in
many areas of the world. Solutions aimed at treating these problems include building Technology
necessary infrastructures such as plumbing, educating the public about sanitary and Society
practices, and increasing access to fresh drinking water. Advanced wastewater treatments
Image Credits: (t) ©Photothek/Michael Gottschalk/Getty Images; (bc) (br) NASA Earth Observatory image created by Robert Simmon, using Landsat data provided by the United States Geological Survey.
can turn wastewater into drinking

FIGURE 13: Wastewater treatment plants pool and process wastewater so that it can be
water. Even though this technology
released to the environment.
is available, it is still not widely
used in the United States. What
societal factors might be hindering
the use of this technology, and how
could these be addressed?
FIGURE 14: At the top, there is

a view of a region before a dam
was built. At the bottom, there
is the same region after a dam
Another way humans manage water is by building structures such as dams that
was constructed.
change the natural flow of water. Dams are built for a variety of reasons, including
electricity generation. During dry seasons, water from dams may be released to
irrigate agricultural lands for crop production. Some dams are used as a means to
control flooding by holding water during heavy precipitation periods, so rivers do not
overflow and cause flooding. Water in dams can also be redirected to homes to be
used as drinking water or to industrial areas for industrial purposes.
Dams benefit humans, but they can negatively affect ecosystems. Dams can increase
the risk of flooding in some cases. Releasing excess water from dams can cause
flooding downstream, and intense storms can cause water to flow over a dam. Also,
the water that dams hold contains silt that otherwise would be deposited along
beaches or riverbanks, so dams may change the formation of natural landscapes. Silt
deposition can increase soil fertility, and lack of silt may deprive plants of important
nutrients. The quality of the water held in the reservoir can also change. For example,
changes in the amount of oxygen and water temperature may impact the populations
of organisms that live in a local ecosystem.
Analyze Study Figure 14. How did building the dam affect the river and the
surrounding land? How might this affect ecosystems in this area?

Impacts on Land
As the human population grows, more land is needed for homes, agriculture, and the
extraction of natural materials. For example, aluminum is a metal used in products like
bakeware, cans, and airplane parts. This natural resource must be mined from Earth.
Building, agriculture, and mining activities often impact organisms by disrupting local
Explore Online ecosystems and causing pollution.
Hands-On Lab
Soil Erosion
Modeling Soil Erosion
Human activities such as clear-cutting forests, building structures, raising livestock, and
Develop a model to measure the
growing crops can damage land. These activities often involve the removal of plants
effectiveness of different kinds of
from their natural habitat, which leaves the soil exposed. Additionally, loss of plant
ground cover in controlling soil
cover can lead to less absorption of rainwater. With sufficient plant loss, soil may be
erosion. transported away by moving water, wind, and other agents. This is called soil erosion.
Soil may be washed away, sometimes into nearby bodies of water. Soil erosion can
reduce the fertility of land, thereby reducing crop production. It can also damage
infrastructure and change the quality of water in rivers and streams. Soil can carry with
it disease-causing organisms called pathogens. These pathogens may be transported
into bodies of water, negatively affecting the health of humans and other species.
Engineering
FIGURE 15: Terracing prevents Soil and Water Engineering

h3_fea-head-red
soil erosion and water loss
by using ridges to capture The field of soil and water engineering applies science and technology to design
p_body
rainwater that would otherwise solutions that conserve water and soil resources. Engineers can help farmers and
flow down the slope. agricultural operations conserve valuable topsoil and more precisely apply water
to crops. One technique that has been used for centuries to reduce soil erosion
caused by rainfall is soil terracing, shown in Figure 15.
Farmers can also prevent soil erosion by leaving field residues on the ground after a
crop has been harvested. Field residues are the stems, leaves, and other plant parts
that are not harvested. Leaving these materials on the soil surface reduces soil and
water loss. It also helps the soil retain important nutrients.
Explain Imagine you are a soil engineer called upon to help a farmer prevent
soil erosion caused by the wind. Write a list of questions you would ask to define
and delimit the problem.
Continuously growing the same crops on the same land is another way that nutrients
are removed from soil. The use of fertilizers to replace these nutrients can lead to other
negative outcomes. Artificial eutrophication, or the buildup of nutrients, can occur in
Image Credits: ©FFaure/Shutterstock
water bodies that receive runoff from overfertilized soil. Soil can also be compacted,
or pressed together, by heavy farm equipment or during construction. When soil is
compacted, it does not absorb water as readily, and plant roots cannot grow normally.
If soil is damaged enough, a process called desertification can occur. This makes land
in dry areas become more desert-like over time. Many factors, including drought,
deforestation, and poor farming techniques, increase the likelihood of desertification.

FIGURE 16: This map shows the vulnerability of different areas to desertification.
Desertification
Vulnerability Other regions
Very high Dry
High Cold or
humid (not
Moderate vulnerable)
Low
Mining
When fossil fuels and minerals are mined, parts of the ecosystem, including rocks, soil, Analyze Where are
Desertification
plants, and animals, are removed. There are two main types of mining. Subsurface the areas at most risk
Vulnerability Other regions

mining is the extraction of materials from below Earth’s surface. Drilling for oil and
gas is an example of subsurface mining. Surface mining involves the removal of rocks
located? What factors might
make these areas more vulnerable
and soil from Earth’s surface to expose and extract minerals. Mining can damage land, to desertification?
Very high Dry
air, and water. For example, when water runs through mines, it can become acidic,
causing metals to be released from the surrounding rock. This mixture of acidic water
High Cold or
and metals is called acid mine drainage and is very harmful to living things. It can also
contaminate drinking water and corrode metal structures such as bridges. Mining may
humid (not
also release harmful chemicals into the atmosphere. Additionally, mining disturbs soil,
Moderate
and therefore can cause erosion and land damage.
vulnerable)
Image Credits: (bl) ©Universal Images Group Editorial/AGF/A&G Reporter/Getty Images; (br) ©Lee Prince/Shutterstock
Language Arts
There are two main types of mining—subsurface mining and surface mining.
Low
FIGURE 17:
Connection Develop an
argument based on evidence for
which type of mining (surface or
subsurface) has fewer
environmental impacts.
a Subsurface mining involves the b Surface mining operations remove

extraction of minerals and fossil fuels rocks and soil on the surface, exposing
from below Earth’s surface. minerals to be extracted.
Explain Make a claim based on evidence for how human impacts on land and water
could change Earth’s carrying capacity for humans. How would it change
change,and
andwhy?
why?

Hands-On Lab
The Effects of Acid Rain

MATERIALS Recall that rain typically has a pH of about 5.6. Human activities that involve burning
• beaker, 250 mL fossil fuels release oxides, specifically sulfur and nitrogen oxides, into the air. When
• marker these oxides react with water, acids are produced. These substances lower the pH and
make rain more acidic. Acid rain can affect both plant and animal life.
• pencil
In this lab, you will design an experiment to determine the effects of acid rain on plant
• ruler, metric
growth. You will then perform your experiment, record and analyze your data, and
• seedling, potted radish (4) explain the relationship between the pH of water and plant growth based on patterns
• water, pH 3, 100 mL observed in the experiment.
Understanding pH
• water, pH 4, 100 mL FIGURE 18: Typically, rain has a pH of about 5.6. Acid rain has a pH lower than 5.6.
• water, pH 5, 100 mL pure water

stomach acid blood
• water, pH 6, 100 mL
bile
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
more acidic neutral more basic
H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H H+ H+ H+ + H+
+
H+ H+ H+ H+ H+
H + H+
H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H H+
H +
H +
H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ + H+ H+ H+ H+
H H+
H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H+ H +
H+
H+
H+ H+ H+ H+
H+ H+ H+ H+
+ +
higher H concentration lower H concentration
Predict How does acid rain affect plant growth? Make a prediction about the
relationship between the pH of water and plant growth.
PROCEDURE
Follow these steps to complete this part of the activity.
1. Write a procedure explaining how you will set up and conduct an experiment to
test how acid rain affects plant growth. Identify the independent and dependent
variables and the constants you will maintain. Use the questions below to help you
write your procedure.
• What amount of water will you use to water the plants?
• How often will you water the plants?
•H
ow will you measure the effects of acid rain on plant growth, both quantitatively
and qualitatively?
• How often will you collect data?
482
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Unit 10 Human Impacts on the Environment
10-25-16
Leslie Kell
2. Have your teacher approve your procedure before you perform your experiment.
3. Design a data table to organize your results.
4. Gather your materials.
5. Set up and conduct your experiment.
ANALYZE
Follow these steps to complete this part of the activity.
1. Graph your data. Determine whether a line graph or bar graph is appropriate, and
construct that type of graph.
2. Describe patterns you see in the data. How did each pH affect plant growth?
EXPLAIN
Write an explanation that includes the following sections.
Claim What is the relationship between the pH of water and plant growth? Was your
prediction correct?
Evidence Give specific examples from your data to support your claim.
Reasoning Explain how the evidence you gave supports your claim. How does it back
up what you are saying?
REFINE
Address Error Identify possible sources of experimental error in your design. List
possible reasons for inconsistent results you may have observed.
Propose Changes What changes would you make to this procedure if you were to do
it again? Why would you make these changes?
EXTEND YOUR INVESTIGATION

Measure the pH of rain in your area. Based on the results of your experiment, what
could you conclude about how the pH of rain might affect the growth of plants?
What other types of evidence would you need to form a valid conclusion?
CALCULATING YOUR POLLUTION AND CLEANING UP Go online to choose one of

CARBON FOOTPRINT HUMAN HEALTH OIL SPILLS these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 19: This lake has turned red as a result of acid mine drainage.
When fossil fuels and minerals are mined, rocks are exposed. These rocks contain
substances that can react with air and water. The red-orange material in the river in
Figure 19 is the result of acid mine drainage. Water passing through abandoned mines
reacts with iron sulfide in the mines. This reaction produces sulfuric acid and iron,
which is dissolved in the water. When iron precipitates out of the water, it forms a solid
with the observed red-orange color.
Acid mine drainage can contaminate drinking water and make people sick. It can
contaminate aquatic habitats and affect organisms that live there. The acid in the
water can also deteriorate metal structures.
Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook to construct an explanation for
how human activities could lead to the changes in this lake.
1. Explain how human needs and lifestyles contribute to the activities that cause acid
mine drainage.
2. Make a model to illustrate how human activities led to the changes observed in
this lake and how these changes will in turn affect Earth’s geosphere, hydrosphere,
Image Credits: ©Kerry Whitworth/Alamy
biosphere, and atmosphere.

3. Use your model to brainstorm a possible solution to this problem. Explain how this
solution would decrease negative impacts on Earth’s natural resources.

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 8. Suppose you are an environmental engineer, a scientist

who helps develop solutions to environmental problems.
1. Which of these have contributed to the increase of You have been hired by a manufacturing plant to help
human population growth? Select all correct answers. conserve natural resources and save money. What
a. discovery of penicillin suggestions would you give to achieve these goals?
b. increase in antibiotic-resistant bacteria
c. transportation that allows food distribution 9. Which of the following is not an example of a point-
d. administration of vaccinations source pollution?
e. availability of all types of fast food a. oil that is escaping from a damaged tanker
b. heavy metals that are leaching out of an underground
2. Wheatgrass is the young grass of the wheat plant, and mine
it is used to feed livestock. What kind of resource is c. water runoff from residential lawns
wheatgrass? d. untreated sewage that is accidentally released from a
a. renewable and biomass wastewater treatment plant
b. nonrenewable and biomass
c. renewable and fossil fuel 10. Over a long period of time, how might living things adapt
d. nonrenewable and fossil fuel to increased carbon dioxide levels and climate change?
Do you think most species will adapt, or are many species
likely to go extinct?
3. Which of these activities would be the best way to reduce
fossil fuel use?
a. riding a bike to school
b. eating processed foods
c. watching TV In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
d. buying books supports the main ideas from this lesson:
4. A drought leads to loss of much of the local vegetation.

The human population has increased over time because of
Which measures would be best for preventing soil advances that support and prolong human life.
erosion?
Human activities can impact air, land, and water quality.
a. plant more bushes and trees
However, actions can be taken to reduce negative impacts on
b. water remaining plants daily
the environment.
c. cover soil with stones or rocks
d. add more soil to the ground Remember to include the following information in your
study guide:
5. How does deforestation affect climate change? • Use examples that model main ideas.
6. If the human population were to exceed Earth’s carrying • Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
capacity, how would human population growth change? include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions, and
7. Consider the group of words
Consider how human activities can affect the environment, life on
groundwater, trees, solar energy, and steel
Which does not belong to the group and why?
Earth, and Earth’s climate.

10.2
Human Impacts
on Biodiversity
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 1: Prescribed burns are a land management technique used to mimic the
Healthy prairies contain benefits of a natural fire.
diverse ecosystems.
Gather Evidence A prairie is a natural grassland that supports a wide range of plants and animals.
As you explore the lesson, The North American prairies formed in the rain shadow of the Rocky Mountains.
gather evidence for why burning an These relatively flat grasslands are too moist to become desert ecosystems but too
dry for forests to grow. The prairie ecosystems of North America once covered over
area could result in an increase in
Image Credits: (t) ©Tetra Images/Alamy; (b) ©Mitch Kezar/NewsCom
68.8 million hectares (170 million acres) of land. This former expanse included short,
biodiversity. Include a list of
mixed, and long grass prairies running from present-day Canada through the United
questions you would ask to learn
States to the Mexican border. Less than 2 percent of native North American prairie
more about the role of fire in remains. Much of the prairie land has been replaced by agriculture.
ecosystem structure and function.
Prairie ecosystems are adapted to fire and require relatively frequent fire events to
function properly. Some estimates place the historical fire return gap at one to five
years for North American prairies. Today, the natural fire return gap is much longer.
Land managers may use prescribed burns to return the historical structure and
function to prairie ecosystems.
Predict How could burning a prairie increase biodiversity?

EXPLORATION 1
Habitat Loss
Earth is currently experiencing a significant loss of biodiversity that is increasingly

FIGURE 2: Habitat loss threatens
being recognized as the sixth mass extinction. Habitat loss is the most common cause
orangutan survival.
of decline and extinction in species. Human activities and development that remove
natural habitats, such as agriculture, deforestation, and urbanization, all lead to habitat
loss and fragmentation.
Collaborate Discuss with a partner how habitat loss could affect biodiversity.
Clearing Land
The island of Borneo was once widely covered by lowland and mountainous rain
Image Credits: (t) ©Kjersti/Fotolia; (b) ©GRID-Arendal http://www.grida.no/graphicslib/detail/extent-of-deforestation-in-borneo-1950-2005-and-projection-towards-2020_119c
forests. Today the island is losing rain forest habitat at an unsustainable rate due to
logging, fires, and land clearing for commercial crops. One such crop is oil palms.
Palm oil is made from the fruits of the oil palm. It is the most used vegetable oil on the
planet and is found in products ranging from cosmetics to packaged foods. The market
for palm oil is growing quickly even as the negative effects of palm plantations reach
a critical level.
FIGURE 3: Land clearing in Borneo has led to significant habitat loss.

Analyze How can
agricultural practices lead
to a decrease in biodiversity?
Include a list of impacts to
ecosystem function and
productivity in your answer.
The biggest threat to biodiversity on Borneo is habitat loss. Species such as the
Bornean orangutan need rain forest habitat to survive and are therefore particularly
sensitive to habitat loss. The number of Bornean orangutans has decreased by over
60 percent since 1950. Poaching also threatens their survival. The Bornean orangutan
is critically endangered and may become extinct if enough suitable habitat is not
preserved. This species has reached the point that is known as an extinction threshold.
If habitat loss continues, the population of Bornean orangutans will not be able to
recover and they will become extinct.
Lesson 2 Human Impacts on Biodiversity 487

FIGURE 4: Roads cause habitat Habitat Fragmentation
fragmentation.
Bornean orangutan habitat is fragmented as land is cleared. Habitat fragmentation
occurs when a barrier such as a road or cleared landscape divides a larger habitat into
smaller sections, preventing individuals from accessing their full home ranges. Roads
form a physical barrier to dispersal for many species. Agriculture and urban sprawl are
also barriers to dispersal, as they are not welcoming habitats for many species.
Predict How can the effects of habitat fragmentation lead to a decrease

in biodiversity?
Habitat fragmentation is a process that decreases suitable habitat. This decrease in

habitat in turn leads to a decrease in carrying capacity for most species. Some species
may become locally extinct, or extirpated, if a habitat patch is not large enough to
support a breeding population. It also isolates smaller patches of habitat, which can
prevent immigration and gene flow depending upon the degree of isolation and the
Explore Online
species involved. For example, a small rodent would have a harder time moving to an
isolated habitat patch than would a bird.
Hands-On Activity
Habitat fragmentation increases the edges of a habitat, which have different biotic and
Modeling Habitat abiotic characteristics than the interior. Examples of edge effects include increased
Fragmentation Explore how predation, the development of unsuitable microclimates, and greater exposure to
building a shopping center affects pollutants. Fragmentation can lead to the disruption of mating and breeding patterns
animal species within their habitat. or the inability to find resources necessary for survival.
Cause and Effect
FIGURE 5: Monarch Building Wildlife Corridors

butterflies depend on nectar
corridors during migration. Wildlife corridors connect isolated patches of habitat. The goal of wildlife corridors
is to help individuals move freely throughout their entire range. This movement
helps to maintain gene flow and genetic diversity between populations of a species.
Image Credits: (t) ©Mario Beauregard/Fotolia; (b) ©The Image Bank/Richard Ellis/Getty Images
Wildlife corridors can be natural, such as riparian corridors along river systems that
link populations of species that live in isolated wetlands. Wildlife corridors can also
be artificial, such as the construction of highway underpasses or overpasses that let
wildlife cross the roadways that fragment their habitat without danger.
Every year, monarch butterflies migrate between Canada and Mexico. These
butterflies depend on nectar from wildflowers to sustain them on their long
journey. Milkweed is an important food source for monarch butterfly larvae.
Monarch butterflies depend on nectar corridors, which refers to a series of habitat
patches that contain the plants that flower at the right times during the spring and
fall monarch butterfly migration. It is particularly important that these patches be
protected within urban and agricultural zones that are vulnerable to development.
Analyze What factors should be taken into consideration when making a wildlife
corridor? Why is cooperation between public agencies and private landowners
important when selecting the path of a wildlife corridor?

Habitat Management FIGURE 6: President Theodore
Roosevelt and naturalist
Resources are often overexploited for economic reasons. In contrast, sustainable John Muir advocated for the
development uses natural resources in a way that meets current needs without preservation of wild spaces.
causing permanent damage. Widespread adoption of sustainable development
depends upon convincing people that nature has a cultural and aesthetic value as well
as an economic one.
Protecting Habitat
Setting aside areas of public land to be preserved in a natural state is one way that
governments can protect ecosystems. The Yosemite Grant of 1864 was the first
federal legislation in the United States aimed at protecting nature from development.
The bill designated Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove of sequoia trees as
protected wilderness areas. Yellowstone National Park was established as the country’s
first national park in 1872. The writings of naturalist John Muir were influential
in convincing Americans that nature was worth protecting, in part because of its
inspirational value. The next step in the preservation of U.S. public lands was the
Antiquities Act of 1906, signed by President Theodore Roosevelt. It let presidents
designate historic landmarks, structures, and other objects of interest as national
monuments. In 1916, the National Park Service (NPS) was established with the
mandate to preserve and protect natural environments for the enjoyment of future
generations. One hundred years later, the NPS oversees 59 national parks and many
other areas of natural and historical significance.
Today, federal conservation and management of public lands includes rangeland
managed by the Bureau of Land Management, forests managed by the U.S. Forest
Service, and wildlife refuges managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. State,
regional, and city governments also protect natural lands through parks and nature
preserves. Many protected areas are managed with the dual purpose of human
recreation and conservation of natural habitat.
Protecting Endangered Species

Both the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Analyze Conserving
Administration manage the species listed under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) habitat for which species
of 1973. The ESA is designed to protect individual species that are near extinction by would provide the most protection
providing protection for the species and its habitat. Protection under the ESA comes for other species in a threatened
in many forms including habitat conservation and captive breeding programs. The
habitat: a species with a larger
ESA recognizes the ecological, historical, educational, aesthetic, and scientific value of
range over many habitats or a
threatened species.
species with a smaller range over
Image Credits: ©Library of Congress Prints & Photographs Division
When a single species within an ecosystem is placed on a list of endangered species, only the threatened habitat?
other species within the ecosystem may benefit as well. For example, when the
northern spotted owl was listed as threatened in 1990, logging practices in the
owls’ habitat were changed to leave more old-growth forest. The northern spotted
owls benefited from the conservation of habitat, as did all plant, animal, fungal, and
microbial organisms living in the same habitat.
Explain How has habitat loss impacted North American prairies? How can habitat
management techniques aid prairie restoration?

EXPLORATION 2
Introduced Species
A native species is one that lives in its historical range. Non-native species, also called
introduced species, are species that have been introduced to new areas that have not
historically been part of their native range. Introduced species are commonly brought
to an ecosystem as a result of human activity.
Introduced and Invasive Species

Over our history, humans have relocated many species around the world. Some
introductions were accidental, such as the release of rodents into many island
ecosystems from ships. Other introductions were deliberate. For example, in the late
19th century a group determined to bring every species mentioned by the English
playwright William Shakespeare into the United States successfully released starlings
in New York. Starlings are now found across the country and around the world.
FIGURE 7: Zebra mussels attach When an introduced species causes economic or environmental harm or poses a
to mollusks and can kill them. threat to human health, it is called an invasive species. These species typically act as
predators, cause disease, or outcompete native species. Two examples of invasive
species are the zebra mussel and the quagga mussel. The zebra mussel is native to
Russia and the quagga mussel is native to Ukraine. It is suspected that these invasive
mussels were introduced into the Great Lakes from the wastewater of transatlantic
cargo ships in the 1980s. Not long after, the invasive mussels spread into nearby river
drainages. Today, over 30 states have invasive mussel infestations. They compete with
native mollusks for food and decrease phytoplankton and zooplankton populations in
habitats they invade. They also may attach to native mollusks in numbers sufficient to
Image Credits: (t) ©U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; (bl) (br) US Geological Survey, Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Program
kill them.
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FIGURE 8: Since their introduction in the 1980s, invasive mussels have spread to over 30 U.S. states.
1986 2016
Patterns
1. What do you notice about the pattern of zebra and quagga mussel habitat
expansion over time?
2. What do you think accounts for this pattern?

Engineering
FIGURE 9: Boat inspections help Preventing the Spread of Invasive Mussels

prevent the spread of invasive
mussels. Invasive mussels are notorious for attaching to and colonizing water intake pipes,
buoys, fishing gear, and boat hulls. They spread naturally along waterways but can
also be transported between unlinked drainages by small watercraft. Solutions such
as antifouling paint prevent mussels from attaching to boats. Antifouling paints
that have been successful in the past are now being phased out due to concerns
about leaching metals into waterways. New, safer treatments are being developed
that can be used on boat surfaces as well as engine surfaces. However, they usually
are more expensive to retrofit and maintain. Boater education and mandatory boat
inspections in sensitive areas also help, but invasive mussels are continuing to
spread because no solution to the problem has been 100 percent effective.
Collaborate Discuss with a partner potential solutions to prevent the spread

of invasive mussel species. What are some criteria and constraints that need to be
considered when developing your solutions?
Invasive Species Management

Physical removal, chemical herbicides, burning, and grazing
FIGURE 10: Park volunteers remove invasive garlic mustard.
are all methods that can be used to control invasive plants.
For animals, physical removal through hunting, fishing, or
trapping is effective. Many successful programs for invasive
species management combine several different methods.
Biological controls are a particularly useful option for invasive
plants. A biological control agent is a pest or predator from
the invasive species’ home range. Potential biological controls
must be studied extensively before they are introduced to
prevent unintended impacts on the environment. For example,
the cane toad was introduced in Australia to control sugar
cane pests but is now itself considered an invasive species.
Invasive species have a major economical impact on humans
Image Credits: (t) ©Stephen Barnes/Shipping/Alamy; (b) ©Jim West/Alamy
as well as ecosystems. It is estimated that, in the United

States alone, economic damage from invasive species costs
more than $100 billion a year. This estimate includes money
spent on prevention, early detection, control, research,
and outreach activities.
Analyze Introduced species contribute to the decline of native prairies. For example,
non-native species may outcompete native grasses and, in some cases, degrade the
quality of grazing for cattle. How could controlling introduced species help restore
prairies?

EXPLORATION 3
Overharvesting Species
Humans use many plant and animal species for food, clothing, medicine, and other
FIGURE 11: American bison
purposes. In this context, plants and animals are considered natural resources.
were hunted to the verge of
extinction in the mid-1800s. Overharvesting occurs when individual organisms are removed from an ecosystem
faster than a population can replace them. The American bison is one such example.
Figure 11 shows a massive pile of American bison skulls. While Native American
populations used the bison as a source of food and clothing, the arrival of the
transcontinental railroad in the 1860s led to the popularization of hunting bison for
sport by travelers from the East coast. The species was hunted nearly to extinction. It
was only saved by the establishment of Yellowstone National Park in 1872, which was
at the time home to the last surviving herd of bison.
Overfishing
Fishing is defined as the harvesting of aquatic species. Fisheries can be overharvested
if more individuals are removed than the population can produce. In other words,
the reproduction rates of a fishery must be equal to or higher than the harvesting
rates, or overharvesting will occur. Overharvesting can cause the collapse of a fishery
if it is widespread and populations are harvested to the point of extremely low
numbers, particularly in terms of females. If fisheries continue to be harvested after
a collapse, the harvested species could become extinct. Aquatic species that have
been overharvested include swordfish, Atlantic cod, and tuna. Oceanic fisheries are
particularly vulnerable to overharvesting because no single nation owns the open
oceans. In order to maintain sustainable fisheries, countries must cooperate together
to ensure that populations are not overharvested.
Data Analysis
FIGURE 12: NorthCod

Atlantic CodCollapse
Fishery Fishery Collapse North Atlantic Cod Fishery Collapse
400 The Grand Banks cod fishery, located off the coast of
350
Live weight (in thousands
Newfoundland, was managed starting in the 1950s in

300 an effort to preserve the fishery and let cod populations
of metric tons)
250 rebound. Instead of rebounding, cod populations continued

to decline through the 1970s. New fishing technology in the
200
1980s along with the lack of suitable fishing regulations led
150 to the collapse of the fishery in the early 1990s. Cod fishing
100 was banned in the Grand Banks in 1992. There were very few
50 cod fish left capable of reproducing at the time of the fishery
Image Credits: (t) ©Hi-Story/Alamy
0 collapse, and the fishery has yet to recover.

1990 2000 2010 1. What has been the largest annual catch since the fishery
Year
collapsed in the early 1990s?
Source: Department of Fisheries and Oceans, Canada
2. What factors may be hindering the recovery of the fishery?
3. Why are no-fishing zones important to the recovery of a
fishery?

Overhunting
Hunting, trapping, and collecting can be used to manage
FIGURE 13: The western black rhinoceros was declared extinct
a population of animals. However, if more individuals are in 2011.
continually removed from a population than can be replaced
by normal population growth, the population will decline and
eventually become extinct. Overhunting impacts biodiversity
in two ways. If extinction or extirpation occurs, species
richness—the number of species present in a given area—will
decrease. Reducing the population of any species to very
small numbers reduces genetic diversity of that species and
may cause a genetic bottleneck. Species richness and genetic
diversity are measurements of biodiversity. Decreases in these
two values will lead to a decrease in biodiversity.
The western black rhinoceros, shown in Figure 13, was one
of four subspecies of black rhinoceroses that once ranged
across central and western Africa. Three factors led to the
demise of this subspecies. First, sports hunting decimated many populations in the
early 20th century. Second, the clearing of land for agriculture destroyed rhinoceros
habitat. Third, the rise in popularity of traditional Chinese medicine in the 1950s,
in which powdered rhinoceros horn plays a major part, led to a massive increase in
poaching. By the early 1990s, less than 2 percent of the original population of black
rhinoceroses were left in the wild. The last remaining western black rhinoceroses—just
five of them—were observed in 2001. A decade later, with no further observations, the
International Union for Conservation of Nature formally declared the western black
rhinoceros extinct.
Sustainable Fishing and Hunting Practices

Humans have found solutions to overharvesting, such as sustainable fishing practices.
Many fisheries now have regulations for catch size, season length, and the type of
equipment that can be used for fishing. These regulations aim to keep fish populations
at sustainable levels while also providing the food source that humans depend
upon. Regulations also help reduce bycatch, which refers to any species captured
during commercial fishing that is not the target species. Bycatch is a threat to many
vulnerable species such as sea turtles and dolphins. For example, fine-meshed nets
used for catching shrimp now must be equipped with turtle excluder devices. The
devices prevent turtles and other large species from becoming trapped in the nets.
Explain How can regulating catch size, equipment used, and season length protect
aquatic biodiversity?
Image Credits: ©U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Hunting in a sustainable manner conserves populations and prevents overharvesting.

Similar to fishing, wildlife managers regulate hunting seasons, the age and sex of
animals that can be harvested, and the equipment that can be used.
Analyze What resources might have been overexploited as part of the destruction of
North American prairies?

Rethinking the Value FIGURE 14: Though not native to North America, honey bees are integral pollinators.
of Non-native Species
There is a distinct bias against non-
native species in both science and
public communities. In some ways,
this means scientists have effectively
educated the public about the dangers
of invasive species.
This distrust of non-native species
seems to be well-founded. Land and
They were introduced by early European Cold-adapted species are moving to
water managers dealing with kudzu or
settlers in 1622. However, today they higher elevations or toward the poles in
zebra mussel infestations can give first-
are invaluable pollinators of crops and pursuit of suitable temperature ranges.
hand accounts about how destructive
producers of honey. Warm-adapted species are expanding
invasive species can be. Many scientists
their ranges as they move into
think that it is both fair and necessary to Non-native plants often provide
previously unsuitable habitat. Climate
be critical of non-native species given habitat for native species. Salt cedar,
change, habitat loss, and other human
the amount of damage they can cause. introduced to control erosion, is
impacts can mean that a non-native
Invasive non-native species take over particularly invasive in the southwestern
species may be threatened in its home
landscapes and often outcompete other United States, but has become a critical
range. Should these species be removed
species for precious resources. nesting habitat for the endangered
from their new ranges even if they may
southwestern willow flycatcher.
The harm caused by invasive species not survive in their home ranges?
An attempt to remove salt cedar
is not always immediate. A wait-and-
populations was accompanied by a Both sides of the debate want to
see approach will not always work, as
decline in the flycatcher population. maintain biodiversity and ecosystem
a once-harmless species can quickly
function. The difference is how non-
turn into an invasive nightmare. For Other issues to consider in the debate
native species fit into the picture: as
Image Credits: (l) ©Arterra Picture Library/Clement Philippe/Alamy; (r) ©Horst Sollinger/Getty Images
example, the Brazilian pepper-tree was of whether non-native species should
potential beneficial contributors or as a
introduced to the U.S. as an ornamental be welcomed into new ecosystems are
potential destructive force.
plant and originally did not seem to be how the term native is defined and what
invasive. Today, it is an invasive threat to should happen to non-native species
mangrove communities in Florida. that are now threatened in their home
ranges. Native defines a species’ home
However, some scientists have begun to Language Arts Connection
range during a certain period of time.
challenge the “native or bust” ideals that Write a short position paper
Most species were non-native at some
dominate current science. They quickly focused on whether all non-native species
point, meaning they arrived in their
point out that some non-native species should be targeted for removal from new
current home ranges from elsewhere.
provide important ecosystem services, environments. Support your position and
such as pollination of native flowers and Further confusing the difference
claims with evidence from the passage. You
soil stabilization. For example, honey between native and non-native species
and your classmates will discuss your
bees are not native to North America. is that climate change is causing species
positions in a classroom debate.
to move into new ranges on their own.
DESIGN A PRESERVE PROTECTING Go online to choose one of

KILLER KITTIES
IN YOUR COMMUNITY BIODIVERSITY these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 15: Land managers use prescribed burns to maintain prairie ecosystems.
Fire plays an important role in healthy prairie ecosystems. Prairies, especially those
with tall-grass species, accumulate dead biomass year after year as grasses go dormant
in the wintertime and new vegetation emerges in the springtime. Historically, fire was
a frequent disturbance regime that removed this layer of dead plant material. The
burning of biomass immediately makes the mineral nutrients in the biomass available
to the new growth as ash. With the dead biomass gone, new vegetation not only has
more nutrients, it also receives more sunlight. This improves growth in the seasons
that follow fires. Fire increases biodiversity by opening new habitat and increasing the
establishment success of pioneer species.
questions:
1. How does burning a prairie increase biodiversity?
2. Why is maintaining biodiversity important?
Biodiversity is declining as humans change habitats, introduce invasive species,

Image Credits: ©Mitch Kezar/NewsCom
and overharvest native species. Humans will continue to cause significant impacts
to the environment for the foreseeable future. The implementation of sustainable
development practices will be key to managing resources for both current and future
generations. More progress is needed in this area in order for natural spaces and
biodiversity to be preserved and protected while also providing enough resources for
Earth’s growing human population.

EVALUATE
CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding Use Figure 16 to answer Questions 7–10.
1. Make a diagram that models how crowding in a

FIGURE 16: Habitat Fragmentation
fragmented habitat acts as a negative feedback on
the system. What is the effect on population size and
carrying capacity?
2. Rodent species were introduced to many island

systems accidentally as ships traveled around the
world. Introduced rodents are the likely culprits in at
least 13 extinctions of native species. Many rodents will
opportunistically feed on bird and turtle eggs, small
birds, reptiles, and many other native species. What
might happen to the island system if a rodent species
is introduced that has no competitors for its preferred
niche, no predators, and no disease or parasites?
3. Why is monitoring an important part of controlling

invasive species? 1 square = 1km
a Original habitat
a. Monitoring can prevent the spread of invasive species.
b. Monitoring can identify new populations of invasive
species while they are still small.
c. Monitoring can maintain the historic state of a
landscape.
d. Monitoring can assess the impacts an introduced
species could have on a new environment.
4. Why are species with low reproductive rates more

sensitive to extinction due to overexploitation than those
with higher reproductive rates?
5. Use the terms below to complete the paragraph.

decreases, directly related, increases, inversely related
In general, the level of biodiversity in an ecosystem is
1 square = 1km
_____ to the amount of habitat loss. When the amount of
b Fragmented habitat
habitat loss increases, the degree of biodiversity _____.
Habitat connectivity is _____ to genetic diversity in a
population. When habitat connectivity increases in a 7. Species A was separated into equal populations when the
fragmented landscape, genetic diversity _____. fragmentation occurred. However, this species does not
live within 1 km of a forest edge (1 square = 1 km). How
6. Choose a species endangered by habitat loss or much suitable habitat did Species A have in the original
overharvesting. Then make a model that shows how habitat, and how much suitable habitat does Species A
technology has increased or facilitated the habitat loss or have in the fragmented habitat?
exploitation affecting the species. 2
a. 25 km , 4 km
2
b. 25 km, 16 km
2 2
c. 9 km , 1 km
d. 3.5 km, 1.5 km

8. Analyze the habitat models and calculate the following

values for each habitat: In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
2
a. total area (km ) supports the main ideas from this lesson:
b. total length of edge (km) Human activities can have a negative impact on biodiversity.
As a global society, humans need to find a way to balance
9. What would have to happen to the fragmented habitat
for Species A to become locally extinct in this area if all
the economic benefits of development with the cultural and
other features of the system remain unchanged? environmental benefits of biodiversity.
10. How much has edge habitat increased in the fragmented study guide:
habitat? How much has suitable interior habitat declined • Use examples that model main ideas.
in the fragmented habitat?
11. Which of the following is an example of a barrier in a
fragmented habitat? Select all correct answers.
a. road or pipeline
b. permanent structure that keeps habitat patches from Consider how human impacts are changing the stability of
being rejoined ecosystems. Think about specific causes and effects related to
c. piece of land that connects habitat patches declining biodiversity that could be linked to human activities.
d. something the prevents a species from accessing its
entire home range
12. Phytoplankton are primary producers at the

foundation of many food webs. Why should species
like phytoplankton be of concern for scientists during
a large extinction event like the one Earth is currently
experiencing?
13. Why is protecting an entire ecosystem preferable over

protecting a single species? Explain.
14. Use your knowledge of ecosystem stability to explain

why it is important to maintain biodiversity.
15. In what ways can an introduced species impact an

ecosystem it has colonized? Use a specific example in
your answer.

10.3
Engineering Solutions
to Environmental Impacts
Engineering solutions
help solve problems,
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
such as the need for more
renewable energy. Highways are the main transportation solution for goods and people on land. Building
new highways and maintaining existing ones can lower traffic congestion and provide
more travel choices. Highways also are barriers that fragment, or break apart, habitats,
making it difficult for animals to access their entire home range.
Image Credits: (t) ©Mny-Jhee/Fotolia; (bl) ©vario Images RM/euroluftbild.de/age fotostock; (bcl) ©Colorado Department of Transportation,
FIGURE 1: Wildlife crossings meet a variety of needs.
Colorado Parks and Wildlife & ECO-resolutions; (bcr) ©Corbis Documentary/Frans Lemmens/Getty Images; (br) ©YAY Media AS/Alamy
a Highway overpass b Highway underpass c Canal overpass d Fish ladder
Wildlife crossings can be designed to help wildlife navigate different types of barriers,
as shown in Figure 1. For example, wildlife overpasses are raised structures over a
Gather Evidence
barrier, like a road. Fences or natural features in the landscape are used to funnel
As you explore the lesson, wildlife to the overpasses. Wildlife underpasses provide the same function as wildlife
identify how wildlife crossings help overpasses, but the underpasses direct wildlife under a barrier instead of over it. A
both society and the environment. canal overpass allows aquatic animals to move over a barrier. Fish ladders allow fish to
navigate past barriers in a waterway, such as dams or waterfalls. Many other types of
wildlife crossings are available, and many more could be designed. Each situation has
to be evaluated to determine the best wildlife crossing for the problem presented.
Predict How could you use the engineering design process to design the best wildlife
crossing for deer along a stretch of highway?

EXPLORATION 1
Converting Energy
The primary sources of energy in the United States are shown

U.S. Energy Consumption by Energy Source
in Figure 2. Petroleum products are mostly used as fuel
for transportation. Natural gas is used to produce electric FIGURE 2: Primary energy sources for the United States
power and to heat buildings. Most coal is burned to produce in 2014.
U.S. Energy Consumption by Energy Source, 2014
electric power. All three fuels emit greenhouse gases when
burned. Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to produce Petroleum
electricity. Its main environmental impact is the production of 35% Natural gas
nuclear waste, which must be stored properly for thousands Coal
of years. The process of finding and extracting fossil fuels 8% Renewable energy
and nuclear material can result in habitat destruction, Nuclear electric power
fragmentation, and pollution. Renewable energy is used for 28% 10%
both electric power and transportation and does not emit
18%
greenhouse gases.
Analyze What are the potential environmental impacts Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review,
Table 1.3 and 10.1 (March 2015), preliminary data
for each of the energy sources shown in Figure 2? How could
these impacts be lessened through engineering solutions?
Converting Waste into Energy

Humans make a lot of waste. How waste is handled and where it is stored can have
FIGURE 3: Special incinerators
major impacts on the environment and human health. Landfills are a common solution convert waste into electricity.
for storing waste. One of the problems associated with landfills is the release of
methane as organic waste decomposes. Methane is a greenhouse gas that is better
at trapping heat than carbon dioxide. It is estimated that methane has 25 times more
impact on the climate than a similar amount of carbon dioxide. A solution to this
problem would manage the waste while reducing methane emissions.
Burning Waste
Household and commercially generated waste is often available and is not considered
valuable. In fact, most people and businesses pay to have their waste removed.
Engineers designed waste-to-energy incinerators as a solution to reduce the amount
of trash entering landfills while capturing some of the energy stored in the waste.
These incinerators burn waste at high temperatures, producing steam. The steam
causes a turbine to spin, which generates electricity. The raw ingredients needed for
waste-to-energy incinerationbi_cnlese811966_1021a
are reliable since people always generate more trash.
Image Credits: (b) ©Sean Gallup/Getty Images
Incinerators lower the amount 11-16-16

of biomass in landfills, which lowers the amount of
L. Kell
methane emissions from landfills. Language Arts
The reduction in landfill emissions of methane is beneficial to the environment, because Connection Research
methane traps a significant amount of heat in the atmosphere. However, incinerators the costs and benefits of waste-to-
still emit greenhouse gases and other pollutants. Some critics question whether waste energy incinerators. Make an
incineration plants will make people less willing to reduce and reuse and recycle. This infographic to synthesize
could result in more trash in landfills. information from several sources.
Lesson 3 Engineering Solutions to Environmental Impacts 499

FIGURE 4: Some waste can be converted into biofuel.
Making Biofuel from Waste
Some waste can be converted into biofuel, which keeps
trash out of landfills and provides an alternative fuel source.
A common example of biofuel is reused vegetable oil that
can be used to power motor vehicles. The main source for
waste vegetable oil is used cooking oil from restaurants.
Waste vegetable oil is also processed into biodiesel, which
can be used in any diesel engine. Using waste vegetable oil or
biodiesel as fuel emits fewer greenhouse gases than diesel.
Ethanol is another example of biofuel and is commonly made
from corn or other commercial crops. However, growing
crops for biofuels can have environmental impacts, such as
food shortages and increased water consumption. Biofuel
also can be made from cellulose waste, such as agricultural
by-products and waste paper. Making biofuels from waste reduces the strain on crops
and allows farmland to produce more food for human consumption.
Anaerobic Digestion of Biomass

Collaborate With a During anaerobic digestion, microorganisms break down organic matter, or biomass,
partner, discuss the role in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic digestion can be used to break down material
the carbon, nitrogen, or phosphorus often thrown away or composted, such as food waste or livestock manure. During this
cycle plays in the anaerobic process, the microorganisms produce a mixture of gases mostly composed of carbon
dioxide and methane, called biogas. Facilities can then harvest the biogas for energy
digestion of biomass.
use, rather than releasing it into the atmosphere. This means fewer greenhouse gases
are released into the atmosphere than from landfills or compost piles. The residue
that remains after the biogas has been collected is called digestate. Digestate can be
used as a fertilizer, which returns important nutrients to the soil, where they can cycle
through the ecosystem.
Engineering
Analyzing Waste-to-Electricity Solutions
Analyze Make a Decision matrices are used to evaluate the desirable features, or criteria,
decision matrix for this associated with each solution, such as which waste-to-energy method is best
Image Credits: (t) ©Corbis via Getty Images/John Van Hasselt/Getty Images
problem that analyzes potential for a given situation. Imagine a town that wants to convert waste headed to
solutions for developing energy the landfill into energy to offset rising electricity costs. The primary goal is
to implement an energy capture method that provides a reliable source of
from waste. Evaluate the town’s
electricity year round. The town produces the same amount of urban waste
criteria and determine which
all year, and farms from the surrounding rural areas contribute manure to
solution is the best for this town. the landfill in the spring and summer. The secondary goal is to reduce net
greenhouse gas emissions.
Remember, in a decision matrix, each criteria is given a number, or weight, based
on how important that criteria is. The more important the criteria, the greater the
weight assigned to it. Then each design is rated based on how well it meets those
criteria. The scores for each design are multiplied by the weight and combined so
engineers can determine how well the design is meeting the criteria.

Improving Solar Energy Efficiency Explore Online
Hands-On Lab
Solar energy is a renewable alternative to more traditional forms of energy, such
Building Dye-Sensitized
as electricity produced from coal. Currently, solar panels can be expensive to
manufacture and install, and they are less efficient at converting energy than other Solar Cells Conduct an
sources. Rising costs to produce electricity from fossil fuels and environmental investigation to determine if an
concerns, however, keep solar energy at the forefront of the renewable energy organic dye can be used to develop
discussion. a functioning solar cell.
FIGURE 5: The movement of electrons within solar cells generates an electric current.
glass cover
anti-reflective coating
metal contacts
n-type (negative) silicon
p-type (positive) silicon
Solar cells work by absorbing light energy and transferring it to a semiconductor. Gather Evidence
Figure 5 shows how electrons in the semiconductor absorb the energy and break free How do solar cells meet
to flow in a current. A common semiconductor in solar cells is silicon. In a solar cell, a the needs of society and the
layer of n-type, or negative, silicon is next to a layer of p-type, or positive, silicon. The environment?
n-type silicon has free electrons that interact with the p-type silicon. When energy
from the sun knocks an electron “loose,” it moves through the silicon layers. Layering
allows the electrons to flow in a single direction, generating an electric current.
One of the biggest expenses of solar cells is the cost to produce silicon semiconductors.
Engineering
To solve this problem, engineers have designed organic semiconductors to replace
silicon in solar cells. Organic semiconductors are made from hydrocarbons, the same New solar cell designs are
raw materials used to make plastic. Hydrocarbons are cheaper than silicon, which optimized during the design
reduces the cost of solar cells. Also, organic semiconductors can be produced in process. What evidence is there
large sheets that require less energy and less money to make than silicon sheets. that organic solar cells are a result
One drawback to organic semiconductors is that they are generally extremely poor
of design optimization during the
conductors. Molecular engineers are working to develop solutions that will make
engineering process?
semiconductors that are cheaper to produce and are better conductors.
Engineers are working on many solutions to increase the efficiency of solar cells. For
example, a gel coating was designed that increases the range of wavelengths that
solar cells can absorb. Another coating was designed to sort and concentrate usable
sunlight as it hits the solar panels.
Explain How is the engineering design process helping to meet human energy needs
while also reducing human impacts on the environment?

EXPLORATION 2
Engineering and Conservation
Habitat fragmentation, the spread of invasive species, and overharvesting to the

FIGURE 6: Human populations
point of extinction are a few examples of how humans can negatively impact the
are becoming more urban.
environment and biodiversity. The increasing human population will make human
impacts on the environment more common and more severe. Deforestation, habitat
destruction, and carbon dioxide emissions are some of the biggest challenges facing
the global community. The fields of engineering and conservation are investigating
ways to meet the needs of society while protecting natural habitats.
Collaborate With a partner, discuss how your town or city, or the one closest to you,
may impact the environment.
Preventing Deforestation
Image Credits: (t) ©maksymowicz/Fotolia; (b) Hansen, M. C., P. V. Potapov, R. Moore, M. Hancher, S. A. Turubanova, A. Tyukavina, D. Thau, S. V. Stehman, S. J. Goetz, T. R. Loveland,
Deforestation is the removal of trees and other vegetation from an area. The map in
Figure 7 shows occurrences of deforestation across the world.
FIGURE 7: Forest cover extent, loss, and gain from 2000 to 2012.
A. Kommareddy, A. Egorov, L. Chini, C. O. Justice, and J. R. G. Townshend. 2013.
Deforestation impacts the plant, animal, and human communities living in direct
contact with the forest. It also impacts the rest of the planet, because forests are large
Analyze What evidence carbon sinks, storing carbon as biomass. When the trees are removed, the stored
does the map provide that carbon is eventually released into the environment, contributing to climate change.
the rate of deforestation from 2000 This also causes a loss of plant and animal habitat and a loss of plants that could be
to 2012 is unsustainable? used for medicine. Deforestation reduces biodiversity, interrupts the water cycle,
reduces water quality, and reduces oxygen production. All of these changes impact
global communities.

The current rate of deforestation is unsustainable—the rate of deforestation is greater
than the rate of new tree growth—making forests a nonrenewable resource. The
demand for wood is one cause of deforestation. Engineers are developing wood
alternatives to take the place of traditional wood materials.
FIGURE 8: Wood alternatives can be used in place of newly harvested wood products.
a Reclaimed wood b Wood by-products c Alternative plants d Recycled paper
Some wood alternatives include reclaimed wood, wood shavings or by-products,

alternative plants and trees, and recycled paper products. Examples of these
alternatives are shown in Figure 8. Some sources of reclaimed wood are pallets, old
buildings, and old barns. Reclaimed wood is often used for detail work and home
items. Figure 8a shows a table made from a reclaimed wood door. Wood by-products,
like wood shavings, can be turned into paper products or particleboard. For example,
Image Credits: (l) ©Quasarphoto/Fotolia; (cl) ©Kirill Z/Shutterstock; (cr) ©Lost Mountain Studio/Shutterstock; (r) ©Saranya Loisamutr/Shutterstock
Figure 8b shows how wood shavings can be used as packing material. This approach
avoids cutting down more trees for products that require only wood fragments.
Fibers from plants other than trees can be used to make the pulp used in paper Gather Evidence
products and fabrics. Bamboo, hemp, and flax are all examples of alternative plant What products do you use,
fibers. Using less commonly harvested tree species to meet wood demands can also or could you use, that come from
minimize the pressure on overharvested species. This approach can lessen the effects wood alternatives? Check the labels
of deforestation, because some alternative tree species are more sustainable and grow of items in your classroom or home.
faster than traditional species.
Are any of them made from wood
Recycled paper can be processed to produce new paper products. It keeps a large alternatives?
amount of waste out of landfills and reduces the pressure on forests. For many
wood-containing products, wood alternatives are satisfactory replacements for
newly harvested wood. Decreasing the need for wood products in construction and
manufacturing would lessen some of the economic pressures driving deforestation.
Engineering
Finding Wood Alternatives Explain What criteria

would be important to
Wood is typically thought of as a building material, but it also is used in hundreds research before using a wood
of products, some of which may surprise you. For example, wood products are alternative for hardwood flooring?
used to make Ping-Pong balls, chewing gum, and eyeglass frames. The use of
wood in such a wide variety of products is one of the reasons deforestation is so
problematic. It also is the reason finding wood alternatives is so important.

Making New Habitats
FIGURE 9: Green Roof

Human populations have become increasingly urban over the last two centuries.
Around three percent of the human population lived in cities in 1800. By 2014, 54
percent of people lived in urban areas. Urban areas fragment habitats for many
animals. Replacing soil with impermeable concrete disrupts the water cycle by
reducing the amount of water that is absorbed by soil. This can cause increased runoff
and flooding. Urban areas are also heat islands, because a high concentration of
dark-colored building materials and asphalt absorbs heat and radiates it back into the
environment.
Green roofing is an example of a solution that can lessen some problems of
urbanization. Green roofs reduce the air temperatures in large cities, because they
radiate less heat than traditional roofs. Green roofs can also provide habitat space for
birds and insects. Rooftop habitats do not help all species, but they do provide green
spaces and resources. Not only does this add habitat, but it also increases connectivity
between habitat patches and may provide migration or dispersion corridors through
cities for some organisms.
FIGURE 10: Green roofs can provide more insulation, absorb and store more water, and
reduce heat emissions compared to traditional roofs.
Explore Online
Hands-On Lab
Design a Green Roof Design

and build a green roof prototype to
decrease surface temperature and
increase water retention.
green roof traditional roof

Systems and
System Models
Image Credits: ©vuk8691/E+/Getty Images
Imagine an engineering team As shown in Figure 10, green roofs include plants which absorb carbon dioxide and
wants to use green roofs to produce oxygen. Green roofs also absorb water and reduce runoff, which reduces flash
minimize heat and habitat floods and pollutants in waterways. Finally, green roofs insulate buildings. Figure 10
shows how less heat enters a building with a green roof than one with a traditional
fragmentation in a large city.
roof. This helps keep the buildings cool in the summer and warm in the winter,
How might they break these large
reducing energy needs for heating and cooling which account for a large portion of
problems into smaller ones?
home electricity usage.

Lowering Carbon Dioxide Emission
Regulating greenhouse gas emissions is becoming more common in many countries,
but many scientists are worried that atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations
have already reached a tipping point. Some scientists think it may be possible to
slow or stop the advance of global warming by reducing the amount of CO2 in the
atmosphere. They are working with engineers to design efficient solutions.
The process of removing CO2 or other pollutants from the atmosphere is known as Analyze How could
negative emissions. This is accomplished by installing devices called scrubbers in factory removing CO2 from the
flues to catch the gases. Removing CO2 from factory flues is easier than removing it atmosphere slow global warming?
from the air around us. This is because CO2 is up to 300 times more concentrated in
factory emissions than in ambient air.
FIGURE 11: Reducing carbon dioxide emission may slow global warming.
a “Clean” coal technology injects CO2 b CO2 gas can be stored in

underground. basalt rock.
Coal, considered one of the dirtiest fossil fuels, is responsible for up to 44 percent of
CO2 emissions. Engineers have been working on ways to reduce this number and make
burning coal a “cleaner” energy option, shown in Figure 11a. After the coal is burned,
engineers have designed technology that removes CO2 from the gas produced,
compresses it, and injects it underground.
While known as “clean” coal when treated in this manner, this energy source is not a
Engineering
form of clean energy, such as solar energy. Coal mining and burning still releases large
Image Credits: (l) ©AFP PHOTO/SAUL LOEB/Getty Images; (r) ©Jackie Johnston/AP Images
amounts of pollution into the environment. Scientists are also worried that storing A recurring theme in the
CO2 gas underground may not be a long-term solution. Areas used for storage may development of new solutions
have an increased risk of earthquakes due to the increased pressure from the gas. If to environmental problems is
earthquakes were to occur, the stored gas may leak out and enter the atmosphere.
the need to make the solutions
To avoid this potential complication, engineers are looking at storing CO2 in volcanic economically viable. With a partner
basalt rock, shown in Figure 11b. The CO2 can react with the calcium in this type of or small group, research negative
rock, forming a carbonate rock. When the carbon becomes part of the rock itself, emissions solutions and debate
there is no risk of leaks. These technologies, though, are expensive. In many countries, which approach you think has
including the United States, governments do not tax carbon emissions or require the most promising future. Use
factories to limit their emissions. So, for many companies, it is not financially feasible to
evidence to support your claims.
use such an expensive solution.
Explain How is the engineering design process helping conservation efforts?

EXPLORATION 3
Decreasing Water Pollution
Water pollution and water shortages are endangering access to clean fresh water
for humans and other organisms. Chemical runoff from pesticides, herbicides, and
fertilizers is one of the many causes of water pollution. Water shortages are driven by
increasing population sizes, high usage rates for personal and agricultural needs, and
long periods of drought. Engineers are developing ways to solve the problems related
to water access, water usage, and water pollution in order to ensure water is available
in the future.
Predict Part of the engineering process is to take a larger problem and break it down
into smaller problems. How could you break down the problem of obtaining clean
water into smaller problems that can be addressed more easily?
Rainwater Harvesting Systems

Rainwater harvesting systems allow people to collect
FIGURE 12: Many rainwater harvesting systems divert water
from a roof into a storage container. rainwater for household and commercial use instead of
relying on freshwater sources that are in danger of being
depleted. A simple rainwater harvesting system, shown in
Figure 12, consists of a barrel to store the water, a conveyance
sealed lid
system to direct the water to the barrel, a screen or lid to keep
out insects and debris, a runoff pipe to allow excess water
angled runoff
pipe to escape, and a spigot to access the water. More advanced
water barrel harvesting systems use large reservoirs instead of a barrel for
water storage, pumps to move the water through a building,
and even filtration systems to make the water safe to drink.
downspout
Access to clean water remains a critical problem across much
spigot
of the world.
Small rainwater harvesting systems are often used to meet
the personal water needs of a household or to water a
garden. Farmers or small towns may use entire ponds to store
rainwater for agricultural or human needs.
Explain How could a rainwater harvesting system lessen the stress on a water supply
even if the water collected is not safe to drink?
Image Credits: (t) ©Reuters/Roger Bacon/Alamy
To maximize efficiency, rainwater harvesting systems should be designed to meet

the specific needs of the people using it. Small harvesting systems can be scaled up
to store larger amounts of water to meet agricultural needs or the needs of a larger
community. Engineers understand that changes in scale can affect a system’s structure
and performance. For example, an uncovered rainwater harvesting system that did not
have problems with evaporation on a small scale may suffer high levels of evaporation
when built on a larger scale. A potential solution to this problem could be to store the
water in underground tanks, lowering the amount of evaporation.

Hands-On Lab
Design a Rainwater Harvesting System FIGURE 13: Rainwater

harvesting systems can be
What makes a good rainwater harvesting system? The answer depends partly on built from simple materials.
how the collected water will be used. Some users may want to maximize water
capture. Others may trade off quantity for improved quality. In this activity, you
will design and test a rainwater harvesting system.
DESIGN
Brainstorm characteristics of a good rainwater harvesting system, and make a
design of a system that you can make. Have your teacher approve your design
before you begin writing your procedure.
PROCEDURE
Write your own procedure for building and evaluating a prototype of your POSSIBLE MATERIALS
design. Think about what question or questions you would like to answer about • container, plastic
your prototype. For example, do you want to know how much water it collects?
• gutter or other conveyance
Or perhaps you want to know how long it will store water before it evaporates? system
Your evaluation should include collecting quantitative data that can be graphed
to analyze the success of your design. Measurements will relate to the questions • lid, solid or screen
you decide to investigate. For example, a question about how much water is • pipe or other overflow device
collected or how much water evaporates would require measuring the amount
• spigot or other mechanism to
of water in your device at different times. Have your teacher approve your
access water
procedure before you begin building your prototype.
ANALYZE
1. Graph the data you collected. What trends or patterns do you notice?
2. How did you measure success, and how successful was your design?
3. How could your design be optimized to make it more successful on this scale
or a larger scale?
Water Treatment
Water treatment plants are designed to remove pollutants from water to increase
water quality. Some facilities can make wastewater—such as water from flushing
Image Credits: ©iStock/wyndy25/Getty Images
your toilet—clean enough to drink. This multistep recycling process first removes
solid waste and organic matter. Then the water is treated using procedures such as
microfiltration, reverse osmosis, and exposure to UV light and hydrogen peroxide.
Microfiltration forces water through tubes that have holes large enough to let water
pass through but small enough to trap bacteria and protozoa. Reverse osmosis further
filters pharmacological substances and viruses from the water. Finally, exposing the
water to UV light and hydrogen peroxide destroys any remaining organic material.
The treated water meets or exceeds water quality guidelines for drinking water.

Water treatment plants, such as the one shown in Figure 14,
FIGURE 14: Water treatment plants make wastewater potable.
are one solution to water pollution. Water treatment plants
remove pollutants that are dangerous to humans and the
environment and produce potable water—water that is safe
to drink. They also reduce the stress on freshwater resources.
Recycling wastewater reduces the amount of water that must
be taken from water resources to meet human demands. New
engineering advances have made recycling wastewater into
potable water more accessible for many communities.
Collaborate The idea of drinking wastewater is not

very appealing, even after it has been treated. As an
engineer, how would you overcome this cultural barrier?
Write down your solutions and share them with a partner.
Providing Clean Drinking Water

Clean drinking water is essential for human health. Waterborne illnesses in polluted
water can cause life-threatening diseases. Similar to local rainwater harvesting, some
engineers have begun focusing on the local and personal levels of water treatment.
Engineers have developed personal water filtration devices that are relatively cheap
and easy to carry. They can be used in and out of the home to filter harmful bacteria
and contaminants from drinking water. This is accomplished through a variety of
methods, including microfiltration, chlorination, ceramic filters, or solar filters.
Engineering
Image Credits: (t) ©Wichita Falls Times Record News/Torin Halsey/AP Images; (b) ©AFP PHOTO/TONY KARUMBA/Getty Images
FIGURE 15: Personal Water Scaling Down Water Filtration Systems
Filtration Device
Personal water filtration devices are essentially miniature water treatment plants—
an example of engineers scaling down a large-scale solution. Scaling up and scaling
down solutions enables the same technology to be applied to multiple problems.
The technology must be redesigned and optimized for the new scale, but further
development will benefit from previous testing stages.
Model Make a model that shows how personal water filtration methods and water
treatment plants are similar processes on different scales.
Personal filtration systems have many advantages over boiling, a common method of
sanitizing drinking water. The filtration systems are quicker and have a lower carbon
footprint than boiling, which requires fuel and releases greenhouse gases. Fuel also
can be cost- and time-prohibitive to obtain, making boiling a more difficult option.
Explain How is the engineering design process helping to make clean water and reduce
the stress on freshwater sources?

Careers in Science
Environmental Engineer
Environmental engineering focuses on
FIGURE 16: An environmental engineer working at a desalination plant.
the relationship between humans and
the environment to improve sanitation
and control pollution. Environmental
engineers use concepts from biology,
chemistry, physics, mathematics, and
soil science. They solve problems
dealing with solid waste and
wastewater management, water supply
and quality, air quality, and other types
of pollution.
Desalination removes salt from
seawater or brackish groundwater.
The water produced can be treated
to meet water quality standards for
human consumption. Desalination
plants require a source of water to treat often build off of existing technology. Environmental engineers may focus on
and a place to dispose of the salts and An environmental engineer might only one aspect of the design process or
other contaminants removed during study existing desalination plants and they may complete the design process
this process. Desalination plants help make adjustments based on the unique from beginning to end.
increase the water supply of an area. parameters for the project, evaluating
and refining solutions throughout the Language Arts Connection
The first task in designing a desalination
design process to optimize the final You are consulting on an
plant is to define the problem and
solution for the given problem.
identify the social, technical, and environmental engineering project. The
environmental criteria and constraints Next, modeling may be used to client needs a reliable source of water in a
that could limit potential solutions. The determine if the system will work remote desert location without surface
engineer would research background as expected and what, if any, water. Groundwater salinity is triple that of
information on the project site, past environmental or societal impacts can seawater. Electricity is not available in this
and current water supply issues, the be expected from the solution. An location. The client would like to know
government permits required for this engineer could make a mathematical
whether desalination is a possible option
type of project, potential community model of the desalination process to
or if another method for accessing water is
involvement, and much more. During determine the efficiency of the design.
this and subsequent processes, the
recommended. Present your solution as an
Finally, an environmental engineer e-mail to the client. Include the steps you
engineer may work in either an office or
would communicate the solution will take to solve the problem, identify
Image Credits: ©Peter Macdiarmid/Getty Images
field setting.
through presentations and reports. For criteria or key variables that will impact
Once the problem is defined, an a desalination project, this could include
the solution, and how the solution could
environmental engineer may be an explanation of why the proposed
be tested.
asked to design potential solutions. solution will be effective and suitable for
Environmental engineering solutions solving the water supply problem.
DESIGNING CLIMATE DESIGN A BUILDING DYE- Go online to choose one

CHANGE SOLUTIONS GREEN ROOF SENSITIZED SOLAR CELLS of these other paths.

EVALUATE
Lesson Self-Check
CAN YOU EXPLAIN IT?
FIGURE 17: Wildlife crossings meet a variety of needs for animals and humans.
a Highway overpass b Highway underpass c Canal overpass d Fish ladder
Wildlife crossings help wildlife navigate barriers, but crossings do not just benefit
Image Credits: (l) ©vario Images RM/euroluftbild.de/age fotostock; (cl) ©Colorado Department of Transportation, Colorado Parks and Wildlife & ECO-resolutions;
wildlife—they benefit society as well. For example, vehicle collisions with animals on
highways can be deadly for humans as well as animals. Wildlife crossings provide a
way for animals to cross a barrier, such as a highway, while minimizing the possibility
of vehicle collisions. The crossings also act as corridors for animals. They can connect
habitats that have been fragmented by roads or infrastructure. Vegetation on
overpasses provides a more natural corridor between habitat patches.
Aquatic species encounter different barriers. They rarely need to cross a road but may
need to get past a dam or waterfall. Fish ladders are typically established to provide
a pathway for migrating fish that need to move either up or down the waterway at
different stages in their lives.
Explain Refer to the notes in your Evidence Notebook to explain how you could use the
engineering design process to design the best wildlife crossing for deer along a specific
stretch of highway.
(cr) ©Corbis Documentary/Frans Lemmens/Getty Images; (r) ©YAY Media AS/Alamy

Developing wildlife crossings requires an understanding of both engineering and
conservation. Engineers must consider the needs of people, the logistics of building
the crossing, the habitat and behavior of the animals targeted for the crossing, and
many other factors. Each crossing is unique. The problem that each crossing is trying
to solve, whether it is minimizing vehicular collisions on a roadway or providing a
migration route on a waterway, should be looked at from different perspectives and
broken down into smaller problems if possible.
Decision matrices can be used to evaluate solutions against the criteria and
constraints involved. Testing and prototyping provides an opportunity to optimize a
wildlife crossing or improve a previous design. Engineering designs increasingly use
environmentally friendly materials and construction methods to decrease the impacts
of development on the environment. Finally, engineers solving a problem, such as the
installation of a new wildlife crossing, can use existing structures and technology as
inspiration for a new project.

CHECKPOINTS
Check Your Understanding 6. How are negative emissions related to stability and
change in the climate?
1. Which type of rainwater catchment would be best
for a town that receives a relatively small amount of
7. What are some general criteria for green roofs? Select all
precipitation each year?
correct answers.
a. small, uncovered pond
a. waterproof
b. large buried, storage tank
b. weight supported by building structure
c. large, uncovered reservoir
c. native plant community
d. rain barrels
d. established plant community
2. What are some advantages of collecting rainwater for

8. Imagine your company is designing a flexible silicon
human and other uses? Select all correct answers.
solar cell that can be rolled up. Which of these solar cell
a. lowers stress on freshwater resources components would most likely need to be optimized?
b. improves access to water a. anti-reflective coating
c. frees time usually spent collecting water b. n-type silicon
d. reduces the occurrence of acid rain c. p-type silicon
e. reduces runoff and flooding d. glass cover
3. Critics argue that adoption of a waste-to-energy 9. What are the advantages of an organic semiconductor
incineration program may encourage communities to do over a silicon semiconductor?
which of the following? Select all correct answers.
a. produce less waste 10. Which characteristic of organic semiconductors must be
b. recycle less optimized in order for them to be a better solution for
c. use less electricity solar cells than silicon semiconductors?
d. consume more and throw out more waste
4. How might building a prototype of a negative emissions MAKE YOUR OWN STUDY GUIDE
machine help engineers get funding for moving the
design up to a larger scale?
a. The prototype demonstrates the proof of concept and In your Evidence Notebook, design a study guide that
proves that the technology is functional. supports the main idea from this lesson:
b. The prototype functions exactly like the end product.
Engineering solutions are used to lessen human impacts on
c. Building a prototype allows engineers and investors to
the environment. For example, energy alternatives, wood
evaluate the design against set criteria and constraints.
alternatives, and water treatment solutions can reduce
d. The prototype shows potential investors that the
pollution and environmental impacts.
design has been optimized.
5. Which project would be best suited for each wood study guide:
alternative: recycled paper, alternative plant fiber, • Use examples that model main ideas.
alternative wood species, reclaimed wood? Match each • Record explanations for the phenomena you investigated.
wood alternative to the project for which it is best suited. • Use evidence to support your explanations. Your support can
a. commercial paper products include drawings, data, graphs, laboratory conclusions, and
b. fabric other evidence recorded throughout the lesson.
c. new building
Consider how engineering solutions can influence the way humans
d. wood crafts interact with the environment.

UNIT CONNECTIONS
Earth Science Connection FIGURE 1: Landsat 8 provides valuable

information about Earth’s surface.
Landsat 8 NASA’s Landsat 8 is the latest of a series of Landsat satellites that have
been providing crucial information about Earth’s resources for over 40 years. Data
gathered by Landsat 8 helps enhance our understanding of climate, the carbon
cycle, and ecosystems. Visible trends linked to the burgeoning human population,
such as changes in forest cover over time, are shown by Landsat imagery and help
inform resource management decisions.
Using library and Internet resources, research Landsat 8 and develop a multimedia
presentation that explains this Earth Science Mission. Research the technology that
is used and how the gathered data is used to explore a particular problem, such as
deforestation or change in ocean temperatures. Your presentation should also include
information on the different types of maps Landsat 8 provides.

Working Dogs In some areas of the world, poaching is a serious threat to wildlife.
FIGURE 2: Trained dogs can track
As poachers continue to kill protected animals, such as rhinos and elephants, new
poachers in a variety of conditions.
techniques are being used in antipoaching efforts. An innovative approach recently
implemented is the use of highly trained K9 rappelling and skydiving teams. Rapid-
response dog-and-handler teams are deployed via helicopter and airplane to locate
weapons and contraband associated with poaching activities. Dogs can also be
used to track poachers through heavy underbrush.
With a group, select a specific environment and brainstorm ways dogs can help
lessen human impacts on that environment. Then write and perform a public service
announcement that explains one of your solutions, including the impact on the
Image Credits: (t) ©NASA Goddard Space Flight Center; (c) ©Ami Vitale/Alamy; (b) ©PhotoSerg/Shuttersto ck
environment, why it is a problem, and how dogs can help lessen the impact.
FIGURE 3: This elephant was made from

Art Connection recycled plastic bottles.
Environmental Awareness Through Art Art can be used as a medium for raising
awareness for ecological issues. For example, some artists paint murals in public
spaces that highlight environmental and social issues and the interconnectivity
between humans and nature. Another example is artists who upcycle, or use
recycled items or trash items, to make art that is visually engaging while making a
statement about human consumption and waste.
Create your own artwork that raises environmental awareness. Then present your
artwork and describe how your art is linked to environmental awareness, why you
selected the materials you did to complete your artwork, and the message you would like to
communicate with your art.



PRACTICE AND REVIEW
1. An increase in human density in a formerly natural area 4. What role does adaptation play in how species respond
typically causes what type of change in biodiversity? to human disturbances? Select all correct answers.
a. an increase a. Species that do not adapt quickly enough may
b. a decrease decline or even become locally extinct in a changed
c. no change environment.
b. Species that adapt quickly enough may survive, or
2. Why is engineering important for conservation efforts? even thrive, in a changed environment.
Select all correct answers. c. Adaptation does not play a role in how species are
a. Engineering can provide solutions that enable human affected by human disturbances.
populations to grow while minimizing impacts to the d. The adaptation level in species is equal to the
environment and biodiversity. disturbance level in an ecosystem.
b. Engineering solutions involve large facilities that
serve a purpose, such as wastewater treatment or 5. Identify each factor as a criterion or a constraint for a
the generation of energy, and these facilities can be wind turbine project.
designed to minimize impacts on the environment. a. minimum wind speed average of 13 miles per hour for
c. Conservation is not possible without engineering. each month of the year
d. Many conservation problems can be lessened using b. close to power distribution hub
engineering solutions, such as monitoring illegal c. location minimizes potential human conflicts
logging activity through satellite images. d. cannot be located in Federal Aviation Administration
restricted areas
3. Which factor is not a benefit of high biodiversity levels on e. location minimizes impact to bat and bird migrations
Earth?
f. degree of acceptance in the community
a. inspirational value of landscapes
b. ecosystem stability
c. ecosystem services and function
d. homogeneous ecosystems

Use Figure 4 to answer Questions 6 and 7.

Atmospheric CO2 and Global Surface Temperature
FIGURE 4: Many different types of gases contribute to the FIGURE 5: Scientists found that changes in Earth’s temperature
greenhouse effect. correspond with fluctuations in global CO2 levels.
Carbon Dioxide Levels and Temperature Change
300 4
Global
2
Warming Duration 280
Temperature change (˚C)

Greenhouse Concentration Potential (over in the 260
0
Gases in 2011 100 Years) Atmosphere –2
CO2 (ppm)
240
Variable with –4
Water vapor <1 Hours to days 220
temperature –6
200 –8
Carbon ~100 to
391 ppm 1
dioxide 300 years 180 –10
400 000 300 000 200 000 100 000 0
Time (years before present)
Methane 1.8 ppm 28 12 years CO2 (ppm)
Temperature change (˚C) compared to present-day temperature
Nitrous oxide 0.3 ppm 265 121 years Source: Petit, J. R., et al., "Climate and atmospheric history of the past 420,000 years from
the Vostok ice core, Antarctica." Nature Vol 399 (1999) as quoted in NOAA, National Climatic
Data Center, http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/paleo/globalwarming/temperature-change.html
Chlorofluoro-
0.9 ppm 4,670 to 10,200 45 to 100 years
carbons
Source: Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center. Recent Greenhouse Gas Concentrations. 9. Considering the trend shown in Figure 5, how would the
http://cdiac.ornl.gov/pns/ current_ghg.html. DOI: 10.3334/CDIAC/atg.032. increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases contribute to
an increase in average global temperature?
6. Why might regulators try to reduce chlorofluorocarbon
emission before the other greenhouse gases? Select all 10. What needs does a personal filtration system meet?
correct answers.
a. Chlorofluorocarbons have an exponentially greater
warming potential than most of the other greenhouse
UNIT PROJECT
gases.
b. There are more chlorofluorocarbons in the air than any Return to your unit project. Prepare your materials
other greenhouse gas. into a final presentation. Include an evaluation of your
c. Chlorofluorocarbons are more toxic to humans than investigation into the uses and impacts of dams.
the other greenhouse gases.
7. Approximately how many times longer does methane • Was your research based on an in-depth
stay in the atmosphere than water vapor? exploration of reliable sources?
a. 0.2 • Are your claims and reasoning supported
b. 1.3 by evidence?
• Are your findings presented clearly in both
c. 130
written and oral formats?
d. 487
8. What would need to occur for a “potentially renewable”

resource to be renewed?
a. The resource is used at a slower rate than it is
replenished.
b. The resource is used at a faster rate than it is
replenished.
c. People use the resource to generate electricity.
d. People decide to renew the resource.

Building Habitat for Burrowing Owls

Burrowing owls nest underground, typically in burrows
FIGURE 6: A simple human-made burrow consisting of a nest
excavated by mammals such as prairie dogs. Like many box and two access points built from an irrigation box and two
species, burrowing owl populations are declining as suitable perforated pipes.
habitat is destroyed by human development. In the case of
the burrowing owl, this includes the loss of mammals that
build the burrows the owls inhabit. One solution to this
problem is to build human-made burrows in areas that are
suitable for burrowing owls but may not have burrows to
attract them. For example, human-made burrows can be built
at restored landfill sites. Examine the diagram of a simple
human-made burrow and consider the needs and habits of
both burrowing owls and humans. How might the project
criteria differ for building human-made owl burrows in an
urban area as opposed to a rural landfill?
1. CONDUCT RESEARCH
Investigate the role burrowing owls play in the ecosystem,
habitat needs of burrowing owls, and potential urban
areas that could be used as owl habitats. What criteria are 5. C O M M U N I C A T E
associated with potential habitat space? Present your findings and a decision matrix that could be
used to evaluate potential burrow solutions in an urban
environment. Explain why specific criteria were chosen. Is
2. DESIGN A SOLUTION
there any information you were missing that would make
Based on the identified criteria for burrowing owl habitat your decision matrix more effective?
space, select a potential urban site (e.g., highway right-of-
ways) for owl burrows. Demonstrate how project criteria for
burrow installations at this site can ensure the needs of both
owls and humans are met. CHECK YOUR WORK
3. DEVELOP A MODEL A complete presentation should include

Develop a scale model of your solution, including the owl the following information:
burrow and a potential urban site to install the burrow.
• a model that explains the relationship between owl
needs, human needs, potential urban habitat for
4. CONSTRUCT AN EXPLANATION burrowing owls, and criteria that might govern urban
Based on your research and model, explain how project burrow projects
criteria for urban burrow projects would differ from burrow • an explanation of how urban burrow projects might
projects in more rural areas. Also explain why it is important differ from rural burrow projects
to preserve burrowing owl populations. • a decision matrix that could be used to evaluate
potential burrow solutions in an urban environment

Glossary
A apoptosis (ap-uhp-TOH-sihs) programmed cell death.
apoptosis muerte celular programada.
abiotic factor nonliving factor in an ecosystem, such as artificial selection process by which humans modify a species
moisture, temperature, wind, sunlight, soil, and minerals. by breeding it for certain traits.
abiótico factor factor inerte de un ecosistema, como la selección artificial proceso mediante el cual los seres
humedad, la temperatura, el viento, la luz solar, el suelo y humanos modifican una especie al criarla para obtener
los minerales. ciertos rasgos.
acid rain precipitation produced when pollutants in the atom smallest basic unit of matter.
atmosphere cause the pH of rain to decrease. átomo unidad básica más pequeña de la materia.
lluvia ácida precipitación que se produce cuando
loscontaminantes de la atmósfera hacen que el pH de la ATP; adenosine triphosphate high-energy molecule that
lluvia disminuya. contains, within its bonds, energy that cells can use.
ATP; adenosín trifosfato molécula de alta energía
adaptation inherited trait that is selected for over time encuyos enlaces se almacena energía para las células.
because it allows organisms to better survive in their
environment. autosome chromosome that contains genes for
adaptación rasgo heredado durante un periodo characteristics not directly related to the sex of the
de tiempomediante selección natural, que facilita la organism.
supervivencia de los organismos en su medio ambiente. autosoma cromosoma cuyos genes no rigen los rasgos
relacionados directamente con el sexo del organismo.
aerobic process that requires oxygen to occur.
aeróbico proceso que requiere oxígeno para ocurrir.
B
allele (uh-LEEL) any of the alternative forms of a gene that
occurs at a specific place on a chromosome. binary fission (BY-nuh-ree FIHSH-uhn) asexual reproduction
alelo cualquier variante de un gen que ocupa la misma in which a cell divides into two equal parts.
posición en un cromosoma. fisión binaria reproducción asexual en la que una
célula se divide en dos partes iguales.
allele frequency proportion of one allele compared with all
the alleles for that trait in the gene pool. biodiversity variety of life within an area.
frequencia alélica proporción de un alelo determinado biodiversidad variedad de las formas de vida en una
con respecto a los demás alelos el mismo rasgo en una zona determinada.
misma población.
bioengineering the application of engineering concepts to
altruism behavior in which an animal reduces its own fitness living things.
to help the other members of its social group. bioingeniería la aplicación de conceptos de ingeniería
altruismo patrón de comportamiento animal, en el a los seres vivos.
cual un individuo sacrifica su integridad para beneficiar a
biogeochemical cycle movement of a chemical through the
otros miembros de su grupo social.
biological and geological, or living and nonliving, parts
amino acid molecule that makes up proteins; composed of of an ecosystem.
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes ciclo biogeoquímico movimiento de una sustancia
sulfur. químicaa través de los componentes biológicos y
amino ácido molécula que forma las proteínas; está geológicos, o vivos einertes, de un ecosistema.
compuesta de carbono, hidrógeno, oxígeno, nitrógeno y,
bioinformatics use of computer databases to organize and
a veces, de azufre.
analyze biological data.
anaerobic process that does not require oxygen to occur. bioinformática utilización de bases de datos de
anaeróbico proceso que no requiere oxígeno para computación para organizar y analizar datos biológicos.
ocurrir.
biomagnification condition of toxic substances being more
analogous structure body part that is similar in function concentrated in tissues of organisms higher on the food
to a body part of another organism but is structurally chain than ones lower on the food chain.
different. biomagnificación condición en la cual la concentración
estructura análoga parte del cuerpo que cumple una de sustancias tóxicas en los tejidos de los organismos
función similar a la parte del cuerpo de un organismo que pertenecen a eslabones más altos de la cadena
diferente, pero que tiene una estructura diferente. alimentaria es mayor que la concentración en los
organismos de los eslabones más bajos.
R2 HMH Science Dimensions Biology

biomass total dry mass of all organisms in a given area. cell differentiation processes by which unspecialized cells
biomasa masa deshidratada total de todos los develop into their mature form and function.
organismos de un área determinada. diferenciación celular proceso mediante el cual las
células no especializadas adquieren una forma y una
biomass pyramid a diagram that compares the biomass of
función determinada.
different trophic levels within an ecosystem.
pirámide de biomasa un diagrama que compara la cell membrane double-layer of phospholipids that forms
biomasa de diferentes niveles trófico en un ecosistema. a boundary between a cell and the surrounding
environment and controls the passage of materials into
biome regional or global community of organisms
and out of a cell.
characterized by the climate conditions and plant
membrana celular capa doble de fosfolípidos que
communities that thrive there.
forma una barrera entre la célula y el medio que la rodea,
bioma comunidad regional o global de organismos
y que controla el flujo de materiales hacia dentro y hacia
caracterizada por las condiciones climáticas y el tipo de
fuera dela célula.
vegetación del área.
cell theory theory that states that all organisms are made of
biotechnology use and application of living things and
cells, all cells are produced by other living cells, and the
biological processes.
cell is the most basic unit of life.
biotecnología aprovechamiento y aplicación de los
oría celular teoría que establece que todos los
seresvivos y de sus procesos biológicos.
organismos están formados por células, que todas las
biotic factor living things, such as plants, animals, fungi, and células proceden de otras células vivas y que la célula es
bacteria. la unidad básica de la vida.
biótico factor referente a los seres vivos, tales como las
cellular respiration process of producing ATP by breaking
plantas, los animales, los hongos y las bacterias.
down carbon-based molecules when oxygen is present.
bottleneck effect genetic drift that results from an event that respiración celular proceso de producción de ATP
drastically reduces the size of a population. mediante la descomposición de moléculas de carbono
efecto de cuello de botella deriva genética resultante en presencia de oxígeno.
de un acontecimiento que reduce drásticatmente el
central dogma theory that states that, in cells, information
tamaño de una población.
only flows from DNA to RNA to proteins.
dogma central teoría que formula que la información
C en lascélulas siempre fluye del ADN al ARN y luego a las
proteínas.
carbohydrate molecule composed of carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen; includes sugars and starches. chemical reaction process by which substances change into
carbohidrato molécula compuesta de carbono, different substances through the breaking and forming
hidrógeno y oxígeno; incluye los azúcares y los of chemical bonds.
almidones. reacción química proceso mediante el cual una
sustancia se transforma en otra sustancia diferente al
carrying capacity number of individuals that the resources of romperse sus enlaces químicos y formarse otros nuevos.
an environment can normally and persistently support.
capacidad de carga de población número de chloroplast organelle composed of numerous membranes
individuos que los recursos de un ambiente pueden that are used to convert solar energy into chemical
sustentar normalmente de manera continua. energy; contains chlorophyll.
cloroplasto orgánulo compuesto de numerosas
catalyst substance that decreases activation energy and membranes cuya funcción es transformer la energía solar
increases reaction rate in a chemical reaction. en energíaquímica; contiene clorofila.
catalizador sustancia que disminuye la energía de
activación y aumenta la tasa de reacción de una reacción chromatid one half of a duplicated chromosome.
química determinada. cromátida mitad de un cromosoma duplicado.
cell basic unit of life. chromosomal mutation a kind of mutation in which a
célula unidad básica de la vida. chromosomal segment is transfered to a new position on
the same or another chromosome.
cell cycle pattern of growth, DNA replication, and cell division mutación cromosómica una especie de mutación en
that occurs in a eukaryotic cell. la que un segmento cromosómico se transfiere a una
ciclo celular proceso de crecimiento, replicación nueva posición en el mismo o en otro cromosoma.
de ADN y división celular que ocurre en las células
eucarióticas. chromosome long, continuous thread of DNA that consists of
numerous genes and regulatory information.
cromosoma un largo y continuo filamento de ADN
formado por numerosos genes y que almacena
información genética.
Glossary R3
GLOSSARY
clone genetically identical copy of a single gene or an entire D

organism.
clon copia genéticamente exacta de un gen o de un deforestation the process of clearing forests.
organismo completo. deforestación el proceso de talar bosques.
codominance heterozygous genotype that equally expresses density-dependent factor environmental resistance that
the traits from both alleles. affects a population that has become overly crowded.
codominancia genotipo heterocigoto que expresa factor limitativo dependiente de la
equitativamente los rasgos de ambos alelos. densidad resistencia ambiental que afecta a una
codon sequence of three nucleotides that codes for one población sometida a una densidad demográfica
amino acid. excesiva.
codón secuencia de tres nucleotides que codifica un density-independent factor environmental resistance that
aminoácido. affects a population regardless of population density.
coevolution process in which two or more species evolve in factor limitativo independiente de la densidad
response to changes in each other. resistencia ambiental que afecta a una población sin
coevolución proceso mediante el cual dos o más importar su densidad demográfica.
especies evolucionan a consecuencia de cambios desertification the process by which human activities or
producidos en cada uno de ellas. climatic changes make arid or semiarid areas more
community collection of all of the different populations that desertlike.
live in one area. desertificación el proceso por medio del cual las
comunidad conjunto de todas las poblaciones que actividades humanas o los cambios climáticos hacen que
viven en un área determinada. un área árida o semiárida se vuelva más parecida a un
desierto.
competition ecological relationship in which two organisms
attempt to obtain the same resource. dihybrid cross cross, or mating, between organisms involving
competencia relación ecológica en la que dos two pairs of contrasting traits.
organismos tratan de obtener el mismo recurso. cruzamiento dihíbrido cruzamiento o apareamiento
entre organismos que tienen dos pares de rasgos
compound substance made of atoms of different elements opuestos.
that are bonded together in a particular ratio.
compuesto sustancia formada por átomos de diversos directional selection pathway of natural selection in which
elementos combinados en una proporción determinada. one uncommon phenotype is selected over a more
common phenotype.
consumer organism that obtains its energy and nutrients by selección direccional proceso de selección natural en
eating other organisms. el que se favorece un fenotipo menos común sobre un
consumidor organismo que obtiene su energía y fenotipo más común.
nutrientes mediante la ingestión de otros organismos.
disruptive selection pathway of natural selection in which
crossing over exchange of chromosome segments between two opposite, but equally uncommon, phenotypes are
homologous chromosomes during meiosis I. selected over the most common phenotype.
entrecruzamiento intercambio de segmentos selección disruptiva proceso de selección natural
decromosomas entre cromosomas homólogos durante en el que se favorece a dos fenotipos opuestos, pero
la meiosis I. igualmente poco comunes, sobre el fenotipo común.
cultural behavior behavior that is passed between members DNA; deoxyribonucleic acid (dee-AHK-see-RY-boh-noo-
of the same population by learning and not natural KLEE-ihk) molecule that stores genetic information in all
selection. organisms.
comportamiento cultural comportamiento que ADN; ácido desoxirribonucleico molécula que
setransmite entre los miembros de una misma almacena la información genética de todos los
población, no por selección natural, sino mediante un organismos.
proceso de aprendizaje.
DNA polymerase enzyme that makes bonds between
cytokinesis (sy-toh-kuh-NEE-sihs) process by which the cell nucleotides, forming an identical strand of DNA during
cytoplasm divides. replication.
citocinesis proceso mediante el cual el citoplasma ADN polimerasa enzima que establece enlaces entre
celular se divide. los nucleótidos y que permite la formación de cadenas
idénticas de ADN durante el proceso de replicación.

dominant allele that is expressed when two different alleles epigenetics the study of changes in organisms caused by
are present in an organism’s genotype. modification of gene expression rather than alteration of
dominante el alelo que se expresa de entre dos alelos the genetic code itself.
diferentes que integran el genotipo de un organismo epigenética el estudio de los cambios en los
determinado. organismos causados por la modificación de la expresión
genética en lugar de la alteración del propio código
E genético.
epistasis the interaction of genes that are not alleles, in
ecological niche all of the physical, chemical, and biological particular the suppression of the effect of one such gene
factors that a species needs to survive, stay healthy, and by another. 
reproduce in an ecosystem. epistasia la interacción de genes que no son alelos, en
nicho ecológico conjunto de factores físicos, químicos particular la supresión del efecto de uno de los genes por
y biológicos que una especie requiere para sobrevivir otro.
de manera saludable y reproducirse en un ecosistema
determinado. eusocial organism population in which the role of each
organism is specialized and not all of the organisms will
ecological succession sequence of biotic changes that reproduce.
regenerate a damaged community or start a community eusocial población de organismos en la que todos
in a previously uninhabited area. tienenuna función especializada y en la que algunos de
sucesión ecológico secuencia de cambios bióticos ellos no se reproducen.
que regeneran una comunidad dañada o que crean
una nueva comunidad en una zona hasta entonces evolution change in a species over time; process of biological
deshabitada. change by which descendents come to differ from their
ancestors.
ecosystem collection of organisms and nonliving things, such evolución proceso de cambio de las especies a través
as climate, soil, water, and rocks, in an area. del tiempo; proceso de cambios biológicos a través del
ecosistema conjunto de organismos y factores cual los descendientes se diferencian de sus ancestros.
físicos, como el clima, el suelo, el agua y las rocas, que
caracterizan una zona determinada. exon sequence of DNA that codes information for protein
synthesis.
element substance made of only one type of atom that exón secuencia de ADN que codifica la información
cannot be broken down by chemical means. para la síntesis de las proteínas.
elemento sustancia formada por un solo tipo de átomo
que no se puede descomponer por medios químicos. exponential growth dramatic increase in population over a
short period of time.
emergent property a property that a system has, but that crecimiento exponencial intenso incremento de
the individual components of the system do not have. población en un breve espacio de tiempo.
propiedad emergente Una propiedad que un sistema
tiene, pero que los componentes individuales del extinction elimination of a species from Earth.
sistema no tienen. extinción desaparición de una especie o grupo de
especies de la Terra.
energy pyramid diagram that compares energy used by
producers, primary consumers, and other trophic levels.
pirámide de energía diagrama mediante el cual F
se compara la energía usada por los productores, los
facilitated adaptation a process in which humans guide
consumidores primarios y otros niveles tróficos.
adaptations in threatened populations by changing the
engineering design process a series of steps that engineers genome of the species.
follow to come up with a solution to a problem. adaptación facilitada un proceso en el que los
proceso de diseño de ingeniería Una serie de pasos humanos guían las adaptaciones en poblaciones
que los ingenieros siguen para llegar a una solución de amenazadas cambiando el genoma de la especie.
un problema.
feedback loop information that is compared with a set of
enzyme protein that catalyzes chemical reactions for ideal values and aids in maintaining homeostasis.
organisms. retroalimentación información que se compara
enzima proteína que cataliza reacciones químicas para con un grupo de valores ideales y que contribuye al
los organismos. mantenimiento de la homeóstasis.
Glossary R5
GLOSSARY
fitness measure of an organism’s ability to survive and gene therapy procedure to treat a disease in which a
produce offspring relative to other members of a defective or missing gene is replaced or a new gene is
population. inserted into a patient’s genome.
aptitud biológica capacidad de un organismo terapia génica procedimiento para el tratamiento de
determinado para sobrevivir y producir descendencia en una enfermedad en el que un gen defectuoso o ausente
relación con los demás miembros de una población. se reemplaza por uno sano que se inserta en el genoma
del paciente.
food chain model that links organisms by their feeding
relationships. genetic cross mating of two organisms.
cadena alimentaria modelo que relaciona los cruzamiento apareamiento de dos organismos.
organismossegún sus interacciones alimentarias.
genetic drift change in allele frequencies due to chance
food web model that shows the complex network of feeding alone, occurring most commonly in small populations.
relationships within an ecosystem. deriva genética cambio en las frecuencias de alelos
red alimentaria modelo que representa una red que se produce, sobre todo, en poblaciones pequeñas.
compleja de relaciones alimentarias en un ecosistema
genetic engineering process of changing an organism’s DNA
determinado.
to give the organism new traits.
fossil trace of an organism from the past. ingeniería genética proceso de modifacación del AND
fósil huella de un organismo del pasado. de un organismo con el fin de dotarlo de nueovs rasgos.
fossil fuel a nonrenewable energy resource formed from genetic testing process of testing DNA to determine the
the remains of organisms that lived long ago; examples chance a person has, or might pass on, a genetic
include oil, coal, and natural gas. disorder.
combustible fósil un recurso energético no renovable análisis genético proceso de análisis de ADN para
formado a partir de los restos de organisamos que determinar las probabilidades que tiene una persona de
vivieron hace mucho tiempo; alguno ejemplos incluyen contraer o transmitir una enfermedad genética.
el petróleo, el carbón y el gas natural.
genetic variation differences in physical traits of an individual
founder effect genetic drift that occurs after a small number from the group to which it belongs.
of individuals colonize a new area. variación diferencia en rasgos físicos que presenta un
efecto fundador deriva genética que se produce individuo con respecto al grupo al que pertenece.
cuando un pequeño número de individuos coloniza una
genetics study of the heredity patterns and variation of
nueva región.
organisms.
genética estudio de los patrones hereditarios y de la
G variación de los organismos.
gamete sex cell; an egg or a sperm cell. genotype (JEHN-uh-typ) collection of all of an organism’s
gameto célula sexual; óvulo o espermatozoide. genetic information that codes for traits.
genotipo conjunto de todos los rasgos codificados en
gene specific region of DNA that codes for a particular protein. la información genética de un organismo.
gen parte específica del ADN con información
codificada para sintetizar una proteína. germ cell in a multicellular organism, any reproductive cell (as
opposed to a somatic cell).
gene expression the manifestation of the genetic material of célula germinal en un organismo pluricelular, cualquier
an organism in the form of specific traits. célula reproductiva (en contraposición a una célula
expresión de los genes la manifestación del material somática).
genético de un organismo en forma de caracteres
específicos. greenhouse effect normal warming effect produced when
gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in
gene flow physical movement of alleles from one population Earth’s atmosphere.
to another. efecto invernadero calentamiento producido cuando
flujo génico desplazamiento físico de alelos de una ciertos gases, como el dióxido de carbono y el metano,
población a otra. atrapan el calor en la atmósfera terrestre.
gene mutation change in the DNA sequence of a single gene. greenhouse gas a gas composed of molecules that absorb
mutación cambio en la secuencia de ADN de un solo and radiate infrared radiation from the sun.
gen. gas de invernadero un gas compuesto de moléculas
gene pool collection of alleles found in all of the individuals of que absorben radiación infrarroja del Sol y la vuelven a
a population. irradiar.
acervo genético colección de alelos de todos los
individuosde una población determinada.

H hydrocarbon an organic compound composed only of
carbon and hydrogen.
habitat combined biotic and abiotic factors found in the area hidrocarburo compuesto orgánico compuesto
where an organism lives. únicamente por carbono e hidrógeno.
hábitat conjunto de factores bióticos y abióticos de la
zona donde vive un organismo determinado. I
habitat fragmentation process by which part of an inclusive fitness total number of genes an animal contributes
organism’s preferred habitat range becomes to the next generation.
inaccessible. aptitud inclusiva número total de genes que un animal
fragmentación del hábitat proceso mediante el transmite a la siguiente generación.
cual una parte del hábitat de un organismo se hace
inaccesible. incomplete dominance heterozygous phenotype that is a
blend of the two homozygous phenotypes.
helicase an enzyme that unwinds the DNA double helix dominancia incompleta fenotip heterocigoto que
during DNA replication resulta de la mezcla de dos fenotipos homocigotos.
helicasa una enzima que separa las hebras de la doble
hélice del AND durante la replicación del AND independent assortment Mendel’s second law, stating
that allele pairs separate independently of one another
heritability ability of a trait to be passed from one generation during gamete formation.
to the next. transmisión independiente segunda ley de Mendel,
heredabilidad propiedad de un rasgo determinado de según la cual los pares de alelos se separan de manera
ser transmitido de una generación a la siguiente. independiente durante la formación de los gametos.
heterozygous characteristic of having two different alleles innate behavior that is not learned through experience.
that appear at the same locus of sister chromatids. innato comportamiento que no se aprende a través de
heterocigoto característica que consiste en tener la experiencia.
dos alelosdiferentes en el mismo locus de cromátidas
hermanas. introduced species species that is not native and was
brought to an area as a result of human activities.
homeostasis (hoh-mee-oh-STAY-sihs) regulation and especie introducida especie no autóctona que llega a
maintenance of constant internal conditions in an otras regiones como resultado de actividades humanas.
organism.
homeostasis regulación y mantenimiento de intron segment of a gene that does not code for an amino
condiciones internas constantes en un organismo acid.
determinado. intrón región de un gen que no participa en la
codificación de amino ácidos.
homologous chromosomes chromosomes that have the
same length, appearance, and copies of genes, although invasive species species that is not native to an ecosystem
the alleles may differ. and whose introduction is likely to cause economic or
cromosomas homólogos cromosomas de la misma environmental harm or harm to human health.
longitud, aspecto y secuencia de genes, aunque los especies invasoras Especies que no son nativas de un
alelos de uno y otro cromosoma pueden ser distintos. ecosistema y cuya introducción es probable que cause
daño económico o ambiental o daños a la salud humana.
homologous structure body part that is similar in structure
on different organisms but performs different functions. ion atom that has gained or lost one or more electrons.
estructura homóloga estructura anatómica similar ión átomo que ha ganado o perdido uno o más
de organismos diferentes pero que cumplen funciones electrones.
dierentes.
homozygous characteristic of having two of the same alleles K
at the same locus of sister chromatids.
kin selection when natural selection acts on alleles that favor
homocigoto característica que consiste en tener
the survival of close relatives.
los mismos alelos en el mismo locus de cromátidas
nepotismo selección natural de los alelos que favorece
hermanas.
la supervivencia de los familiares más próximos.
hormone chemical signal that is produced in one part of an
organism and affects cell activity in another part.
hormona señal química producida en una parte del
organismo que afecta a la actividad celular en otra parte
del cuerpo.
Glossary R7
GLOSSARY
L N
logistic growth population growth that is characterized NADPH a molecule that serves as an energy carrier during
by a period of slow growth, followed by a period of photosynthesis.
exponential growth, followed by another period of NADPH una molécula que sirve como un portador de
almost no growth. energía durante la fotosíntesis.
crecimiento logístico crecimiento de población que se
natural selection mechanism by which individuals that have
caracteriza por un período de crecimiento lento, seguido
inherited beneficial adaptations produce more offspring
por un período de crecimiento exponencial al que le
on average than do other individuals.
sigue un período de crecimiento insignificante.
selección natural mecanismo mediante el cual
los organismos que han heredado adaptaciones
M beneficiosas producen un promedio más alto de
descendientes que los demás individuos.
meiosis (my-OH-sihs) form of nuclear division that divides
a diploid cell into haploid cells; important in forming negative feedback loop control system for homeostasis that
gametes for sexual reproduction. adjusts the body’s conditions when the conditions vary
meiosis forma de división nuclear en la que una célula from the ideal.
diploide se divide en células haploides; importante en la retroalimentación negativa sistema de control de
formación de gametos para la reproducción sexual. la homeostasis que regula las condiciones del cuerpo
cuando éstas no son óptimas.
microevolution observable change in the allele frequencies
of a population over a few generations. nonpoint source pollution pollution that comes from
microevolución cambio observable en las frecuencias many sources rather than from a single specific site; an
alélicas de una población en el transcurso de unas pocas example is pollution that reaches a body of water from
generaciones. streets and storm sewers.
contaminación no puntual contaminación que
mitochrondrion (MY-tuh-KAHN-dree-uhn) (plural: proviene de muchas fuentes, en lugar de provenir de
mitochondria) bean-shaped organelle that supplies un solo sitio específico; un ejemplo es la contaminación
energy to the cell and has its own ribosomes and DNA. que llega a una masa de agua a partir de las calles y los
mitocondria orgánulo en forma de fríjol que suministra drenajes.
energía a la célula y que tiene sus propios ribosomas y
AND. nonrenewable resource natural resource that is used more
quickly than it can be formed.
mitosis (my-TOH-sihs) process by which a cell divides its recurso no renovable recurso natural que se consume
nucleus and contents. con más rapidez de la que se puede reponer.
mitosis proceso en el cual tanto el núcleo como los
demás elementos de la célula se duplican. normal distribution distribution in a population in which
allele frequency is highest near the mean range value
model a pattern, plan, representation, or description designed and decreases progressively toward each extreme end.
to show the structure or workings of an object, system, distribución normal distribución de la población
or concept. en la que la frecuencia alélica es mayor en la zona de
modelo un patrón, plan, representación o descripción valor medio y disminuye progresivamente hacia ambos
diseñada para mostrar la estructura o el funcionamiento extremos.
de un objeto, sistema o concepto.
nucleotide (NOO-klee-uh-TYD) monomer that forms DNA
molecule a neutral group of atoms that are held together by and has a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogen-
covalent bonds; not necessarily a compound. containing base.
molécula grupo de átomos neutros que se unen nucleótido monómero que forma el ADN y que tiene
mediante enlaces covalentes. un grupo fosfato, un azúcar y una base nitrogenada.
monohybrid cross cross, or mating, between organisms that nucleus (NOO-klee-uhs) (plural: nuclei) organelle composed of
involves only one pair of contrasting traits. a double membrane that acts as the storehouse for most
cruzamiento monohíbrido cruzamiento o of a cell’s DNA.
apareamiento entre dos organismos que sólo involucra núcleo orgánulo compuesto de una doble membrana
un par de rasgos diferentes. que almacena la mayor parte del ADN de la célula.
mutagen agent that can induce or increase the frequency of
mutation in organisms.
mutágeno agente que puede inducir mutaciones en un
organismo o incrementar la frecuencia de éstas.
mutation change in the DNA sequence.
mutación cambio en la secuencia de ADN.

O photosynthesis process by which light energy is converted
to chemical energy; produces sugar and oxygen from
operator a short sequence of viral or bacterial DNA to which carbon dioxide and water.
a repressor binds to prevent transcription (mRNA fotosíntesis proceso mediante el cual la energía del
synthesis) of the adjacent gene in an operon. sol se convierte en energía química; produce azúcar y
operador una secuencia corta de AND viral o oxígeno a partir de dióxido de carbono y agua.
bacteriano a la que se une un represor para impedir la plasmid circular piece of genetic material found in bacteria
transcripción (sintesis de ARNm) del gene adyacente en that can replicate separately from the DNA of the main
un operón. chromosome.
operon section of DNA that contains all of the code to begin plásmido cadena de material genético en forma
transcription, regulate transcription, and build a protein; circular que se encuentra en las bacterias y que se replica
includes a promotor, regulatory gene, and structural independientemente del ADN cromosómico.
gene. point source pollution pollution that comes from a specific
operón sección de ADN que contiene todos los site.
códigos necesarios para iniciar y regular el proceso de contaminación puntual contaminación que proviene
transcripción y para sintetizar una proteína: consta de un de un lugar específico.
promotor, de un gen regulador y de un gen estuctural.
pollution anything that is added to the environment and has
organ group of different types of tissues that work together to a negative effect on the environment or its organisms.
perform a specific function or related functions. contaminación cualquier sustancia que se libera
órgano grupo de diversos tipos de tejidos que en el mdeio ambiente con efectos negativos para los
funcionan de manera coordinada para desarrollar una organismos que lo habitan y su entorno.
función específica o funciones relacionadas.
polygenic trait trait that is produced by two or more genes.
organ system two or more organs that work in a coordinated rasgo poligénico rasgo producido por dos o más
way to carry out similar functions. genes.
sistema de órganos dos o más órganos que funcionan
de manera coordinada para realizar funciones similares. polymer large, carbon-based molecule formed by monomers.
polímero gran molécula de carbono formada por
organism any individual living thing. monómeros.
organismo cualquier ser vivo.
population all of the individuals of a species that live in the
overharvesting catching or removing from a population same area.
more organisms than the population can replace. población conjunto de individuos de la misma especie
sobrecosechar capturar o sustraer de una población que viven en la misma zona.
más organismos de los que la población puede
reemplazar. positive feedback loop control system in which sensory
information causes the body to increase the rate of
change away from homeostasis.
P retroalimentación positiva sistema de control
PCR; polymerase chain reaction method for increasing the mediante el cual la información sensorial estimula el
quantity of DNA by separating it into two strands and cuerpo a incrementar la tasa de cambio, alejándola de
adding primers and enzymes. valores homeostáticos.
RCP; reacción en cadena de la polimerasa método predation process by which one organism hunts and kills
para obtener un gran número de copias de ADN another organism for food.
separándolo en dos hebras y añadiendo cebadores y predación proceso mediante el cual un organismo
enzimas. acecha, mata y se come a otro organismo.
phenotype collection of all of an organism’s physical probability likelihood that a particular event will happen.
characteristics. probabilidad posibilidad de que ocurra un suceso en
fenotipo conjunto de todas las características físicas de particular.
un organismo determinado.
producer organism that obtains its energy from abiotic
phospholipid molecule that forms a double-layered cell sources, such as sunlight or inorganic chemicals.
membrane; consists of a glycerol, a phosphate group, productor organismo que obtiene su alimento de
and two fatty acids. fuentes abióticos, como la luz solar o compuestos
fosfolípido molécula que forma una membrana de inorgánicos.
capa doble; consta de glicerol, un grupo fosfato y dos
ácidos grasos.
Glossary R9
GLOSSARY
promoter section of DNA to which RNA polymerase binds, resistance in biology, the ability of an organism to tolerate a
starting the transcription of mRNA. chemical or disease-causing agent.
promotor sección de AND a la que se enlaza el ARN resistencia en biología, la capacidad de un organismo
polimerasa al inicio del proceso de transcipción de de tolerar a un agente químico o causante de
ARNm. enfermedades.
protein polymer composed of amino acids linked by peptide ribosome (RY-buh-sohm) organelle that links amino acids
bonds; folds into a particular structure depending on together to form proteins.
bonds between amino acids. ribosoma orgánulo que enlaza las moléculas de
proteína polímero compuesto de aminoácidos aminoácidos para formar proteínas.
unidos por enlaces peptídicos; se pliega formando una
estructura determinada según sean los enlaces que hay S
entre los aminoácidos.
protein synthesis the formaton of proteins by using sex chromosome chromosome that directly controls the
information contained in DNA and carried by mRNA. development of sexual characteristics.
síntesis de proteínas la formación de proteínas cromosoma sexual cromosoma que controla
mediante el uso de información contenida en el ADN y directamente el desarrollo de las características sexuales.
transmitida por el ARNm. sex-linked gene gene that is located on a sex chromosome.
Punnett square model for predicting all possible genotypes gen ligado al sexo gen ubicado en un cromosoma
resulting from a cross, or mating. sexual.
cuadrado de Punnet modelo de predicción de todos sexual selection selection in which certain traits enhance
los genotipos posibles que se pueden obtener a partir de mating success; traits are, therefore, passed on to
un determinado cruzamiento o apareamiento. offspring.
pyramid of numbers a diagram that shows the number selección sexual selección en la que determinados
of individual organisms at each trophic level in an rasgos incrementan el éxito del apareamiento; en
ecosystem. consecuencia, tales rasgos se transmiten a las crías.
pyrámide de números un diagrama que muestra el smog air pollution in which gases released from burning fossil
número de organismos individuales en cada uno de los fuels form a fog when they react with sunlight.
niveles tróficos de un ecosistema. smog contaminación atmosférica en la que los gases
liberados por la combustión de hidrocarburos reaccionan
R con la luz creando una niebla.
soil erosion a process in which the materials of Earth’s surface
recessive allele that is not expressed unless two copies are
are loosened, dissolved, or worn away and transported
present in an organism’s genotype.
from one place to another by a natural agent, such as
recesivo alelo que no se expresa, a menos que en el
wind, water, ice, or gravity.
genotípo del organismo en cuestión estén presenten dos
erosión un proceso por medio del cual los materiales de
copias de dicho gen.
la superficie de la Tierra se aflojan, disuelven o desgastan
recombinant DNA (ree-KAHM-buh-nuhnt) genetically y son transportados de un lugar a otro por un agente
engineered DNA that contains genes from more than natural, como el viento, el agua, el hielo o la gravedad.
one organism or species.
somatic cell (soh-MAT-ihk) cell that makes up all of the body
ADN recombinante ADN manipulado geneticamente
tissues and organs, except gametes.
que contiene genes de más de un organismo o especie.
célula somática célula que conforma todos los tejidos
renewable resource resource that replenishes itself quickly y órganos del organismo, excepto los gametos.
enough so that it will not be used faster than it can be
speciation evolution of two or more species from one
produced.
ancestral species.
recurso renovable recurso natural que se restablece a
especiación evolución de dos o más especies a partir
un ritmo superior del ritmo al que se consume.
de una sola especie ancestral.
replication process by which DNA is copied.
species group of organisms so similar to one another that
replicación proceso mediante el cual se copian las
they can breed and produce fertile offspring.
moléculas de AND.
especie grupo de organismos tan semejantes entre sí
resilience the ability of an ecosystem to recover after it has que pueden reproducirse y tener descendencia fértil.
undergone a disturbance.
resiliencia la capacidad de un ecosistema para
recuperarse después de haber sufrido una perturbación.

stabilizing selection pathway of natural selection in which tissue group of cells that work together to perform a similar
intermediate phenotypes are selected over phenotypes function.
at both extremes. tejido grupo de células similares que trabajan juntas
selección estabilizadora proceso de selección natural para desempeñar la misma función.
en el que se da preferencia a los fenotipos intermedios
trait characteristic that is inherited.
sobre los fenotipos de ambos extremos.
rasgo característica heredada.
stem cell cell that can divide for long periods of time while
transcription process of copying a nucleotide sequence of
remaining undifferentiated.
DNA to form a complementary strand of mRNA.
célula madre célula capaz de dividirse durante largos
transcripción proceso donde se copia una secuencia
periodos de tiempo sin diferenciarse.
de ADN para formar una cadena complementaria de
stimulus (STIHM-yuh-luhs) (plural: stimuli) something that ARNm.
causes a physiological response.
transcription factor an enzyme that is needed to begin and/
estímulo cualquier cosa capaz de provocar una
or continue genetic transcription.
respuesta fisiológica.
factor de transcripción una enzima que se necesita
survivorship probability of surviving to a particular age. para comenzar y/o continuar la transcripción genética.
supervivencia probabilidad de sobrevivir hasta una
transgenic organism whose genome has been altered to
edad determinada.
contain one or more genes from another organism or
survivorship curve graph showing the surviving members of species.
each age group of a population over time. transgénico organismo cuyo genoma ha sido alterado
curva de sobrevivencia gráfica que representa los mediante la incorporación de uno o más genes de otro
sobrevivientes de una población por grupos de edad organismo o especie.
durante un periodo determinado.
translation process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein
sustainable development practice of not using natural is produced.
resources more quickly than they can be replenished. traducción proceso mediante el cual se decodifica el
desarrollo sostenible práctica que consiste en no ARNm y se produce una proteína.
utilizar los recursos naturales más rápidamente de lo que
pueden ser generarlos. U
symbiosis ecological relationship between members of at
least two different species that live in direct contact with uniformitarianism theory that states that the geologic
one another. processes that shape Earth are uniform through time.
simbiosis relación ecológica en la que los miembros uniformitarismo teoría según la cual los procesos
de al menos dos especies diferentes viven en contacto geológicos que dan forma a la Tierra se producen de
directo. manera uniforme a lo largo del tiempo.
system changing, organized group of related parts that V

interact to form a whole.
sistema conjunto organizado y dinámico de partes que vestigial structure remnants of an organ or structure that
interactúan entre sí para formar un todo. functioned in an earlier ancestor.
estructura vestigial restos de algún órgano o
T estructura en una especie determinada que cumplieron
alguna función en un ancestrode ésta.
technology the application of science for practical purposes;
the use of tools, machines, materials, and processes to W
meet human needs.
tecnología la aplicación de la ciencia con fines wastewater water that contains wastes from homes or
prácticos; el uso de herramientas, máquinas, materiales industry.
y procesos para satisfacer las necesidades de los seres agua de desecho agua que contiene desechos de los
humanos. hogares o la industria.
testcross cross between an organism with an unknown
genotype and an organism with a recessive phenotype.
cruzamiento de prueba cruzamiento entre un
organismo de genotipo desconocido y un organismo de
fenotipo recesivo.
Glossary R11
Index
Page numbers for illustrations, maps, and charts are printed in italics.
Page numbers for definitions are printed in boldface type.
A algae 167, 184, 187, 188, 190, 198, 201,

biomolecules for, 94 203, 204, 206, 207, 223, 224, 227,
ABA (abscisic acid), 42 cell wall, 27 229, 235, 236, 238, 241, 243, 259,
Abert’s squirrel, 435, 435 photosynthesis in, 117 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 268,
abiotic factor, 11, 197 algae biofuel, 176, 176 275, 278, 280, 282, 288, 291, 292,
abscisic acid (ABA), 42 algae bioreactor, 125 294, 305, 307, 308, 310, 317, 319,
absorption, in small intestine, 20 algal bloom, 166 321, 322, 324, 328, 329, 330, 333,
accuracy, in cell surface-area-to- allele, 320, 320, 320–322 336, 344, 346, 351, 357, 359, 362,
volume ratio modeling, 231 combinations of, 320 365, 368, 383, 385, 387, 388, 391,
acetylene, bond in, 92, 92 dominant, 321, 321, 322 397, 399, 401, 403, 407, 408, 421,
acid rain, 476, 482, 482–483 in gene pools, 419 422, 423, 425, 427, 434, 438, 440,
acid, 78 in genetic crosses, 329–330 442, 443, 450, 451, 452, 454, 455,
enzymes and, 84 heterozygous, 320, 320, 321 472, 473, 474, 477, 479, 481, 487,
investigating, 78, 86 homozygous, 320, 320, 321 489, 502. See also data analysis
in stomach, 87 multiple, 322, 322 acid rain effects, 482
actin, 23, 23 in Punnett square, 330, 330 aerobic and anaerobic processes in
activation energy, 80, 80, 82, 82, 85, 85 recessive, 321, 321, 322 yeast, 137
active transport, 105, 105 separation of, 319 biomagnification, 154
adaptation, 401, 406, 406–407, 436, variation in, 420, 420 catalase experiment, 82
438, 445–446 allele frequency, 420, 420–421 cell surface-area-to-volume ratio, 230
adaptive value of behavior, 417, alligator, 154 climate data, 477
448–457 alternative energy source, 168 determining genotype, 334
artificial selection and, 403 alternative fuel, 176 disease outbreaks, 69
facilitated, 366 altruism, 454, 454 extracting DNA, 369
fogstand beetle, 417 alveoli, 39, 39 heat and diffusion, 104
reproductive success and, 398 ambulance, 50, 50 homeostasis and exercise, 45
adaptive radiation, 438 American bison, 492, 492 human impacts, 144
adenine, 99, 263–265, 263–265 American Society of Microbiology, modeling feedback, 34
adenosine diphosphate (ADP), 101, 252 modeling population changes, 426
101 amino acid, 98, 98, 101 nutrition labels, 106
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 100, codons and, 280, 280, 344, 344, 345 per capita consumption, 474
100–101, 101, 105, 121 sequence of, 282, 282 piecing together evidence, 383
in cellular respiration, 133–135, ammonia, 163 plant growth and acid rain, 483
133–135 ammonification, 163 population changes, 426
in photosynthesis, 121, 121, 123, 123 ammonium, 163 population evolution, 420–422
produced without oxygen, 136 amphibian quadrate sampling, 185
adhesion, 77 malformation and decline of, 257 rainwater harvesting system, 507
ADP (adenosine diphosphate), 101, survivorship curves for, 187 red squirrel population dynamics,
101 wastes of, 44 219, 219
adult stem cell, 243 amylase, 82 respiration and exercise, 130
Aedes aegypti, 364 anaerobic, 131 traits in tomato plants, 379, 379
aerobic, 131 anaerobic bacteria, 163 waste to electricity solutions, 500
aerobic bacteria, 163 anaerobic digestion, 500 water pollution, 179
agar art, 252, 252 anaerobic respiration, 136, 136 anaphase, 238
aging, 236, 269 analogous structures, 387, 387, 387 anaphase I, 308, 308, 319
agriculture. See also crops analysis (of data), 392 anaphase II, 309, 309
as barrier to dispersal, 488 Analyze, 5, 6, 12, 17, 18, 20, 22, 24, 25, anatomical evidence, for evolution,
land clearing for, 487, 487 27, 28, 35, 38, 41, 42, 49, 53, 54, 386–388, 387, 388
soil depletion from, 480 56, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 82, 91, animal cell
water pollution and, 478, 478, 506 94, 97, 98, 103, 105, 118, 119, 120, cell differentiation in, 241, 241–242, 242
air pollution, 166, 475, 475–476 121, 129, 132, 133, 134, 136, 141, cell division in, 237
albinism, 323, 323 144, 147, 149, 153, 160, 164, 165, chemical reactions in, 79

structure of, 25, 25–26 artificial selection, 402, 402–403 innate, 449, 451
translation in, 279 asexual reproduction, 222, 239, learned, 455–456
vacuoles in, 28 239–240, 240 murmurations, 451
animalcules, 229 clones produced through, 360 niches and, 197
animal. See also individual types of by Venus flytraps, 12 responsive, 449
animals Asian beetle, 405, 418 social interactions, 452–454
biomolecules in food of, 94 atmosphere, 10, 10 weighting costs of, 450–451
breeding for traits, 328, 328, 339, 339 carbon dioxide levels in, 167, 167 behavioral isolation, 437
camouflage, 396 greenhouse effect in, 476 bifidobacteria, 136, 136
cloning, 361 matter cycles in, 149 “Big Blowup”, 208
deaths/injury from trash in water, nitrogen in, 163 binary code, 272, 284
469 ozone in, 166 binary fission, 239, 239, 240, 360
energy for, 129 removing carbon dioxide from, 505 biochemical compound, modeling,
genetic engineering in, 364 solar radiation in, 159, 159 99, 107
genome studies of, 325 atom, 73, 73 biodiesel, 500
as influence in robot design, 464, 464 carbon, 90, 108 biodiversity, 142, 200–202
introduction of, 202 in chemical bonds, 73–74 of biomes, 143
knockout mice, 369, 369 in compounds, 74–75 controlled burns and, 495
as natural resources, 492 electrons, 73 decline in, 495
osmoregulation in, 44 in organic molecules, 93 ecosystem resilience and, 204
overhunting, 493 protons, 73 in ecosystems, 142
poaching, 512, 512 ATP. See adenosine triphosphate human impacts on, 486–495
safety in working with, xxiv autosome, 306, 336 measures of, 493
in secondary succession, 207 Avery, Oswald, 260–261, 270 succession and, 206, 207
survivorship curves for, 187 axolotl, 244, 244 biodiversity hot spot, 201, 201
thermoregulation in, 43 axon, 22 bioengineering, 48–60, 49
wildlife corridors, 488, 488 artificial hip, 53
wildlife crossings, 498, 498, 510, 510 biomedical engineering, 58–59
animal safety symbol, xxv
B careers in, 58–59
anoles, 381, 381 background extinction, 442 cellular engineering, 59
Antennapedia, 296 bacteria, 17 clean drinking water, 51
antibiotic resistant bacteria, 430 antibiotic resistant, 430 CPAP technology, 55, 55
antibiotic, 430 cell wall, 27 decision matrix in, 55
antigen, 322 clones of, 249 engineering design process, 52,
Antiquities Act of 1906, 489 CRISPR mechanism in, 363 52–53
ants, 444, 444 gene regulation in, 288, 289 molecular engineering, 59
apoptosis, 227, 252, 252, 294 genetically modified, 240 prosthetics, 56–57
apron safety symbol, xxv genetic engineering of, 363, 363 technology and human body, 49–50
aquatic ecosystem, 11, 143, 143–144, nitrogen-fixing, 163, 164, 164 technology and society, 50–51
144 photosynthesis in, 117 vision correction technology, 54,
eutrophication and, 167 pneumonia, 260, 260 54–56
Florida Everglades, 141, 141 reproduction in, 46, 222, 239 biofuel, 176, 176, 500, 500
freshwater, 143, 143–144 bacteriophage, 262 biogas, 500
at hydrothermal vents, 120 balance, 34, 34, 35 biogeochemical cycle, 161, 161–165
kelp forests, 114 ball-and-stick model, 75 carbon cycle, 162, 162
marine, 143, 143–144 barnacle, 386 climate change and, 477
primary productivity in, 154 barred owl, 439, 439, 441, 441 nitrogen cycle, 163, 163–164
Archaeopteryx, 382, 382, 391, 393, 393 bases, 78, 84, 86 oxygen cycle, 161, 161
Arctic fox, 294, 294 base substitution, 268 phosphorus cycle, 164–165, 165
armadillo, 401 Bashkir horse, 332, 332, 333, 333 solutions to human impacts on, 168
Art Connection bat, 3, 3, 409 biogeographer, 192, 192
chemistry of pigments, 110, 110 beaver, 202, 202 biogeography, 412
conservation of photography, 216, bee, 97 biohazardous waste, 51
216 behavior(s) biological control agent, 491
environmental awareness through adaptive value of, 417, 448–457 biology, 59
art, 512, 512 cultural, 455 molecular, central dogma of, 259,
virtual agar art, 252, 252 eusocial, 454, 454, 457 273, 288
arteries, 37, 37, 39 evolution of, 449–451 synthetic, 59
artificial hip, 53 function of, 450 systems, 8–9, 9
Index R13
INDEX
biomagnification, 154, 154 neurons in, 21 double bonds in, 92, 92

biomass, 149–151, 473, 473 sensory input to, 449 maintaining concentrations of,
anaerobic digestion of, 500 brainstorming, 54, 55, 57 38–39, 39
burning of, 495 Brazilian pepper-tree, 494 in oxygen cycle, 161, 161
human health and, 473 breakage safety symbol, xxv photosynthesis and, 117, 123
biomass pyramid, 152, 152 Briggs, Robert, 361 in plants, 42
biomedical engineering, 58–59 broccoli, 316, 316, 326, 326 removing from atmosphere, 505
biome, 11, 141, 142, 142–143 bromothymol blue, 130, 130 carbon dioxide molecule, 74, 74
in a bottle, 115 bronchi, 39, 39 carbonic acid, 80, 80
ecosystems in, 142, 142, 143 bronchiole, 39, 39 carbon sink, 162
biomolecule, 90, 94. See also brown anoles, 381, 381 cardiac muscle, 23
carbohydrates; lipids; nucleic budding, 240, 240 careers
acids; proteins buffer, 78 bioengineering, 58–59
bionic hand, 58, 58 building biomolecule, 107 biogeographer, 192, 192
biophysics, 9 bullhorn acacia, 444, 444 environmental engineer, 509, 509
biosphere, 10, 10 burrowing owl, 515, 515 geneticist, 294
matter cycles in, 149 butterflies, 417, 417 genomics, 325, 325
organization of, 11 bycatch, 493 carnivores, 146, 146, 149
Biosphere 2, 158, 158, 169, 169 carrying capacity, 189, 189, 192, 472,
biotechnology, 51, 51 488
biotic factor, 11, 197
C car, 128, 128, 129
bird of paradise, 429, 429 C3 plant, 124, 125, 125 caste system, 448
bird C4 plant, 124, 125, 125 catalase, 82
evolution of, 387, 387, 388, 388, 391 California Floristic Province, 201 catalyst, 82, 84, 85, 85
survivorship curves for, 187 California wildfires, 209 catastrophism theory, 389
wastes of, 44 calories, 101, 150 caterpillar, 150, 150
Biston betularia, 422, 422 Calvin, Melvin, 123 cat, 317, 328, 328, 339, 339
black-footed ferret, 176, 176 Calvin cycle, 123, 124 cauliflower cloning, 221
blindness, 376, 376 camouflage, 396, 396 cause and effect
blood. See also red blood cells CAM plant, 124, 125, 125 amino acids sequence and
carbon dioxide levels in, 38–39, 39 canals, wildlife overpasses for, 498 mutations, 344, 344
carbon dioxide transport by, 80, 80 cancer, 227, 255, 255, 298, 298 analyzing human impacts, 144
circulation of, 20, 39, 39 cancer research, 231 appearance of future organisms, 389
gas homeostasis in, 39 capillaries, 21, 39, 39 blood pressure, 37
glucose levels in, 38, 38, 41, 41 capric acid, 91 building wildlife corridors, 488, 488
multiple alleles, 322, 322 carbohydrate, 94, 94, 101, 102 comparing chromosome
plasma, 77 complex, 94 arrangement, 309
blood pressure, 37, 40 simple, 94 exercise ability, 403, 403
blood type, 322, 322 carbon, 90, 108 extinction rates, 442, 443
blood vessel, 20, 37, 37, 39, 294 fossilization of, 162 genes for eye color, 324, 324
blue-footed boobies, 453, 453 organisms’ need for, 161 migration, 450, 450
blue jay, 198 carbon atom, 73, 90, 91, 108 mutations and protein structure, 350
body (somatic) cell, 306, 306, 307, 349, carbon-based molecule, 90, 90–105 overfertilization, 167
349 carbohydrate structure and function, cell(s), 21, 21, 24, 24
body plan 94, 94 animal, 25, 25–26
developmental similarities, 386, 386 cell membrane, 102–105 in bats, 3
Hox genes and, 296, 385, 385 chemical energy, 100–101 blood, 21, 80, 104, 342, 342, 353, 353
bombardier beetle, 71, 71 lipid structure and function, 95, chemical reactions in, 79
bond energy, 80 95–97 chromosomes, 235, 235–236, 236
boreal forest, 206 nucleic acid structure and function, communication among, 28
Borneo, 487, 487 99, 99 eukaryotic, 24 (See also eukaryotes/
bottle biome, 115 protein structure and function, 98, 98 eukaryotic cells)
bottleneck effect, 427, 427, 427, 430 structure of, 91–93 “immortal”, 361
bottlenose dolphin, 451 carbon cycle, 162, 162 in living things, 12
boundaries, 5. See also cell membrane carbon dioxide mitosis, 237
brain from anaerobic digestion, 500 muscle, 16, 21, 23, 23, 136
in homeostasis, 34, 38, 39 in Biosphere 2, 169 normal and cancer, comparing, 255,
interneurons in, 22 in blood, 39, 80, 80 255
in nervous system, 22 climate change and, 167, 167 plant, 27, 27–29, 79

prokaryotic, 24 (See also chemical equation for, 131 chemical reaction, 79, 79–82
prokaryotes/prokaryotic cells) as combustion process, 138 activation energy, 80, 82, 82
replacing, 221 electron transport chain in, 135, 135 catalysts, 82, 84
specialization in, 21, 21 energy in, 129, 129 chemical equilibrium, 80
synthetic, 283, 283 exercise and, 130 endothermic and exothermic, 81, 81
water in, 76 fermentation in, 136, 136 in food decomposition, 70
cell biologist, 231 glycolysis and stages of, 122, 133 irreversible, 80
cell body, in neurons, 22 inputs and outputs of, 131, 131 in metabolizing food, 159
cell cycle, 222–232, 223, 238, 238 Krebs cycle in, 134, 134–135 modeling, 79
cell size, 226 to maintain homeostasis, 133, 133 reversible, 80
cell size and homeostasis, 230–231 in mitochondria, 131, 131 chemicals, gene expression and, 294
cell theory, 228–229 oxygen cycle and, 161, 161 chemical safety, xxiii
DNA replication, 266–268 photosynthesis and, 132, 132 chemical safety symbol, xxv
factors affecting growth, 225 processes in yeast, 137, 137 chemistry
G0 stage, 224 process of, 131 acids and bases, 78
interphase, 237, 237 in seeds, 137 atoms, 73, 73
rates of cell division, 224, 224 cellulose, 92, 92, 94 carbon-based molecules, 90–105
regulation of, 226–227 cell wall, 27 chemical bonds, 73–77
stages of, 223, 223–224 central dogma of molecular biology, chemical energy, 100–101
cell differentiation, 21, 21, 241, 259, 273, 288 chemical reactions, 79–82
241–244 central vacuole, 28 elements, 73
embryonic development, 241, centriole, 26, 237, 237 organic, 91
241–242, 242, 293, 293 centromere, 236, 236 of pigments, 110, 110
gene expression and, 243 centrosomes, 237, 237 of soap and stains, 71
Hox genes in, 295 CF (cystic fibrosis), 105, 367, 367–368 chemosynthesis, 120, 120
limb regeneration, 244, 244, 245 chance events, 427 chicken, 382, 382
stem cells, 242, 242–243 changes. See also climate change; chimpanzee, 452, 452, 455, 455
cell division, 220, 222, 223, 232. See also environmental changes; chipmunk, 150, 150
cell cycle; mitosis stability and change chlorine, 73, 74, 74
in cancer, 227 cell surface-area-to-volume ratio chlorophyll, 119, 119, 140, 140, 155, 155
in frogs, 222 modeling, 231 chloroplast, 28, 28, 119, 121
measuring, 231 in ecosystems, 182, 193 cholesterol, 97, 97, 102
rates of, 224, 224 epigenetic, 290, 290 chromatid, 236, 307
regulating, 226–227 in living things, 12 in crossing over, 312, 312
cell membrane, 24, 24, 28, 102, plant growth and acid rain sister, 236, 307
102–105 experiment, 483 chromosomal mutation, 347, 347,
active transport, 105, 105 population, modeling, 426 347–348, 348, 350
in animals, 25 in species, 434–446 chromosome pair, 306, 323
function of, 28 Chargaff, Erwin, 263–264, 270 chromosome, 235, 235, 235–236, 236
modeling, 102 Chargaff’s rules, 264, 265 comparing arrangement of, 309, 309
passive transport, 103, 103–104 chart, 300, 300 crossing over, 312, 312
phospholipids in, 96, 96 codon, 280, 344, 344, 353, 353 epigenetic changes to, 290, 290
structure of, 102, 102 flow charts, 19, 22, 35, 36, 44, 285, homologous, 305, 305, 307, 311–313,
cell size, 226 294, 504 311–313, 319, 320, 347
calculating, 225 Pugh, 55 independent assortment, 311, 311
and homeostasis, 230–231 Chase, Martha, 262, 270 locus of gene on, 287
cell surface-area-to-volume ratio, 226, chemical bond, 73–77 in meiosis, 305–306, 405, 405
230, 230–231 of carbon molecules, 92, 92 sex, 306, 306, 336, 336
cell system, 24–28 in cellular respiration, 133, 133 structure and function of, 305–306
animal cell structure, 25, 25–26 charges in, 76 cilia, 17
boundary of, 28 covalent, 74, 74 circulatory system, 18, 18, 32, 37–39,
cell membrane, 28 hydrogen, 76, 76–77 39, 45
general cell structure, 24, 24 ionic, 74, 74 cities, population density in, 183. See
plant cell structure, 27, 27–28 in organic molecules, 93 also urban areas
cell theory, 228–229, 229 reactions that break and reform, 79 citric acid, 134, 134
cellular engineering, 59 chemical energy, 100–101, 121. See citric acid cycle, 134
cellular phone, 5, 5 also photosynthesis claim(s)
cellular respiration, 100, 100, 101, chemical equation, 79, 79 acid rain effects, 483
128–138, 129 chemical equilibrium, 80 catalase experiment, 86
Index R15
INDEX
cell differentiation, 293 insects’ attraction to, 410 of glucose in body, 38, 38
cell surface-area-to-volume ratio of plants on other planets, 125 osmosis and, 104
modeling, 231 colorblindness, 323, 323, 464, 464 of solutions, 77, 78, 78
evaluating, 325 combustion, 138, 166, 166 concentration gradient, 103
for evolution of traits, 410 carbon cycle and, 162 conceptual models/diagram, 8, 8, 29
plant growth and acid rain, 483 cellular respiration as, 138 condensation, 160
rearrangement in chemical reactions, climate change and, 167 cone cell, 337
87 combustion reaction, 128, 128, 129 connective tissue, 20, 20
supporting or refuting, 4 commensalism, 199, 199 conservation
cleanup, lab, xxiv communication genetic engineering in, 366
climate, fire management policy and, among cells, 21 of public lands, 489
209 among organs, 30 conservation of energy, law of, 145
climate change, 167, 167 of disease outbreak findings, 69 conservation of matter, 79
analyzing data on, 477, 477 of engineering solutions, 57, 509 conservation photography, 216, 216
atmospheric carbon dioxide and, 505 of evolution in unique environment constraints, 53–55, 57–60. See also
atmospheric water vapor and, 502 findings, 415 Hands-On Activity; Hands-On
biogeographers’ work with, 192 within groups, 452, 453 Lab; research
extinctions and, 443 in homeostasis, 34 consumer, 117
population changes and, 423 of lactose intolerance findings, 113 in biomass pyramid, 152
population growth and, 476, 476– of new habitats for burrowing owls in carbon cycle, 162
477, 477 findings, 515 cellular respiration in, 132
species expansion and, 439–440 of normal and cancer cell comparison in food chains, 147, 147
species movement and, 494 findings, 255 consumption of resources, per capita,
wildfires and, 209 of phenylketonuria findings, 301 474, 474
climax community, 206, 206, 207 of red squirrel population dynamics contact lenses, 54, 54
clone, 360 findings, 219 Continuous Positive Airway pressure
cloning, 360, 360–362, 361 of testing UV-protective fabrics (CPAP) machines, 55, 55
cauliflower, 221 findings, 352 controlled burn, 486, 486, 495, 495
of complex organisms, 360 of tomato plant trait findings, 379 controls, system, 6
ethics of, 361–362 of water pollution findings, 179 control system
methods of, 360, 360–361 of wolves of Isle Royale findings, 467 homeostasis, 32–46
nuclear transfer in, 360, 361 community, 11, 141, 206, 206, 207 in organisms, 33–36
closed system, 6, 115, 115, 117, 159, 160 competition, 190, 198, 406, 406 converting energy, 499–500
clothing, UV-protective, 352, 352 competitive exclusion, principle of, cooperation, in animal groups,
clumped dispersion, 183, 184 198 453–454
coal, 474, 499 complex carbohydrates, 94 coral bleaching, 443, 443
cochlear implants, 49, 49, 50 complexity coral reefs, 144, 144, 200, 200, 201, 201,
cod fishing, 492 of ecosystems, 176, 193 443
codominance, 322, 322 of inheritance patterns, 322–323 corals, 443, 443
codon chart, 280, 344, 344, 353, 353 of systems, 7 corn, 328
codon, 280, 280, 350 components (of systems), 18, 87, 142 coronary artery disease, 351, 351
coenzyme A, 134, 134 compound, 74 cortisol, 40
coevolution, 444, 444, 444–445 atoms in, 74–75 cost-benefit analysis, 57
cohesion, 77 organic, 91, 93 costs
cold-blooded animal, 43 properties of, 75 of behavior, 450–451
cold, 40 computational ecology, 176, 176 in engineering design, 53
Collaborate, 5, 17, 23, 26, 28, 36, 40, 44, computer model reproductive, 428
49, 51, 53, 56, 84, 91, 95, 99, 100, of interacting body systems, 29 of technologies, 51
102, 117, 123, 131, 135, 141, 143, of protein structure, 274, 274 covalent bonds 74, 74
147, 159, 161, 165, 183, 187, 198, computer programming language, cow, 199, 199, 402
202, 203, 224, 227, 235, 237, 240, 272, 272, 284, 284 CPAP (Continuous Positive Airway
243, 260, 264, 275, 279, 287, 292, Computer Science Connection pressure) machines, 55, 55
305, 317, 318, 343, 350, 357, 359, computational ecology, 176, 176 crab, 386, 445
363, 366, 402, 404, 419, 429, 434, DNA data storage, 298, 298 crassulacean acid, 124
436, 441, 472, 478, 487, 491, 502, computer simulation, 8, 8, 53 creative thinking, 56
508 computer systems, 66, 66 Crick, Francis, 264, 265, 265, 270, 273
colonization of other planets, 116, concentration, 103 CRISPR, 363
116, 126 active transport and, 105 cristae, 131
color of carbon dioxide in blood, 38–39, 39

criteria. See also Hands-On Activity; Darwin, Erasmus, 399 defensive behavior, 453
Hands-On Lab; research Darwin’s Finches, 401, 401, 438 defining problems. See problem
in biomedical engineering, 58, 59 data definition
in engineering design process, DNA storage of, 298, 298 deforestation, 502, 502, 502–503, 480,
53–55, 57, 60 evaluation of, 255, 255 487, 487
of living systems, 12, 14 from Landsat satellites, 512 dehydration, 93, 93
prioritizing, 54 normal distribution of, 423, 423 deletion mutation, 282
of systems, 28 from testing, 57 delimiting problems
crops. See also agriculture data analysis in biomedical engineering, 58
for biofuels, 500 antibiotic resistant bacteria, 430 in engineering design process, 53
genetically modified, 362 chemical analysis of transforming testing UV-protective fabrics, 352
as non-native species, 494 principle, 261 denaturation, 84, 84, 98
Crosscutting Concepts climate data, 477, 477 dendrite, 22
cause and effect, 37, 144, 167, 309, comparing normal and cancer cells, denitrifying bacteria, 163
324, 324, 344, 344, 350, 389, 403, 255, 255 density, 183
403, 442, 443, 450, 450, 488, 488 ecosystem biodiversity, 200, 200 as limiting factor, 190, 191
energy and matter, 79, 100, 101, 118, energy calculations, 150, 150 population, 183, 183, 192
131, 145, 164, 164 energy pyramids, 151 density–dependent factor, 190
patterns, 331, 359, 490 in engineering design process, 53, 57 density–independent factor, 191
scale, proportion, and quantity, 185 exothermic and endothermic deoxyribonucleic acid. See DNA
science as a human endeavor, 50 reactions, 81 deoxyribose, 276
stability and change, 43, 43, 198, 198, food and energy, 106–107 desalination plants, 509
477 in formulation of Chargaff’s rules, 264 desert(s), 11, 142, 143
structure and function, 25, 266, 274, genotypes, 421 desertification, 480, 481
277, 282, 282, 288, 293 homeostasis and exercise, 45 design
systems and system models, 19, 22, human population growth, 471, 471 in biomedical engineering, 58
238, 504 lactose intolerance, 113 constraints on, 60
technology and society, 479 mating periods and speciation, 437 engineering design process, 52,
crossing over, 312, 312, 313, 313, 405, Mendel’s data, 319 52–53, 60
419 modeling natural selection, 398, 398 green roof, 504
cultural behavior, 455, 455 moose-wolf interactions on Isle of Mendel’s experiments, 317
Cushing’s syndrome, 40 Royale, 190, 190 optimizing, 52, 56
Cuvier, Georges, 389 North Atlantic cod fishery collapse, plant growth and acid rain
492, 492 experiment, 483
cycles, 158–169 nutrition labels, 106, 106 rainwater harvesting system,
biogeochemical, 161–165 pedigrees, 338, 338 506, 506
Calvin, 123 peppered moths, 422, 422 of robots, 464, 464
carbon, 162, 162 plan for, 255 solar cells, 501
energy and matter in, 159 population size, 147, 147 testing UV-protective fabrics, 352
human impact on, 166–168 rainwater harvesting system, 507 detergents, algal blooms and, 166
nitrogen, 163, 163–164 red squirrel population dynamics, detritivore, 146
oxygen, 161, 161 219, 219 developmental evidence, for
phosphorus, 164–165, 165 species richness and successional evolution, 386, 386
water, 160, 160 stage, 207, 207 diabetes, 40, 41, 41
cyclins, 226 tomato plant traits, 379, 379 diagrams, 15, 15, 31, 68, 74, 109, 109,
cystic fibrosis (CF), 105, 367, 367–368 understanding diabetes, 41, 41 127, 127, 147, 170, 254, 254, 297,
cytokinesis, 223, 237–239, 244, 307 water pollution, 179 496, 496, 515
cytoplasm, 24, 24 diet, 326
in animal cells, 25 daughter cells, 238, 307 energy efficiency of, 154
in cytokinesis, 307 debate, on forest fire suppression, food preferences and, 326
in mitosis, 307 208–209 healthy, guidelines for, 107
mRNA in, 279 deciduous forest, 142, 143 diffusion, 103
cytosine, 99, 263–265, 263–265 decision matrix, 55, 55, 61, 500, 510 across cell membrane, 103
cytoskeleton, 25 decomposer, 146, 146 facilitated, 103
algal blooms and, 166 for gas homeostasis in blood, 39
in carbon cycle, 162 heat and, 104
D in nitrogen cycle, 163 osmosis, 104
dams, 181, 181, 469, 479, 479, 498 in phosphorus cycle, 165 digestate, 500
Darwin, Charles, 399–406, 400 decomposition, 70 digestion, 72, 87
Index R17
INDEX
anaerobic, 500 genetic information in, 243 matter and energy in, 159–160 (See
chemical energy from, 100 heredity and, 259–262 also cycles)
enzymes in, 82 “junk”, 295 as open system, 159
digestive system, 21, 72 in meiosis, 307–309 organization of, 10, 10
components and functions of, 18, 87 of mitochondria, 26 Easter Island, 166, 166
connection of nervous system and, model of, 265, 265 eastern meadowlark, 437, 437
30 noncoding, 292 ecological niche, 197
organs of, 19, 19, 87 as nucleic acid, 99, 99 ecological succession, 206, 206,
dihybrid crosse, 335, 335 in prokaryotes, 239 206–207, 207
dinosaurs of proteins, 259 in different ecosystems, 209
evolution and, 382, 382, 391, 393, 393 in protein synthesis, 275–278 in Hawaiian Islands, 210
extinctions of, 438 recombinant, 363 ecosystem(s), 7, 10, 11, 141–154, 142
diploid cell, 306, 306, 307, 307 replication of, 266–268, 273 air pollution and, 166
directional selection, 424, 424–425, RNA and, 276, 276 algal blooms and, 166
425 structures of, 258, 263–265, 298 aquatic, 11, 114, 143, 143–144, 144
disaccharide, 94, 94 trait codes, 259 biodiversity in, 142, 200–202
disease(s) unzipped, 266, 266 biomagnification in, 154, 154
analyzing outbreak of, 69 DNA polymerase, 266, 267, 343, 346 in biomes, 142, 142, 143
as density–dependent limiting factor, DNA polymerase I, 267, 267 in Biosphere 2, 169
190 DNA polymerase III, 267, 267 climate change and, 477
gene therapy, 367, 367–368 DNA synthesis, 223 cycles of matter and energy in
genetically engineered models of, DNA unzipped, 266 (See cycles)
364, 364 dog, 42, 329, 329, 402, 512, 512 dams’ impact on, 469, 479
genetic insight into, 295 Dolly (cloned sheep), 361 energy and matter distribution in,
heredity of, 303, 376 domesticating fox, 412, 412 149–153
RNA interference in fighting, 291 dominant alleles, 321, 321, 322 energy and matter flow in, 145–148
wastewater treatment and, 479 Down syndrome, 348, 348 food chains, 146, 146
waterborne illnesses, 508 dragonfly wings, 387, 387 food webs, 148, 148
disease control, 364 dress code, for safety, xxii Greater Yellowstone, 182, 193, 193
dispersion, population, 184, 184 drinking water, 50, 51, 479, 508 human impact on, 144, 144, 181, 181
disposal safety symbol, xxv Drosophila melanogaster, 435 prairie, 486, 486, 495, 495
disruptive selection, 425, 425, 425 drought, 43, 43, 439 pyramid models of, 151–153,
disturbances, 203, 203–205 drought-resistant plant, 360, 360 151–153
diversity. See also biodiversity drugs stability of, 146, 204 (See also
cell, 287 gene expression and, 294 ecosystem dynamics)
genetic, 204, 311, 351, 493 (See also from genetically modified bacteria, structure of, 141–142
genetic variation) 240 studying complexity of, 176
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 235, trophic levels, 147, 147
256, 257–270, 258, 259 ecosystem dynamics, 196–210
in animal cells, 25
E biodiversity, 200–202
cell diversity and, 287 ear, 49, 49 disturbances, 203–205
in cell division, 235 Earth. See also Earth system forest fires, 191, 203, 208–209
in central dogma, 259 age of, 389 habitats and niches, 197
changes in (See mutations) biodiversity loss on, 487 keystone species, 202
of chloroplasts, 28 carrying capacity of, 472 relationships among organisms,
chromosomes and, 235–236 human impacts on, 470, 470 197–199
codes in, 272 population of, 472 succession, 206–207
common to living things, 383, 383 Earth Science Connection ecosystem resilience, 204, 205, 205
damaged, 227 biogeography, 412 ecosystem resistance, 205, 205
digital information coded into, 298, color blindness on Pingelap, 464, 464 ecosystem stability, 204
298 humans in space, 66, 66 ectoderm, 242, 242
editing, 302 Landsat 8, 512, 512 ectotherm, 43
emergent property of, 9 Earth system, 4, 10, 10–13, 159 effect, 30. See also cause and effect
evidence for evolution from, 384 biosphere, 11 bottleneck, 427
extracting, 269 characteristics of living things, 12 founder, 427–428, 428
four-stranded, 298, 298 as closed system, 115, 159, 160 greenhouse, 476
function of, 258 life in, 4–14 effector, 34, 35
gene expression and, 287, 288, 290, living and non-living things in, 3 egg cell, 304, 306, 310, 310
291 lungs of the planet, 168 egg, proteins in, 84, 84

egret, 199, 199 in Earth system, 10, 159–160 converting energy, 499–500
electrical safety, xxiii in ecosystems, 145–148 (See also CPAP machines, 55
electrical safety symbol, xxv cycles) creating new habitats, 504, 515
electric power, 499, 500 in endothermic and exothermic decision matrices for, 500, 510
electromagnetic radiation, 118 reactions, 81, 81 decreasing water pollution, 506
electromagnetic spectrum, 118, 118 from fats, 95 desalination plants, 509
electron, 73 flow through organisms, 145 designing, 53, 55, 55
covalent bonds, 74 food and, 101, 106–107, 128 disease outbreaks, 69
ionic bonds, 74 modeling, 141–154 DNA folding, 268, 268
in polar molecules, 76 modeling photosynthesis, 118 economic viability of, 505
electron transport chain, 122, 122, 133, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 164, 164 editing genes with CRISPR, 363
135, 135 per capita consumption of, 474 effects of space on human body, 66
element, 73 renewable, 473, 499 gene therapy approaches, 368
carbon, 90 U.S. sources and consumption of, genetic engineering in problem
compounds, 74–75 499, 499 solving, 366
elk, 100 from waste, 500 to human environmental impacts,
embryonic development, 227, 241, energy costs, of behavior, 451 498–510
241–242, 242, 286 energy pyramid, 151, 151–152 improving solar energy, 501
cell differentiation and growth, 293, energy sources, for living things, 12 inheritable disorders, 337
293 engineering. See also engineering invasive mussels, 491, 491
similarities across organisms, 386, solutions light sources and rate of
386 bioengineering, 48–59 photosynthesis, 119
transcription factors in, 296 biomedical, 58–59 making polymers, 93
embryonic stem cell, 243 cellular, 59 modeling of, 509
embryo twinning, 360, 360 engineering design process, 52, nanobots, 21
emergency medical treatment, 52–53 optimizing prosthetics, 56–57
advances in, 50, 50 genetic, 362 (See also genetic personal water filtration devices, 508
emergent property, 8, 9 engineering) preventing deforestation, 502,
emigration, 186, 189 genetically engineering salmon, 365, 502–503, 503
emotions, digestive system and, 30 365 rainwater harvesting systems, 506,
genetic engineering in problem 506–507, 507
endangered species, 489 solving, 366 removing carbon dioxide from
Endangered Species Act (ESA) of inducing polyploidy in cells, 347 atmosphere, 505
1973, 441, 489 in life science, 52–57 RNA interference in fighting disease,
endocrine system, 18, 38, 39, 45 light sources and rate of 291
endocytosis, 105, 105 photosynthesis, 119 solar cell designs, 501
endoderm, 242, 242 molecular, 59, 501 synthesized elements, 73
endoplasmic reticulum (ER), 26, 26 prosthetics, 56–57 to turn back aging, 236
endosymbiosis, evidence for, 137 soil and water engineering, 480 using model organisms to study
endothermic chemical reactions, 81, tissue, 59 human health, 384, 384
81 Engineering Connection vision correction technology, 54,
endotherm, 43 algae biofuel, 176, 176 54–56
energy. See also individual types of animal influence in robot design, water filtration, 51
energy 464, 464 water treatment, 507–508
activation, 80, 80, 82, 82, 85, 85 curing blindness with gene therapy, wood products, 503, 503
alternative sources of, 168 376, 376 enhancer, 291
bond, 80 engineering design process, 52, 52, environment(s)
calculating, 150, 150 52–57 acid rain, 482, 482–483
captured by plants, 27–28 defining and delimiting problem, 53 air pollution, 475, 475–476
for cars, 128, 128 designing solutions, 55 human population growth and,
in cellular respiration, 100, 100, 129, optimizing design solutions, 56–57 470–484
129, 131 for pacemakers, 60 interaction with genes, 324
chemical, 100–101 for wildlife crossings, 510 as life cycle analysis criterion, 57
chemical equation for cellular engineering solution, 50, 498 mining, 481, 481, 484, 484
respiration, 131 artificial coral reefs, 201, 201 natural resources, 473–474
in chemical reactions, 79, 80 biomass and human health, 473 organisms and, 117
conservation of, 145 bionic hand, 58 soil erosion, 480, 481
converting, 499–500 clean drinking water, 508 technologies impacting, 51
distribution in ecosystems, 149–153 communication of, 509 unique, evolution in, 415, 415
Index R19
INDEX
water management, 479, 479 protein synthesis in, 287 plant growth and acid rain, 483
water pollution, 478, 478 reproduction in, 240 population evolution, 418, 418, 431,
environmental change transcription in, 277, 287, 291, 291 431, 448, 448, 457, 457
climate change, 476, 476–477, 477 translation in, 279, 287 regeneration, 234, 234, 245, 245
evolution due to, 399 eusocial, 454, 454, 457 reproduction of multicellular
natural selection and, 407, 407 eusocial behavior, 454, 454, 457 organisms, 222, 222, 232, 232
response of living things to, 12 eutrophication, 167, 167 sensations from body systems, 16, 30
from technological changes, 472 evaluation sickle cell anemia, 342, 342, 353, 353
environmental engineer, 509, 509 of claims, 325 wildlife crossings, 498, 498, 510, 510
environmental history, 216, 216 of data, 255, 255 (See also data wolves in ecosystems, 182, 182, 193,
Environmental Science Connection analysis) 193
feral hogs, 216, 216 in engineering design process, 57 Evidence Notebook, 3, 13, 15, 31, 47,
enzyme, 19, 26, 82, 82–84, 85 of research sources, 244 61, 67, 71, 86, 89, 109, 111, 115,
athletes and, 86 of solutions to human impacts, 168 127, 139, 157, 171, 177, 181, 211,
as catalysts, 82 evaporation, 160 233, 247, 253, 271, 285, 297, 299,
cell membranes and, 102 Everglades, 11, 141, 141 303, 315, 327, 333, 334, 339, 341,
in digestion, 87 evidence, 217, 221, 253. See also 355, 369, 377, 381, 395, 411, 413,
in digestive system, 19 Gather Evidence 417, 421, 424, 425, 426, 430, 431,
in DNA replication, 266, 267 acid rain effects, 483 433, 447, 459, 465, 469, 511, 513
lactose intolerance and, 113 Biosphere 2, 158, 158, 169, 169 evolution, 381, 383, 399, 404
names of, 266 breeding for traits, 328, 328, 339, 339 anatomical evidence for, 386–388,
structure of, 83 carbon-based molecules, 90, 108 387, 388
epigenetic change, 290, 290 catalase experiment, 86 of behavior, 449–451
epigenetics, 290 cell surface-area-to-volume ratio as change in allele proportions over
epigenome, 290 modeling, 231 time, 408
epistasis, 323, 323, 324, 324 computer programming, 272, 272, coevolution, 444, 444, 445
epithelial cells, 21, 21 284, 284 developmental evidence for, 386, 386
epithelial tissue, 17, 20, 20 controlled burns, 486, 486, 495, 495 early ideas about, 399, 399
equation digestion, 72, 87, 87 extinctions in, 441
chemical, 79, 79 DNA codes, 272, 272, 284, 284 of eyes, 381
Hardy-Weinberg, 422 DNA structure and functioning, 258, of fashion, 464, 464
equilibrium 258, 269, 270, 270 fossil evidence for, 389–392, 390–392
chemical, 80 ecosystem reestablishment, 196, 196, genetic evidence for, 383, 385, 385
in ecosystems, 142 210, 210 geological evidence for, 382, 389, 389
Hardy-Weinberg equation, 422 endosymbiosis, 137 lines of evidence for, 382–393
punctuated, 445 evolution, 382, 382–393, 393 modeling, 397–398, 398
ER (endoplasmic reticulum), 26, 26 fluorescent organisms, 356, 356, 370, molecular evidence for, 383, 383–
erosion, soil, 480, 481 370 384, 384
errors food preferences, 316, 316, 326 by natural selection, 403 (See also
acid rain effects investigation, 482 fuel combustion, 128, 128, 138, 138 natural selection)
cell surface-area-to-volume ratio growing plants in space/on other patterns in, 416, 417, 444–445
modeling, 231 planets, 116, 116, 126, 126 of play behavior, 456
plant growth and acid rain identical genetic traits, 304, 304, 314, of populations (See population
experiment, 483 314 evolution)
in protein structure, 274 impact of human activities, 470, 470, in unique environments, 415, 415
ESA (Endangered Species Act) of 484, 484 evolutionary arms race, 445
1973, 441, 489 indirect, 258 evolutionary gradualism, 402
Escherichia coli, 289 living vs. nonliving systems, 4, 14 excretory system, 18
An Essay on the Principle of Population maintaining body temperature, 32, exercise
(Malthus), 399 32, 46, 46 cellular respiration and, 130–132
estuary, 144, 144 mutation in homeobox genes, 286, homeostasis and, 38, 45
ethanol, 128, 128, 138, 500 286, 296, 296 exercise ability, 403, 403
ethics, 361–362 orchid mantis traits, 400, 400, 410, exocytosis, 105, 105, 279
ethograms, 456 410 exons, 292, 350
eukaryote/eukaryotic cell, 24 pacemaker batteries, 48, 60 exothermic chemical reaction, 81, 81
in animals, 25 phytoplankton population, 140, 140,
cell cycle in, 223 (See also cell cycle) 155, 155 experiment. See also Hands-On Lab;
gene regulation in, 290–292 piecing together, 383 investigations; research
protein synthesis and, 275 plant diversity, 434, 434, 446, 446 Biosphere 2, 158, 158, 169, 169

with catalase, 85–86 information, 257, 273, 288
knockout mice in, 369 flow chart, 19, 22, 35, 36, 44, 285, 294,
of Mendel, 317–319
F 504
Explain, 7, 9, 10, 12, 23, 24, 26, 28, 30, facilitated adaptation, 366 fluorescent animal, 356, 356, 370,
36, 41, 43, 44, 46, 50, 51, 57, 60, 75, facilitated diffusion, 103 370, 384
77, 78, 79, 81, 83, 84, 87, 93, 95, 97, facultative anaerobe, 137 fogstand beetle adaptation, 417
99, 101, 102, 105, 108, 117, 119, faeder male, 418, 418, 431, 431 food(s)
123, 124, 126, 131, 136, 138, 142, fashion, evolution of, 464, 464 biomolecules in, 94
144, 145, 147, 148, 153, 155, 160, fat, 87, 95, 101 breakdown of, 72 (See also
165, 167, 169, 185, 186, 188, 191, fat-soluble vitamin, 77 digestion)
193, 197, 199, 200, 201, 202, 205, fatty acid, 95, 95 Calories in, 101
206, 210, 224, 225, 226, 227, 229, feedback, 6 for colonists on other planets, 116,
232, 236, 237, 242, 245, 258, 262, in ecosystems, 142 116
263, 266, 268, 269, 270, 273, 275, in engineering design process, 57 decomposition of, 70
276, 278, 281, 282, 284, 287, 290, modeling, 34 energy and, 100, 106–107, 128
294, 296, 306, 309, 310, 312, 314, feedback loop, 6, 34, 34–39, 35, 36, 45 metabolization of, 159
318, 319, 320, 321, 323, 326, 331, feral hog, 216, 216 preferences for, 316, 316, 326, 326
335, 337, 339, 343, 346, 348, 349, fermentation, in cellular respiration, taste preferences, 316, 316, 326, 326
351, 353, 359, 364, 365, 368, 370, 136, 136 food chain, 146, 146–148, 146–148
385, 386, 389, 390, 393, 398, 400, fertilization, 306, 312, 312, 319 food production, population growth
401, 403, 406, 410, 419, 422, 425, fertilizer and, 472, 472
429, 431, 438, 440, 443, 446, 451, algal blooms and, 166 food pyramid, 107
454, 455, 457, 473, 475, 480, 481, eutrophication and, 167, 167 food sources, niches and, 197
484, 488, 493, 495, 501, 503, 505, pollution from, 478, 478 food web, 148, 148
506, 508, 510 water pollution and, 480, 506 forest biome
acid rain effects, 483 fetal development, 294 temperate deciduous forest,
catalase experiment, 86 fever, 32, 40, 46 142, 143
cell surface-area-to-volume ratio, 231 field mice, 397, 397–398 temperate rain forest, 142, 143
creating new habitats for burrowing finches, 401, 401, 407, 407, 438 tropical rain forest, 142, 143, 145
owls, 515 firefly, 81 forest fire, 191, 208, 208–209, 209
evolution in unique environment, fire management, 208–209 forest
415 fire return gap, 486 in Appalachian mountains, 205
phenylketonuria, 301 fire safety, xxii boreal, 206
plant growth and acid rain, 483 fire safety symbol, xxv on Easter Island, 166
red squirrel population dynamics, fish importance of fire in, 208–209
219 evolutionary relationship of preventing deforestation, 502,
African cheetah, 467 tetrapods and, 390, 390–391, 391 502–503, 503
Explore Online, 12, 23, 37, 53, 72, 72, 78, osmoregulation in, 44, 44 fossil, 390, 401, 402
82, 87, 103, 105, 119, 122, 128, 135, salmon, 365, 365 Archaeopteryx, 382, 382
160, 162, 162, 163, 164, 165, 191, schooling, 452 radiometric dating of, 392, 392
204, 222, 232, 238, 266, 277, 281, survivorship curves for, 187 fossil evidence, for evolution,
291, 311, 312, 346, 361, 400, 437, zebrafish, 356, 356, 370, 370, 384, 384 389–392, 390–392
449, 452, 453, 478, 490 fisheries, 365, 492, 493 fossil fuel, 129, 162, 162, 499
exponential growth, 188, 188 fishing, 492 acid rain and, 482
extinction(s), 441–443, 442 North Atlantic cod fishery collapse, air pollution from, 166, 166, 475
background, 442 492, 492 climate change and, 167
of dinosaurs, 438 overfishing, 365, 492, 492 mining, 481, 481, 484
evidence of, 389 sustainable, 493 as nonrenewable resource,
extirpation, 442 fish ladder, 498, 510 474, 474
loss of suitable habitat and, 488 fitness, 407, 407, 428, 451, 453–454 water pollution from, 484, 484
mass, 442, 443, 487 altruism and, 454 fossil record, 390, 391
from overhunting, 493 behaviors improving, 451 founder effect, 427–428, 428, 428
extinction threshold, 487 inclusive, 454 four-stranded DNA, 298, 298
extirpation, 442 flagellum, 21 foxes, domesticating, 412, 412
eye color, 324, 324, 325 flamingo, 197, 197 fracking, 474
eyeglasses, 54, 54 Florida Everglades, 11, 141, 141 Fragile X Syndrome, 346
eyes flow fragmentation
development of, 293 energy and matter, 145–148 habitat, 191, 488
evolution of, 381 (See also vision) gene, 426–429, 436 in mitotic reproduction, 240, 240
Index R21
INDEX
frameshift mutations, 282, 282, 346, for cancer, 227 genetic engineering, 356–370, 362
346 engineering of (See genetic in animals, 364
Franklin, Rosalind, 264, 264, 265, 270 engineering) in bacteria, 363, 363
freshwater ecosystem, 144, 202 environmental interaction with, 324 cloning, 360, 360–362, 361
frog, 198, 198, 437, 437 essential for life, 283 conservation impacts of, 366
cell division in, 222 for eye color, 324, 324 gene therapy, 367, 367–368
malformations in, 257, 257 homeobox, 385, 385 isolating genes, 357–359, 358, 359
survivorship curves for, 187 isolating, 357–359, 358, 359 modeling, 369
fructose, 93, 94 life after death, 295 in plants, 364
fruit flies, 286, 286, 295, 295, 296, 296, locus of, 287, 320 of salmon, 365, 365
384, 435, 435 in protein synthesis, 273–274 unintended effects of, 364, 366
fuel, 128, 129, 474 replicating, 357, 358, 359 genetic evidence, for evolution, 383,
algae biofuels, 176, 176 sex-linked, 323, 336 385, 385
chemical structures of, 128 study of, 295 geneticist, 294, 295
combustion of, 128, 128, 138, 138 gene duplication genetic linkage, 313
combustion reaction, 128 mutations during, 347, 347 genetic mutation, 342–353, 408
fossil (See fossil fuels) in plants, 313, 313 genetic recombination, 312, 351
greenhouse gas emissions from, 176, gene expression, 286–288, 287 genetic system, 257
499 cell differentiation and, 243 genetic testing, 357, 358, 359
from waste, 500, 500 in eukaryotes, 290–292 genetic variation, 311, 316, 316, 347,
fumes safety symbol, xxv factors influencing, 293–295 347, 351
function(s). See also structure and in prokaryotes, 288–290 allele frequency and, 420
function sex-linked traits, 336 in bedbugs, 409
of behavior, 450 X inactivation in, 323 meiosis and, 311–313
of body systems, 18 gene flow, 426, 426 natural selection and, 404, 404–405
of carbon-based molecules, 94–99 effects on population evolution, population evolution and, 419–420
of cell membrane, 28 426–429 genetics, 259, 259–262. See also
of chromosomes, 305–306 isolated populations and, 436 heredity
connecting form to, 19, 21 gene mapping, 325 genetic engineering, 356–370
of DNA, 258 gene mutation, 343, 343–346, 350 mutations, 342–353
of proteins, 274, 274 gene pool, 419, 419, 420 traits and probability, 328–339
fungi, 27, 97 gene regulation genome(s), 283
in eukaryotes, 290–292 altered, 366 (See also genetic
in prokaryotes, 288–290 engineering)
G gene sequencing, 325 fruit fly, 286, 295
G0 stage (cell cycle), 224 gene silencing, 291, 368 human, 286, 325
Galápagos finches, 401, 407, 407, 438 gene therapy, 367, 367, 367–368, 376, multiple copies of, 347
Galápagos Islands, 400–401, 407 376 studying, 325
Galápagos tortoises, 400 gene translocation, 348, 348, 350 tomatoes, 379, 379
gamete, 239, 306 genetically modified (GM) bacteria, genome duplication, 347
formation of, 349, 349 363 genomics, 9, 325, 325
and genotype, 329–330 genetically modified organism genotype(s), 321
in meiosis, 306, 306, 307, 310, 310, (GMOs), 364–365, 369 determining, 334
312, 312, 319 genetically modified plants, 362 genetic crosses and, 332–335
gametogenesis, 310, 310, 312 genetic code, 280 pedigrees, 338, 338
gastric juice, 19, 72, 87 genetic counseling, 337 predicted vs. actual, 421
gastrula, 242 genetic cross(es), 318, 318, 318–319, geographic information systems
Gather Evidence, 4, 7, 16, 20, 24, 32, 33, 319, 332–335 (GIS), 192, 192
48, 72, 76, 90, 116, 117, 121, 128, determining genotypes, 334 geological evidence, for evolution,
129, 133, 140, 148, 151, 152, 158, dihybrid, 335 382, 389, 389
161, 162, 164, 166, 182, 191, 196, modeling, 329–330 geologic processes
199, 201, 205, 207, 222, 234, 258, monohybrid, 332–333 changes created by, 402
272, 274, 286, 288, 293, 304, 316, sex-linked, 337 in phosphorus cycle, 165
319, 320, 321, 324, 328, 335, 337, genetic disorder, 268 geosphere, 10, 10, 159
342, 356, 357, 360, 361, 363, 368, genetic diversity, 204, 311, 351, 493. geothermal energies, 168, 473, 473
382, 387, 396, 418, 419, 420, 428, See also genetic variation germ cell, 306, 307, 349
434, 439, 448, 450, 453, 455, 470, genetic drift, 426, 427 GFP (green fluorescent protein), 356,
486, 489, 498, 501, 503 bottleneck effect, 427 370
gene(s), 243, 273, 320, 320 founder effect, 427–428, 428

GIS (geographic information green sea turtle, 140 effects of acid rain, 476, 482, 482–483
systems), 192, 192 Griffith, Frederick, 260, 270 experimenting with catalase, 82,
glassware safety, xxiv grizzly bear, 440, 440 85–86
global warming, 216, 505 groundwater contamination, 478 extracting DNA, 269
Global Warming Potential (GWP), 476, growth. See also population growth heat and diffusion, 104
476 of living things, 12 investigating acids and bases, 78
gloves safety symbol, xxv of plants, acid rain and, 482–483 investigating the effect of
glucagon, 38, 41, 41 guanine, 99, 263–265, 263–265 light sources on the rate of
glucose guard cell, 42 photosynthesis, 119
in blood, 38, 38, 41, 41 guided research investigating homeostasis and
as carbohydrate, 94 bedbugs and natural selection, 409, exercise, 38, 45
chemical structure of, 129 409 investigating traits and heredity, 317
as isomer, 93 evaluating solutions to human life under a microscope, 11, 13
in photosynthesis, 100 impacts, 168 mitosis under the microscope, 244
structure of, 91 gene duplication in plants, 313 modeling biochemical compounds,
in sucrose formation, 93 modeling interacting body systems, 99
glycolysis, 133, 133, 136 29 modeling cell membrane, 102
Glyptodon, 401, 401 variation in photosynthesis, 124–125 modeling cell surface-area-to-volume
GM (genetically modified) bacteria, gut, nervous system and, 30 ratio, 226, 230–231
363 GWP (Global Warming Potential), 476, modeling monohybrid & dihybrid
GMO labeling, 369 476 crosses, 338
GMOs (genetically modified modeling genetic engineering, 369
organisms), 365, 369 modeling groundwater
Golgi apparatus, 25, 26, 279
H contamination, 478
gonorrhea, 430 habitat, 197 modeling joint movement, 53
Go Online, 3, 13, 29, 45, 59, 65, 71, 86, for burrowing owls, 515, 515 modeling natural selection, 397–398,
107, 115, 125, 137, 154, 168, 175, creating, 504, 515, 515 398
181, 192, 209, 221, 231, 244, 257, on Easter Island, 166 modeling population changes, 426
269, 215, 251, 283, 295, 303, 313, edge effects, 488 modeling protein synthesis and
325, 338, 352, 369, 375, 381, 392, green roofs, 504 mutations, 283
409, 417, 430, 445, 456, 469, 483, loss of, 487–489, 503 natural selection in African
494, 509 at polar ice caps, 167 swallowtails, 430
government, public lands protected protecting, 489 negative and positive feedback, 37
by, 489 habitat fragmentation, 488, 488, 502 nitrogen fixation, 164, 168
gradualism, 389, 445 habitat management, 489 predicting evolutionary relationships,
Grand Banks cod fishery, 492 half-life, 392 384
Grant, Peter, 407 Hamadryas baboon, 448 quadrat sampling, 185, 185
Grant, Rosemary, 407 Hamilton, William, 454 study of life, 12
graphene, 110, 110 Hands-On Activity hand washing safety symbol, xxv
graph, 45, 67, 67, 89, 89, 111, 111, 194, biomagnification, 154 haploid cell, 306, 306, 307, 307, 310, 310
194, 195, 195, 218, 218, 414, 414, lungs of the planet, 162 Hardy-Weinberg equation, 422
422, 423, 423, 514, 514 modeling feedback, 34 Hawaiian honeycreeper (‘i’iwi), 364,
grassland biome, 142, 143 modeling habitat fragmentation, 488 366
grassland, 11, 143, 486, 486, 495, 495 modeling protein synthesis and Hawaiian Islands, 210
gray fox, 141 mutations, 280 mosquitoes in, 366
Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, 182, piecing together evidence, 383 silversword alliance, 434, 434, 446,
182, 193, 193 testing UV-protective fabrics, 352 446
Great Plains, 439 Hands-On Lab health
green anoles, 381, 381 aerobic and anaerobic processes in biomass and, 473
green fluorescent protein (GFP), 356, yeast, 137 homeostasis and, 40, 41
370, 384 building dye-sensitized solar cells, nonrenewable resource extraction
greenhouse effect, 476 509 and, 474
greenhouse gas, 167, 476, 476, cellular respiration and exercise, 130 using model organisms to study, 384,
499–500, 505, 508 cellular respiration in seeds, 137 384
carbon dioxide, 167, 505, 505 comparing cells, 27 Health Connection
from fuels, 176, 499 connecting form to function, 19 Huntington’s disease, 376
from incinerators, 499 design a green roof, 504
negative emission solutions, 505 design a rainwater harvesting healthy diet
green roof, 504, 504 system, 507, 507 food preferences and, 326
Index R23
INDEX
guidelines for, 107 histone, 290 human body

hearing, 49, 50 history, environmental, 216, 216 cell system, 24
heart, 252 HMS Beagle, 400 digestive system, 19, 19
blood pressure and, 37 hog, feral, 216, 216 fuel for, 128
in a living system, 2 homeobox (Hox) gene, 286, 295, 296, homeostasis in, 37–41
pacemakers, 48, 48, 60, 60 385, 385 interacting systems of, 29
regeneration of, 252 homeostasis, 12, 32–46, 33 maintaining temperature in, 32, 32,
heart rate, 45 behaviors related to, 450 46, 46
heat cell cycle and, 223 muscle cells, 23, 23
biogeochemical cycles and, 161 within cells, 102 music’s effects on, 66
diffusion and, 104 cell size and, 230–231 nervous system, 22
in hydrologic cycle, 160 cellular respiration to maintain, 133, organization within, 17
specific, 77 133 organ systems, 18, 18
heating safety, xxii control systems in organisms, 33–36 systems in, 7, 16
heating safety symbol, xxv disrupting, 40 technologies applied to (See
height, 323, 324 and exercise, 38 bioengineering)
HeLa cell, 234, 361, 361 exercise and, 45 human-caused disturbance, 203
helicase, 266 in human body, 37–41 human genome, 286
hemoglobin, 342, 342, 345, 345, 353, maintaining, 105 Human Genome Project, 325
353 mechanisms of, 32–46 human impact
hemophilia, 338 negative feedback loops, 35, 35 on biodiversity, 202, 486–495
herbicides, water pollution and, 506 in non-human organisms, 42–44 dams, 469, 479, 479
herbivores, 146, 146, 149 pH and, 78 on Earth, 470, 470
heredity, 316–326, 317. See also positive feedback loops, 36, 36 on Earth’s cycles, 166, 166–168
genetics homologous chromosome, 305, 305, on ecosystems, 144, 144, 181, 181
alleles, 320, 320–321 307, 313, 313 engineering solutions to, 498–510
alleles shared with relatives, 454 crossing over, 312, 312, 313, 313 evaluating solutions to, 168
complex patterns of inheritance, gene duplication and, 347 habitat loss, 487–489
322–323 in human cells, 320, 320 introduced and invasive species,
of disease, 303, 376 independent assortment, 311, 311 490–491
DNA and, 259–262 during meiosis, 319 ocean trash, 469, 469
environmental interaction with homologous structure, 387, 387, 387 overharvesting species, 492–493
genes, 324 Homo sapiens, 470 population growth, 470–484
epistasis, 323, 323, 324, 324 homozygous, 320 transportation networks, 468
eye color, 324, 324 homozygous allele, 320, 320, 321 Humanities Connection
genes, 273, 320, 320 homozygous genotype, 330 evolution of fashion, 464, 464
meiosis, 304–314 homozygous-homozygous cross, 332, human
Mendel’s groundwork in, 317–319, 332 importance of relationships to, 412,
322 honeybee colony, 454 412
polygenic traits, 323 Hooke, Robert, 228, 229 sex chromosomes in, 306
traits, 321, 321 hormone receptor, 102 sex-linked inheritance in, 336, 336
heritability, 403. See also heritable, hormone, 34, 36, 40, 72, 97 in space, 66
inheritance horse, 332, 332, 333, 333 hummingbird, 7
of epigenetic changes, 290 Hox gene, 286, 295, 296, 385, 385 humpback whale, 388, 388
genes and, 273 human activities hunting
heritable, 259 acid rain and, 482 by animal groups, 451
heritable mutation, 405 air pollution from, 475 sustainable, 493
Hershey, Alfred, 262, 270 carbon dioxide emissions from, 167 Huntington’s disease, 291, 376
heterozygous, 320 carrying capacity increase from, 472 Hutton, James, 389
heterozygous allele, 320, 320, 321 as density–dependent limiting factor, hybridization, 440
heterozygous genotype, 330 191 hybrid, 350, 356
heterozygous-heterozygous cross, disturbances caused by, 203 hydraulic fracturing (fracking), 474
333, 333, 335, 335 ecosystem resilience and, 204 hydrocarbon, 92
heterozygous-homozygous cross, extinctions caused by, 443 hydrochloric acid, 72, 72, 87, 87
333, 333 habitat loss and fragmentation from, hydroelectric energy, 473, 473
HIF (hypoxia-inducible) factor, 294 487 hydrogen
highways, wildlife crossings along, impact of, 470 (See also human organisms’ need for, 161
488, 498, 498, 510, 510 impacts) in water, 75, 75
Histoire Naturelle (Leclerc), 399 phosphates from, 165 hydrogen atom, 73

in polar molecules, 76 of body systems, 29 keystone species, 202
in water, 76, 76 of environment and genes, 324 key(stone) to ecosystem stability, 209
hydrogen bond, 76, 76–77 of organisms’ systems, 17, 17–23 Kilauea volcano, 206
hydrogen ion of organ systems, 37 kilocalories, 150
in photosynthesis, 122 in systems, 5 kinase, 226
in solutions, 78 intermembrane space, 131 kinesin, 259
hydrogen peroxide, 75, 79, 85 interneuron, 22 King, Thomas, 361
hydrolase, 93 interphase, 223, 235, 236, 237 kingfisher, 145, 145
hydrologic cycle, 160, 160, 168 intersexual selection, 429 king penguins, 423, 423
hydrosphere, 10, 10, 159 intestines, 19, 19 kin selection, 454, 454
hydrothermal vent, 120 cell division in, 224 Klinefelter disease, 348
hypothalamus, 40 enzymes in, 82 knockout mice, 369, 369
hypoxia-inducible (HIF) factor, 294 intrasexual selection, 428 Krebs cycle, 133, 134–135
introduced species, 490, 490–491
intron, 292, 350
I invasive species, 490–491, 494
L
‘i’iwi (Hawaiian honeycreeper), 366, inverse relationship, 41 Lab Safety. See safety
366 invertebrates, survivorship curves Lacks, Henrietta, 361, 361, 362
immigration, 186 for, 187 lac operon, 288, 289
“immortal” cell, 361 investigations. See also experiments; lactic acid, 136
immune system, 18, 40, 227 research lactose, 288, 289, 289
immunotherapy, 59 acid rain effects, 484 lactose intolerance, 113, 113
incinerators, 499 acids and bases, 78, 86 lake, 144, 144
inclusive fitness, 454, 454 evolution in unique environments, Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste, 399
incomplete dominance, 322, 322 415, 415 landfill, 499
independent assortment, 311, 311 evolution of eyes, 381 Landsat satellite, 512, 512
independent male, 418, 418, 431, 431 fogstand beetle adaptations, 417 land use and management
indirect evidence, 258 heredity of disease, 303 clearing land, 487, 487, 488, 488
induced-fit model, 83 homeostasis and exercise, 38, 45 controlled burns, 486, 486, 495, 495
industries, water pollution and, 478, osmosis, 107 deforestation and, 502
478 phenylketonuria, 301 habitat fragmentation from clearing
information plant systems, 3 land, 488, 488
DNA data storage, 298, 298 involuntary muscle, 23 habitat loss from clearing land, 487,
genetic, 257 ionic bond, 74, 74 487
information flow ion, 74 invasive species, 494
in central dogma, 273, 288 irreversible chemical reaction, 80 mining, 481, 481
from DNA to proteins, 273 islands, 434 public lands, 489
in genetic system, 257 Isle Royale, Michigan, 190, 190 soil erosion, 480, 481
inheritance isohexane, 91 wetlands, 144, 144, 181
of cancer genes, 227 isolated populations, 436 language, as a system, 8. See also
pedigrees, 338, 338 isolating genes, 357–359, 358, 359 communication
sex-linked, 336–339 isomer, 93, 93 Language Arts Connection, 9, 13, 21,
of traits, 303, 303 (See also heredity) isotope, 392 29, 57, 59, 80, 92, 101, 107, 125,
innate, 449, 449 Isthmus of Panama, 436 168, 192, 204, 209, 244, 267, 276,
innate behavior, 449, 451 283, 289, 290, 295, 313, 325, 344,
inputs 362, 369, 386, 409, 440, 444, 445,
of cellular respiration, 131, 131 J 456, 471, 474, 481, 494, 499, 509
for chemical reactions, 79 Jacob, François, 289 evolution of play behavior, 456
of systems, 5–7 jaguars, 404, 404, 406, 406, 407 knockout mice, 369
insect colony, 454, 457 Janssen, Zacharias, 229 making synthetic cells, 283, 283
insects jellyfish, 242, 356 patterns in evolution and speciation,
body plan in, 385, 385 joint movement, modeling, 53 444–445
salt for, 417, 417 joules, 150 value of non-native species, 494
wastes of, 44 “junk” DNA, 295 large intestine, 19, 19
insertion mutation, 282 LASIK, 54, 54
instinctive behavior, 449 lava flow, 196, 196, 210, 210
insulin, 38, 41, 41
K Lavoisier, Antoine, 138
integumentary system, 18 Kaibab squirrel, 435, 435 law of conservation of energy, 145
interactions kelp forest, 114, 144, 144 Law of Segregation, 319
Index R25
INDEX
lazuli buntings, 425 modeling ecosystem energy and matter

learned behavior, 455–456 matter, 141–154 cellular respiration, 100, 100
learning, 455 photosynthesis, 116–126 changes in form of, 159
Leclerc, Georges-Louis, 399 scuba divers as, 7 chemical equation for cellular
Leeuwenhoek, Antoni van, 229 living things respiration, 131
lemur, 416 as biotic factors, 11 in chemical reactions, 79
life. See also living systems; living carbon in, 90 (See also carbon-based conservation of, 79
things molecules) distribution in ecosystems, 149–153
after death, 295 cell systems in, 24–28 in Earth system, 10, 159–160
carbon-based, 90 (See also carbon- characteristics of, 12 in ecosystems, 145–148 (See also
based molecules) DNA common to, 383, 383 cycles)
in Earth system, 4–14 lizard, 381, 381, 450 flow through organisms, 145
microscopic, 11, 13 lobster, 236, 236 modeling, 140–154
number of genes essential for, 283 lock-and-key model, 83 modeling photosynthesis, 118
silicon-based, 110, 110 locus (genes), 287, 320 nitrogen-fixing bacteria, 164, 164
life cycle analysis, 57, 223 locust, 450 structure of atoms, 73
Life Science Connection logistic growth, 188, 188 Mayan Civilization, 216, 216
domesticating foxes, 412, 412 lumen, 119 meadowlark, 437, 437
four-stranded DNA, 298, 298 lungs, 17, 39, 39 measurement
modeling apoptosis, 252, 252 lungs of the planet, 162, 168 of biodiversity, 200, 200, 493
silicon-based life, 110, 110 Lyell, Charles, 389, 399, 400, 402 of cell division, 231
ligase, 267, 267 lymphocyte, 224 of cells, 225, 225
light lysosome, 25 of population density, 183
gas exchange in plants and, 42 of population growth rate, 186
gene expression and, 294 of populations, 184–185
photosynthesis and, 118–119
M mechanisms
visible, 118 machine code, 284 of homeostasis, 32–46
light-dependent reaction, 121, 121, macromolecule, carbon-based, 94 of speciation, 435–439
123, 123 maidenstears, 43 Medical Science Connection
light energy malaria, 353 heart regeneration, 252, 252
changed to chemical energy, 121 malformations, in frogs, 257, 257 medical technology, 50, 50, 51
(See also photosynthesis) maltase, 82, 83, 274, 274 meerkat, 419, 419, 454, 454
in fireflies, 81 Malthus, Thomas, 399, 404, 405, 405, meiosis, 304–314, 307
light-independent reactions, 121, 121, 472, 472 chromosome structure and function,
122, 122 mammals 305–306
light sources, rate of photosynthesis adaptive radiation of, 438 genetic variation and, 311–313, 419
and, 119 cloning, 360, 361, 361 mitosis and, 310, 310
“like dissolves like,” 77 homeostasis in, 42 process of, 307–310
limb regeneration, 244, 244, 245 loss of habitats for, 515 sperm and egg cells, 304
limiting factor, 189, 189–191, 189–191 sex chromosomes in, 306 meiosis I, 307, 308, 308
Linnaeus, Carolus, 399 survivorship curves for, 187 meiosis II, 307, 309, 309
linoleic acid, 95 mantis shrimp, 199, 199 melanin, 352
lion, 453 marine ecosystem, 143, 144, 148 melanism, 352
lipid, 95, 95–97 marine habitat, 200, 200 melatonin, 294
liver, 19, 19, 85 mark–recapture technique, 184 Mendel, Gregor, 259, 317–319, 322,
liver cell, 224 marsh, 181 329, 404
living systems, 2 marsupial, 412, 412 mesoderm, 242, 242
bioengineering, 48–60 mass extinction, 442, 443, 487 metabolism, 145
carbon-based molecules, 90–105 Math Connection metaphase, 238
cells, 24 allele frequency, 420 metaphase I, 308, 308
cellular respiration, 128–138 amino acids in polypeptides, 280 metaphase II, 309, 309
chemical bonds, 73–77 deer population density, 183 methane, 499, 500
chemical reactions, 79–82 probabilities of traits, 330–333, 335, Mexican axolotl, 244, 244
closed, 115 337 mice, 420, 420
computer systems and, 66 Punnett square, 330, 335, 337 exercise ability in, 403, 403
cycles, 158–169 solar radiation, 159 fur color in, 323
energy, 129, 129 using tables, 476 knockout, 369, 369
homeostasis mechanisms, 32–46 mathematical models, 8, 8, 29. See natural selection, 397, 397–398, 398
life in Earth system, 4–14 also probability microevolution, 424, 424

microscopes, 228, 228, 229 apoptosis, 252, 252 murmuration, 451
microtubule, 237 biochemical compounds, 99, 107 muscle cell, 23, 23
migration, 450 cell membrane, 102 function of, 21
mineral cell surface-area-to-volume ratio, lactic acid in, 136
from burned biomass, 495 230, 230–231 structure of, 16
mining, 481, 481, 484 with computers, 274 muscle fiber, 23
as nonrenewable resource, 474, 474 energy and matter in ecosystems, muscles
mining, 480, 481, 481, 484, 484 141–154 contraction of, 20, 22, 23, 23
missense mutation, 345 of engineering solutions, 509 in digestion, 72
mitochondrion(--a), 26, 131 evolution, 397–398, 398 in digestive system, 19
in animal cells, 26, 26 fatty acids, 95, 95 motor neurons, 22
cellular respiration in, 131, 131 feedback, 34 muscle tissue, 20, 20
mitosis, 223, 234–240, 235, 237, 239, genetic crosses, 329–330 muscular system, 18, 18
240, 307, 309 genetic engineering, 369 music, 66, 66
chromosomes, 235–240 groundwater contamination, 478 Music Connection
DNA changes in, 236 habitat fragmentation, 488 practice and musical talent, 376, 376
meiosis and, 310, 310 interacting body systems, 29 your body on music, 66, 66
metaphase in, 309, 309 joint movement, 53 mussels, 490, 490, 491, 491
under the microscope, 244 meiosis, 313 mutagen, 343, 343
mitotic reproduction, 240 natural selection, 397–398, 398 mutation, 282, 295, 342–353
Model(s), 6, 8, 11, 23, 34, 39, 43, 68, 74, photosynthesis, 118 base substitutions, 268
83, 100, 103, 104, 109, 109, 118, population changes, 426 causes of, 343
120, 122, 123, 132, 135, 143, 145, proteins, 274, 274 chromosomal, 347, 347–348, 348, 350
146, 147, 148, 152, 162, 167, 171, protein synthesis and mutations, 280, deletion, 282
178, 184, 197, 207, 226, 236, 240, 283 effects of, 349–351
243, 265, 267, 273, 278, 279, 285, molecular biology, central dogma of, frameshift, 282, 282, 346, 346
289, 294, 315, 345, 347, 348, 364, 259, 273, 288 gene, 343–346, 350, 408
405, 407, 408, 414, 424, 428, 449, molecular engineering, 59, 501 genetic variation from, 419
453, 454, 477, 480, 508. See also molecular evidence, for evolution, heritable, 405
system models 383, 383–384, 384 in homeobox genes, 296, 385, 385
binary fission and mitosis, 239 molecule, 74 human health and, 352
chemical bonds, 74, 74–75 attraction among, 77 insertion, 282
chemical reactions, 79 carbon-based, 90–105 missense, 345
creating new habitats, 515 concentration gradient of, 103 modeling, 280, 283
disease, 364, 364 covalent bonding, 74 natural selection and, 408
disease outbreaks, 69 polar, 76 nondisjunction, 348, 348
DNA, 265 monarch butterflies, 488 nonsense, 345
ecosystems, 151–153, 151–153 Monod, Jacques, 289 point, 268, 282, 344, 344–345, 345
enzymes, 83 monohybrid cross, 332, 332, 332–333, probability and, 346
evolution in unique environment, 333 silent, 345
415 monomer, 92, 92, 280 mutualism, 199, 199
folded DNA, 268, 268 monosaccharide, 94, 94 Mycoplasma genitalium, 283, 283
food chains and food webs as, 146 moose, 190, 190, 428, 428 Mycoplasma mycoides, 283
genetically engineered, 364, 364 mosquitoes, 364, 364, 366 myelin sheath, 22
interacting body systems, 29 motor neuron, 22 myofibrils, 23
knockout mice as, 369 mouth, 19, 19, 87 myosin, 23
mathematical, 8, 8, 29 Movile cave, Romania, 415, 415 myrtle, 43
pedigrees, 338, 338 mRNA, 275, 278, 278–282, 281 Myrtus communis, 43
phenylketonuria, 301 gene expression and, 287, 292, 292
photosynthesis, 117–118 introns and exons in, 350
Punnett square, 330, 330–333, Mt. St. Helens, 209
N
332–333, 335, 335, 337, 337, 340, Muir, John, 489, 489 N. gonorrhea, 430, 430
340, 420–421, 421 Muir’s Tarweed, 446 NADH, 133–135, 134, 135
in study of human health, 384, 384 Mullis, Kary, 359 NADPH, 121, 121, 121–123, 123
thermostats, 6 tomato plant traits, multicellular organism, 17, 24 naked mole rat, 448, 448, 457, 457
379 cell division in, 222 Namib Desert, Africa, 417
types of, 8, 8 eukaryotes, 24 nanobots, 21
wetlands, 181 organization of, 17 nanotechnology, 59
modeling multiple allele, 322, 322 NASA, 116, 512
Index R27
INDEX
national forests, 208 nitrogen atoms, in polar molecules, climate change and, 477
National Interagency Fire Center 76 rising temperatures in, 443
(NIFC), 208 nitrogen cycle, 163, 163–164, 166 trash in, 469, 469
national parks, 489 nitrogen fixation, 163, 164, 166, 168 water cycle in, 158
National Park Service (NPS), 489 nitrogen monoxide, 164 oil (fuel), 474
native species, 490, 494 noncoding DNA, 292 oil, 95
natural disaster nondisjunction mutation, 348, 348 omnivore, 146
as density–dependent factor, 191 nonliving systems, 3 On the Origin of Species by Means of
extinctions and, 389 nonliving things, 11, 12 Natural Selection (Darwin), 404
natural disturbances, 203 as abiotic factors, 11 open system, 6, 159
natural gas, 499 carbon in, 90 operator, 288, 290
natural resources. See resources nonnative species, 191, 494 operon, 288, 289
natural selection, 351, 366, 396–410, controlling exponential growth of, opportunity costs of behavior, 451
398, 424 192 optimizing design, 52, 56–57, 59
adaptation, 406, 406–407 population crashes and, 191 orangutan, 487, 487
competition, 406, 406 rethinking value of, 494 orca, 455, 455
developing theory of, 399, 399–403 nonpoint source pollution, 478, 478 orchid mantis, 396, 396, 410, 410
directional selection, 424 nonrenewable resources, 474, 474, organ(s), 17, 19, 19
disruptive selection, 425 503 organ system, 18, 18, 37
environmental changes and, 407, 407 nonsense mutation, 345 organelle, 24–26, 25
gene pool and, 419 normal distribution, 423, 423 organic chemistry, 91
genetic variation, 404, 404–405 North American prairies, 486 organic compound, 91, 93
guided research on, 409 northern elephant seal, 427, 427 organic molecules. See carbon-based
intersexual selection, 429 northern spotted owl, 439, 441, 489 molecules
intrasexual selection, 428 nose, 17 organic semiconductor, 501
kin selection, 454 NPS (National Park Service), 489 organism, 11, 16–30
misconceptions about, 408 nuclear double membrane, 25 in biosphere, 11
modeling, 397–398, 398 nuclear energy, 474, 474 cells and cell differentiation, 21, 21
overproduction, 405, 405–406 nuclear envelope, 25 cell systems, 24–28
population, 423–425 nuclear power plant, 499 chemical reactions in, 82
sexual selection, 428 nuclear transfer, in cloning, 360, 361, chemosynthetic, 120
in single populations, 424 361 control systems, 33–36
stabilizing selection, 424 nucleic acid, 99, 99 environment and, 117
nectarines, 334, 334 nucleotide, 99, 99, 263, 263 homeostasis in, 37–44
negative emission solutions, 505 in DNA replication, 266, 267 interacting systems of, 17, 17–23, 29
negative feedback loop, 35, 35, 37, 38 in frameshift mutations, 282, 282, as living systems, 3
nerve cells, 24 346, 346 multicellular, 17, 17, 24
nerves, 22, 22, 72 loss of, 236 muscle cells, 23, 23
nervous system, 22 in mRNA processing, 292 neurons, 22, 22
components and functions of, 18 pairing of, 267, 267 organs, 19, 19
connection of digestive system and, in point mutations, 282, 282, 344 organ systems, 18, 18
16, 30 sequence of, 342 as systems, 7
in homeostasis, 34, 39 nucleus (cells), 24, 24, 25 tissues, 20, 20
neurons in, 22, 22 of animal cells, 25, 25 organization
nervous tissue, 20, 20 in cytokinesis, 307 of Earth system, 10, 10
neurons, 21, 21, 22, 22 in meiosis, 307 of multicellular organisms, 17, 17
communication with other cells, 28 in mitosis, 307 of systems, 7
electrical current generated by, 26 nutrient origins of replication, 266, 268, 268
in gut, 30 on nutrition labels, 106, 106 osmoregulation, 44, 44
Next-Generation Sequencing, 325 tracking, 107 osmosis, 104, 104, 107
niches, 197 nutrition labels, 106, 106 otter, 95
NIFC (National Interagency Fire outputs
Center), 208 of cellular respiration, 131, 131
nitrates, 163, 164 O for chemical reactions, 79
nitrification, 163 of systems, 5–7
ocean
nitrogen overfishing, 492
acidification of, 443
organisms’ need for, 161 overharvesting, 492–493, 492
carbon dioxide in, 162
for plants, 12 overfishing, 365, 492
as carbon sinks, 162
overhunting, 493
chlorophyll in, 140, 140

overhunting, 493 petunia plant, 291 cloning, 360, 360–361
overproduction, 405, 405–406 pH, 78 for colonization of other planets, 116,
owl, 397, 440, 441, 489, 515, 515 enzymes and, 83, 83–85 116
oxygen of oceans, 443 drought-resistant, 360, 360
in Biosphere 2, 169 of rain, 482, 482–483 energy for, 129
in blood, 39 of stomach acids, 87 gas exchange in, 42, 42
in burning fuel, 129, 130 phenotype, 321, 322, 349–351, 350, gene duplication in, 313, 313
in fermentation, 136 351, 405 gene sequencing studies, 325
gene expression and, 294 directional selection of, 424, 424–425 genetically modified, 362, 363
organisms’ need for, 161 disruptive selection of, 425, 425 genetic engineering in, 363
from phytoplankton, 140, 155 normal distribution of, 423, 495 homeostasis in, 42, 42–43, 43
oxygen atom stabilizing selection of, 424, 424 hybrid, 347
from photosynthesis, 117 tomatoes, 379, 379 introduction of, 202
in polar molecules, 76 variations in, 419 as natural resources, 492
in water, 75, 75, 76, 76 phenylalanine, 301 nitrogen for, 12
oxygen cycle, 161, 161 phenylketonuria (PKU), 301 non-native, 494
oxytocin, 36 Phillips, Van, 56 organs and organ systems of, 19
ozone, 166 Philosophie Zoologique (Lamarck), 399 osmosis in, 104
phosphate salts, 164 on other planets, color of, 125
phospholipid, 95, 96, 96, 102, 102 pH for, 78
P phosphorus cycle, 164–165, 165 in phosphorus cycle, 165
pacemaker, 48, 48, 60, 60 human impact on, 166 as producers, 117 (See also
palm oil, 487 organisms’ need for, 161 photosynthesis)
pancreas, 19, 19, 38, 41 photography, conservation, 216, 216 random dispersion of, 184, 184
pandas, 117 photosynthesis, 28, 28, 94, 100, regeneration in, 221
parasitism, 190, 199, 199 116–126, 117 response to drought, 43, 43
parental care, 187 carbon cycle and, 162 tissues, 29
Parkinson’s disease (PD), 9, 9 cellular respiration and, 132, 132 waxy cuticle of, 97, 97
passive transport, 103, 103–104 gene expression and, 294 plant cell, 29, 79
patterns, 359, 490 light and, 118–119 plant pollinators, 444, 445
adaptive value of behavior, 448–457 light-dependent reactions in, 122, plant safety symbol, xxv
changes in species, 434–446 122 plant systems
in evolution, 416, 417, 444–445 light-independent reactions in, 122, investigating, 3
inheritance, 322–323, 331 122 seedlings, 3
pedigrees, 338, 338 light sources and rate of, 119 plant tissues, 29
population dispersion, 184, 184 modeling, 117–118 plasma, 77
population evolution, 418–431 oxygen cycle and, 161, 161 plasma membrane. See cell
population growth, 186–188 producers and, 120 membrane
speciation, 444–445 stages of, 121, 121 plasmid, 363, 363
Pauling, Linus, 264, 270 variation in, 124–125 plastics, 469, 469
PCR (polymerase chain reaction), 357, phototropin, 42 play behavior, 456, 456
358, 359 physical model, 8, 8, 29 pneumonia causing bacteria, 260, 260
PD (Parkinson’s disease), 9, 9 Physical Science Connection poaching, 512, 512
peaches, 334, 334 graphene, 110, 110 point mutation, 268, 282, 344, 344,
peacock, 428 phytoplankton, 140, 155 344–345, 345
pea plant, 317–319, 317–319, 329, 329, pigments, chemistry of, 110, 110 point source pollution, 478, 478
335, 335 Pingelap, 464, 464 poison safety symbol, xxv
pedigree, 338, 338 pioneer species, 206 polar bear, 456, 456
penguin, 453 PKU (phenylketonuria), 301 polar ice, 143, 143
peppered moth, 422, 422, 424 planarians, 234, 234, 245, 245 polar ice caps, 167
pepsin, 72, 87 planets, colonization of, 116, 116, 126 polar molecule, 76
periodic table, 73 plant(s) pollinators, 444
permeability, selective, 103 acid rain and growth of, 482–483 pollutant, 475, 499
personal water filtration devices, 508, aquatic, 144 pollution, 475, 475
508 biomolecules for, 94 air, 166, 166, 475–476
pesticides, 202, 364, 409 camouflage, 396, 396 nonpoint source, 478
pollution from, 478, 478 cell differentiation in, 241, 241 point source, 478
water pollution and, 506 cells of, 29, 79 water, 179, 478, 478, 480, 484, 484,
petroleum products, 474, 499 cell structure in, 27, 27–28 506
Index R29
INDEX
polygenic trait, 323 rainwater harvesting systems, 506, sex-linked traits, 336–339
polymerase chain reaction (PCR), 357, 506–507, 507 problem definition
358, 359 precision, 231 in biomedical engineering, 58
polymer, 92, 93, 93, 99 predation, 198 cell surface-area-to-volume ratio
polypeptide, 98, 280 behaviors related to, 450–452 modeling, 230
polyploidy, 347, 347 as density–dependent limiting factor, disease outbreak analysis, 69
polysaccharides, 94, 94 190 in engineering design process, 53
pond, 144, 144 heat and diffusion, 104 modeling natural selection, 397
population(s), 11, 141 in natural selection, 397–398, 398 testing UV-protective fabrics, 352
genotype frequencies in, 421, 421 peppered moths, 422, 422 water pollution analysis, 179
human, 405, 471, 471–472, 472 Predict, 4, 16, 19, 26, 27, 28, 32, 34, 42, wolves of Isle Royale, 467
isolated, 436 45, 48, 52, 71, 72, 77, 86, 90, 91, 92, problem solving. See also
measuring, 184–185 94, 96, 98, 105, 115, 116, 121, 125, engineering solutions
modeling changes in, 426 128, 130, 140, 145, 146, 154, 158, calculating cell size, 225
population density, 183, 183, 192 159, 181, 182, 186, 189, 196, 204, number of chromosome
population dispersion, 184, 184 221, 222, 223, 228, 234, 238, 242, combinations, 311
population dynamics, 180, 182–193 257, 259, 265, 268, 269, 272, 275, population growth, 186
factors limiting population growth, 277, 286, 290, 303, 304, 306, 307, problem statement, 393
189–191 316, 328, 329, 332, 334, 336, 342, procedure(s), 393, 482
measuring populations, 184–185 348, 356, 381, 382, 396, 402, 404, acid rain effects, 482–483
population density, 183, 183, 192 406, 417, 418, 421, 423, 426, 436, aerobic and anaerobic processes in
population dispersion, 184, 184 448, 449, 450, 452, 469, 470, 471, yeast, 137
population growth patterns, 186–188 481, 486, 488, 498, 506 biomagnification, 154
red squirrels, 219, 219 acid rain effects, 482 catalase experiment, 86
population evolution, 418–431 cell surface-area-to-volume ratio, 230 cell surface-area-to-volume ratio,
analyzing, 420–422 evolutionary relationships, 384 230, 231
gene flow effects, 426–429 evolution in unique environment, determining genotype, 334
genetic variation, 419–420 415 extracting DNA, 369
naked mole rats, 448, 448, 457, 457 genotypes, 421 heat and diffusion, 104
population selection, 423–425 plant growth and acid rain, 482 homeostasis and exercise, 45
population growth, 470–484 pregnancy, drugs/chemicals and, 294 modeling feedback, 34
acid rain and, 482, 482–483 presentations modeling natural selection, 397
air pollution and, 475, 475–476 comparing normal and cancer cells, modeling population changes, 426
carrying capacity and, 472 255 in piecing together evidence, 383
climate change and, 476, 476–477, creating new habitats for burrowing population change modeling, 426
477 owls, 515 quadrate sampling, 185
environmental impact of, 470–484 disease outbreaks, 69 rainwater harvesting system, 507
exponential, 188, 188 evolution in unique environment, respiration and exercise, 130
extinction rates and, 442 415 processes
factors affecting, 472 interaction of body systems, 29 aerobic and anaerobic, in yeast, 137
factors limiting, 189–191 lactose intolerance, 113 cellular respiration, 131, 137, 137
human, 471, 471–472 phenylketonuria findings, 301 engineering design, 52, 52–53
impacts from, 502 prosthetic designs, 59 geologic, 165, 402
logistic, 188, 188 red squirrel population dynamics, of meiosis, 307–310
mining and, 481, 481, 484, 484 219 producer, 117
natural resources and, 473–474 of system model, 13 in biomass pyramid, 152
patterns of, 186–188 tomato plant traits, 379 in carbon cycle, 162
soil erosion and, 480, 481 water pollution, 179 cellular respiration in, 132
water management and, 479, 479 wolves of Isle Royale, 467 chemosynthesis and, 120
water pollution and, 478, 478 primary consumer, 147, 147 energy for, 149
population size, 147, 147, 186, 186, 467, primary productivity, 154 in food chains, 146, 146, 147, 147
467 primary succession, 206, 206 in food webs, 148
pores, 25 primase, 267 photosynthesis and, 120, 132
positive feedback loop, 36, 36, 37 Principles of Geology (Lyell), 399, 400 sun’s energy used by, 159
prairie(s), 143, 486, 486, 495, 495 PRK, 54, 54 productivity, in ecosystems, 151
precipitation probability, 329–339, 331 product, 85
acid rain, 476, 482, 482–483 genetic crosses, 332–335 progeria, 303
climate change and, 477 mutations and, 346 programming languages, 272, 272,
in hydrologic cycle, 160 predicting generations, 329–331 284, 284

prokaryote/prokaryotic cell, 24 pyramid model, 151–153, 151–153 reactant, 79, 80, 82
asexual reproduction in, 239 pyramid of numbers, 153, 153 reading frame, 282, 282
gene regulation in, 288–290 pyruvate, 133, 134, 134 reasoning
protein synthesis and, 275 acid rain effects, 483
transcription in, 287 catalase experiment, 86
translation in, 279, 287
Q cell surface-area-to-volume ratio
promoter, 288, 290, 291, 291 quadrat sampling, 184–185, 185 modeling, 231
pronking, 452 quagga mussels, 490 plant growth and acid rain
properties quantity, 185 experiment, 483
of compounds, 75 question (for science), 50, 52 receptor, 34, 35
emergent, 8, 9 cell growth and division, 221, 253 recessive allele, 321, 321, 322
of hydrogen bonds, 77 chemistry in living systems, 71, 111 reciprocity, 453
of systems, 5–6 DNA, 257, 299 recombinant DNA, 363, 363
of water, 76–78 in engineering design process, 53 recombination
prophase, 238 evolution, 381, 413 genetic, 312
prophase I, 308, 308 genetics and heredity, 303, 377 genetic variation from, 419
prophase II, 309, 309 human environmental impacts, 469, red blood cell, 21
proportion, 185 513 cell division in, 224
prosthetics, 56, 56–59, 58 lactose intolerance, 113 lack of DNA in, 287
protein folding, 9 living systems, 3, 67 mutations in, 342, 342, 353, 353
protein molecules, chemical reactions matter and energy in living systems, in pure water, 104
for, 79 115, 177 red crab, 450, 450
protein, 98 patterns in evolution, 417, 465 red-legged frog, 437, 437
built by RNA, 259 phenylketonuria, 301 refining
Calories from, 101 population and ecosystem dynamics, acid rain effects, 483
in cell membranes, 96, 102 181, 217 catalase experiment, 86
in central dogma, 259 red squirrel population dynamics, cell surface-area-to-volume ratio, 231
crystallization, 283 219 in engineering design process, 53
digestion of, 87 plant growth and acid rain
DNA code and, 25, 259 R experiment, 483
in DNA editing, 302 refrigeration, 51
enzymes as, 83–85 rabbit population growth, 188 regeneration, 244
fluorescent, 370 radiation of heart, 252
functions of, 98, 98, 259, 274, 274 adaptive, 438 of limbs, 244, 244, 245
as living vs. nonliving things, 12 electromagnetic, 118 in planarians, 234, 234
modeling, 274, 274 solar, 159, 159 (See also sunlight) in plants, 221
pH and, 84 radiometric dating, 392, 392 reinforcing loops, 36
polypeptides in, 280 rain relationships
similarities among cell types, 384 acid, 476, 482, 482–483 among organisms, 11, 197–199
structure of, 98, 98, 259, 274, 274 rainwater harvesting systems, 506, evolutionary, 384, 390, 390–391, 391
protein synthesis, 272–284, 273 506–507, 507 inverse, 41
in central dogma of molecular soil erosion from, 480, 480 social, importance of, 412, 412
biology, 273 rain forest biome renewable energy, 168, 473, 499, 501
DNA and RNA in, 276 loss of habitats in, 487 renewable resource, 473, 473, 473
genes code, 273–274 temperate, 142, 143 replication, 266
modeling, 280, 283 tropical, 142, 143, 145 of DNA, 266–268, 273, 357, 358, 359
mutations, 282 rainwater harvesting system, 506, of genes, 357, 358, 359
stages of, 275 506–507, 507 reproduction, 239
transcription, 277–279, 278 random dispersion, 183, 184 asexual, 12, 222, 239, 239–240, 240,
translation, 279–280, 281 rate(s) 360
proton, 73 of cell division, 224, 224 of bacteria, 46
prototype, 53, 56, 59, 510 of extinction, 442, 443 in living things, 12
public land, 489 of photosynthesis, 119 meiosis, 304–314
Pugh chart, 55 of population growth, 186 mitotic, 240, 240
punctuated equilibrium, 445 ratio(s) sexual, 12, 222, 239, 240, 306, 306,
Punnett, R.C., 329 cell surface-area-to-volume, 226, 230, 311, 317, 331, 405
Punnett square, 329, 330, 330–333, 230–231 sexual selection and, 428–429
332–333, 335, 335, 337, 337, 340, in chemical compounds, 75 by Venus flytraps, 12
340, 420–421, 421 in population density calculation, 183 of viruses, 12, 46
Index R31
INDEX
reproductive costs, 428 of mitochondria, 26 salmon, 365, 365

reproductive isolation, 435–437 risks salt, 73, 417, 417
reproductive strategies, 187, 187 of behavior, 451 salt balance, 44, 44
reproductive system, 18 in engineering design, 53 salt cedar, 494
reptiles, 44, 187 of technologies, 51 salt water ecosystem, 143. See also
research river, 144, 144 marine ecosystems
bedbugs and natural selection, 409, RNA, 259 sampling, quadrat, 184, 185, 185
409 in central dogma, 259 sanitation, 479
creating habitat for burrowing owls, DNA and, 276, 276 Santa Ana winds, 209
515, 515 as nucleic acid, 99, 99 sarcomere, 23, 24
disease outbreaks, 69 in protein synthesis, 275–280, 281 satellite males, 418, 418, 431, 431
in engineering design process, 53 RNA interference, 291 saturated fatty acid, 95
evaluating solutions to human RNA polymerases, 277, 277, 278, 289, scale, 185
impacts, 168 291, 291 Schleiden, Matthias, 229, 229
evolution in unique environment, RNA primer, 267 schooling, 452
415 roads Schwann, Theodor, 229, 229
gene duplication in plants, 313 habitat fragmentation from, 488, 488 Schwann cell, 22
lactose intolerance, 113 wildlife crossings, 498, 498, 510, 510 science. See also question (for
modeling interacting body systems, robots, 4, 4, 7, 14, 21, 464, 464 science); specific types of science
29 rock cycle, 164, 165 as a human endeavor, 50
phenylketonuria, 301 rocks microscope development, 228
red squirrel population dynamics, evidence for evolution in, 389, 389 scientific inquiry principles/events,
219, 219 fossils in, 389, 390 52
stem cell, 243 phosphate in, 164, 165 scientific knowledge, 298, 298
variation in photosynthesis, 124–125 Roosevelt, Theodore, 489, 489 scrubbers, 505
water pollution, 179 root, 43, 43 scuba diving, 7
wolves of Isle Royale, 467, 467 rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough sea anemone, 449, 449
research and development, 50 ER), 26, 26, 279 sea star, 449, 449
reservoirs, 160 rRNA, 278, 278, 279 sea turtle, 140, 324
carbon, 162 ruffs, 418, 418, 431, 431 secondary consumer, 147, 147
oxygen, 161 rural areas, population density in, 183 secondary succession, 207, 207, 209
water, 160, 160, 181, 181, 479 “second brain,” 30
resilience, ecosystem, 204, 205, 205 sedimentary rock, 162
resistance, ecosystem, 205, 205
S sedimentation, 165
resource availability Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 137 seed, 137
carrying capacity and, 189 safety, xxii–xxv seedling, 3
natural selection and, 404 in aerobic and anaerobic processes in Segregation, Law of, 319
resources yeast lab, 137 selection
competition for, 198, 406 with animals, xxiv artificial, 402–403
impact of human activities on, 470, in catalase experiment, 86 natural (See natural selection)
470, 484, 484 in cell surface-area-to-volume ratio selective permeability, 103
nonrenewable, 474, 474 modeling, 230 semiconductors, 501
per capita consumption of, 474, 474 in cellular respiration and exercise semiconservative DNA replication,
population growth and, 405, 405, lab, 130 267
473–474 chemical, xxiii sense organs, 449
renewable, 473, 473 cleanup and, xxiv sensory neuron, 22
sustainable development of, 489 dress code for, xxii sequencing, genome, 325
respiration electrical, xxiii set point, 34–36, 35, 36, 40, 46
anaerobic, 136, 136 with glassware and sharp objects, sex chromosome, 306, 306, 336, 336
cellular (See cellular respiration) xxiv sex-linked gene, 336
respiratory system, 17, 18, 38, 45 in homeostasis and exercise sex-linked inheritance, 336–339
responsive behavior, 449 investigation, 45 sex-linked trait, 323, 323
reversible chemical reactions, 80 of solutions to human impacts, 168 sexual reproduction, 222, 239, 240
Rhinovirus, 40, 40 symbols for, xxv genetic diversity from, 311
rhizobia bacteria, 164, 164 when using heating and fire, xxii genetic variation from, 405
ribose, 276 safety goggles symbol, xxv pattern of inheritance and, 331
ribosome, 26, 279, 279, 279 salamander, 244, 244 sex chromosomes, 306, 306
in animal cells, 26, 26 saliva, 19, 19, 82 traits resulting from, 317 (See also
of chloroplasts, 28 salivary glands, 72, 87 genetics)

by Venus flytraps, 12 solar energy, 473, 501 competitive exclusion, 198, 198
sexual selection, 428, 428 solar farm, 168 ecosystem dynamics, 196–210
sharp-object safety symbol, xxv solar power, 168 factors in evolution, 429
sharp-objects safety, xxiv solar radiation, 159, 159. See also mitosis and differentiation, 234–245
sickle cell anemia, 342, 342, 345, 345, sunlight in organisms, 12, 33 (See also
353, 353 solutes, 77, 104 homeostasis)
silencer, 291 solution (chemical), 77, 78, 78 plant response to drought, 43, 43
Silene vulgaris, 43 solution (engineering). See population dynamics, 182–193
silent mutation, 345 engineering solutions stabilizing protein, 266
silicon, 110, 501 solvent, 77, 104 stabilizing selection, 424, 424, 424
silicon-based life, 110, 110 somatic (body) cell, 306, 306, 307, 349, stain removal, 71
silversword alliance, 434, 434, 446, 446 349 starlings, 451, 490
simple carbohydrate, 94 songbird, 198 stearic acid, 95
simple sugar, 94 space stem cell, 59, 242, 242, 242–243, 245,
simulation, 8, 8, 53 colonization of other planets, 116, 361
single-celled organisms, 17, 239 116, 126 Stenocara gracilipes, 417
eukaryotes, 24 color of plants on other planets, 125 steroid, 95, 97
prokaryotes, 24 humans in, 66 stimulus, 33, 35, 35, 36, 36, 449, 449,
sinuses, 17 living in, 66 449
sister chromatids, 236, 236, 307 space-filling model, 74 stinging ants, 444, 444
skeletal muscle, 23 speciation, 435, 435 stomach, 19, 19
skeletal muscle cell, 21 mechanisms of, 435–439 digestion in, 20, 87
skeletal system, 18 patterns in, 445 enzymes in, 84
skin, 221 species tissues in, 20, 21, 21
skin cancer, 352 biodiversity of, 142, 200–202 stomach acid, 72
skin cell, 24, 221, 221, 224, 231 changes in, 434–446 (See also stomata, 42, 43, 124, 124, 125, 125
small intestine, 19, 19 evolution) stream, 144
digestion in, 87 coevolution of, 444, 444 stroma, 119
enzymes in, 84 endangered, 489 structural formula (chemical bonds),
smog, 166, 475, 475, 475 expansion of, 439–440 75
smooth muscle, 23 extinctions of, 389, 438, 441–443, structure(s)
smooth muscle cell, 21 487, 488, 493 analogous, 387, 387
snapping shrimp, 436 geographical distribution of, 412 animal cells, 25, 25–26
soap, 71 introduced, 490–491 atoms, 73
social interaction, 452–454 invasive, 202, 490–491, 494 carbon-based molecules, 91–93
social networking, 412, 412 keystone, 202 cell membrane, 102, 102
Social Studies Connection loss of, 487 chromosomes, 305–306
black-footed ferrets, 176, 176 mass extinctions, 487 DNA, 258, 263–265, 298
contributors to scientific knowledge, native, 490, 494 ecosystems, 141–142
298, 298 new (See speciation) enzymes, 83
environmental history, 216, 216 non-native, 191, 490, 494 homologous, 387, 387
importance of relationships, 412, 412 overharvesting, 492–493 muscle cells, 16
working dogs, 512, 512 pioneer, 206 proteins, 98, 98, 259, 274, 274
social training, 456 populations of, 141 (See also vestigial, 388, 388
society population dynamics) structure and function
evolution of fashion in, 464, 464 transitional, 390, 390–391, 391 amino acid sequence and point
technology and, 50–51, 479 unique features of, 380 mutations, 282, 282
sodium, 73, 74, 74 species evenness, 200, 200 cell differentiation, 293
sodium chloride, 73, 74, 74 species richness, 200, 200, 207, 493 DNA, 277, 298
soil specific heat, 77 enzyme names, 266
acid rain and, 476 sperm, 304, 306, 310, 310 gene expression, 288
forest fires and, 209 sperm cell, 21, 21 mRNA, 277
nitrates in, 164 spinal cord, 22, 22, 34 nuclear envelope, 25
in primary succession, 206 spindle fibers, 237, 237 protein modeling, 274
in secondary succession, 207 Springbok, 452 suberin, 43
soil erosion, 480, 481, 481 stability and change substrate, 83, 85
solar cell, 57, 501 cell cycle, 222–232 subsurface mining, 481, 481
designs for, 501 climate data, 477 succession. See ecological succession
movement of electrons in, 501 competition for resources, 198, 198 sucrose, 93, 93, 94
Index R33
INDEX
sugar computer programming languages, thermostat, 6, 6, 7, 35

digestion of, 87 272, 272 theropod, 382
as energy for organisms, 100 DNA images from, 270 Thing Explainer
monosaccharides, 94 emergency medical treatment, 50, 50 Bags of Stuff Inside You, 62–65
from photosynthesis, 117, 123 environmental changes and, 472 Books Inside Us, 372–375
sunlight, 352 evaluating, 55 How Forests Come Back, 212–215
in ecosystems, 149 for gene therapy, 368 Tiny Bags of Water, 248–251
in photosynthesis, 122 human body and, 48, 48–50 Tree, 172–175
supergene, 431 microscopes, 228, 229 Tree of Life, 460–463
surface mining, 481, 481 pacemakers, 48, 48, 60, 60 thistle plant, 7
surface tension, 76 population growth and, 472, 472 threatened species, 441
survivorship, 451, 451 prosthetics, 56–57 3-D printing, 59
survivorship curve, 187, 187 prototypes of, 56 thylakoid membrane, 122, 122
sustainable development, 489, 489 robotic, 4 thylakoid, 119, 119
sustainable fishing, 493 scaling up and scaling down of, 508 thymine, 99, 263–265, 263–265
sustainable hunting, 493 stem cell research, 243 thymine dimers, 352
swamp, 181 for sustainable development, 489 thymine-thymine dimer, 343, 343
swarm, 450, 450 unforeseen impacts of, 366 Tiktaalik raseae, 390, 391, 391
sweat glands, 42 vision correction, 54, 54–56 tissue, 17, 17, 20, 20
symbiosis, 199, 199 wastewater management, 479, 479 plant, 29
Syn3.0, 283 technology and society, 50–51 types of, 20, 20
synthetic biology, 59 advanced wastewater treatments, tissue engineering, 59
synthetic cell, 283, 283 479 Titan, 110
system, 5, 5–9 emergency medical treatment, 50 tobacco plant, 317
cell, 24–28 Technology Connection tomato plant traits, 379, 379
closed, 115, 115 computer systems, 66, 66 tortoise, 400
Earth system, 10–13 telomerase, 236 trachea, 39, 39
homeostasis mechanisms, 32–46 telomeres, 236, 236, 269 tradeoffs, in design, 53, 54, 54, 57
in human body, 16, 17 (See also telophase, 238 trait, 259, 259, 317, 321, 321, 328–339
human body) telophase I, 308, 308 crosses, 332–335
living and non-living, 3, 4 telophase II, 309, 309 genes determining, 273
organ, 18, 18 temperate deciduous forest, 142, 143 heritable, 259
organisms, 7, 16–23, 17 temperate grassland, 142, 143 inherited, 303, 303, 317, 317
organization of, 7 temperate rain forest, 142, 143 Mendel’s experiments with, 317–319,
properties of, 5–6 temperature 317–319
Systema Naturae (Linnaeus), 399 of body, 32, 32, 35, 40, 46, 46 natural selection and, 408
system model, 6, 8 chemical reactions and, 82 polygenic, 323
cell cycle, 238 climate change and, 477, 477 predicting generations, 329–331
creating, 13 of Earth, 476 sex-linked, 323, 323, 336–339
digestive system, 19 enzymes and, 83, 83, 85 in twins, 304, 304
Earth system, 10, 10 fever, 40 variations in, 419
green roof design, 504 gene expression and, 294 transcription, 275, 275, 277, 277,
interacting body systems, 29 thermoregulation, 43 277–279, 278
neurons, 22 thermostats, 6, 6, 35 in eukaryotes, 277, 287, 290, 291, 291
systems biology, 8, 8–9, 9 terracing, 480, 480 in prokaryotes, 287, 290
systems thinking, 5, 8 terrarium, 115, 115, 145, 145 transcription factor, 291, 291, 294, 296
tertiary consumer, 147, 147 transfer, nuclear, 360, 361
testcross, 334, 334 transforming principle, 260–262
testing designs, 510 transgenic, 362, 365
T in engineering design process, 53, 57 transgenic salmon, 365
tables, 69, 262, 315, 352, 352, 428, 428, UV-protective fabrics, 352 transitional species, 390, 390–391, 391
429, 429, 476, 485, 485, 514, 514 tetrapod, 390, 390–391, 391 translation, 275, 275, 279, 279–280,
taiga, 11, 142, 143 thalidomide, 294 281, 292
TATA box, 291 theory in eukaryotes, 279, 287
technology(-ies), 4, 49. See also catastrophism, 389 in prokaryotes, 279, 287
engineering solutions; genetic cell, 228–229, 229 translocation, gene, 348, 348, 350
engineering natural selection, 399, 399–403 transpiration, 160
biogeographers’ use of, 192 uniformitarianism, 389 transportation networks, 468
carbon-based materials for, 108 thermoregulation, 43 trinucleotide repeat expansion, 346

tRNA, 278, 278 vitamins, 77 weather
trophic level, 147, 147, 149, 152, 153 vizsla, 329, 329 climate change and, 477
tropical grassland, 142, 143 volcanoe as density–dependent factor, 191
tropical rain forest, 11, 142, 143, 145 ecological succession and, 206 extreme events, 443
tubeworm, 120 lava flow from, 196, 196, 210, 210 weathering, 165, 165
tumor, 227, 295 voluntary muscles, 23 western black rhinoceros, 493, 493
tumor suppressor gene P53, 352 Western meadowlark, 437, 437
tundra, 11, 142, 143 wetland, 144, 144, 181
Turner syndrome, 348
W whale, 388, 388
twins, 295, 304, 304, 312, 314, 314, 324 Wallace, Alfred Russel, 404 wildfires, 209, 486
warm-blooded animal, 43 wildlife corridor, 488, 488
waste wildlife crossing, 498, 498, 510, 510
U anaerobic digestion of, 500 wildtype fruit flies, 286, 286, 296, 296
ultraviolet (UV) light, 352 biohazardous, 51 willow habitat, 193
uniform dispersion, 183, 184 burning, 499, 499 wind energy, 473
uniformitarianism, 389, 389, 389, 399 converting to energy, 499–500 wind farm, 168, 168
unique environments, evolution in, from digestion, 19 wind power, 168
415, 415 ocean trash, 469, 469 wings, 387, 387
unsaturated fatty acids, 95 osmoregulation and, 44 wolves, 182, 190, 190, 193, 193, 467, 467
uracil, 276 storage of, 499 wood alternatives, 503, 503
urban area waste-to-energy power plants, 499 wood products, 502, 503
as barrier to dispersal, 488 wastewater, 479, 507, 507–509 working dogs, 512, 512
green roofs in, 504, 504 wastewater management, 479, 479
population density in, 183 wastewater treatment, 506–507, 507
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 489 water. See also drinking water X
U.S. Forest Service, 208, 209, 489 in animal cells, 25 X chromosome, 306, 323, 336, 337
UV (ultraviolet) light, 352 as compound, 74, 75, 75 X inactivation, 323
UV-protective fabric, 352, 352 desalination plants, 509 x-ray crystallography, 264, 264
and nonpolar molecules, 95
osmoregulation, 44, 44
V in phosphorus cycle, 165
Y
vaccines, 51, 59 in photosynthesis, 122 Y chromosome, 306, 323, 336
vacuole, 28, 28 properties of, 76–78 yeast
vampire bats, 453, 453 red blood cells in, 104 aerobic and anaerobic processes in,
variable, 52, 421 as solvent, 77, 104 137, 137
vegetable oil, as fuel, 500 surface tension of, 76 genetically modified, 240
vegetative reproduction, 240, 240 uses of, 478 yellow-legged frog, 437, 437
vein, 39 water cycle, 158, 160, 160, 168 Yellowstone National Park, 182, 182,
Venn diagram, 74, 109, 109, 127, 127, water filtration, 51, 51, 55, 55 193, 193, 489, 492
297 personal devices for, 508, 508 Yosemite Grant, 489
Venter, Craig, 283 water treatment plants, 506–507, 507
Venus flytrap, 12, 12 water management
vertebrate
Z
dams, 181, 181, 469, 479, 479
embryotic body features of, 386, 386 invasive species, 494 Zea mays, 328
Hox genes in, 295, 385 population growth and, 479, 479 zebrafish, 356, 356, 370, 370, 384, 384
mesoderm in, 242 water molecule, 74, 74, 75, 76, 77, 77 zebra mussels, 490, 490, 491
vervet monkey, 453 water pollution, 480 Zika infections, 369, 369
vesicle, 105 analyzing, 179 Zoonomia (Darwin), 399
vestigial structure, 388, 388, 388 decreasing, 506 zygote, 222, 231, 231, 293, 312
Virchow, Rudolf, 229 from fossil fuels, 484, 484
virtual agar art, 252, 252 population growth and, 478, 478
viruses, 12, 13, 46, 262 water power, 168
visible light, 118 water shortages, 506
vision water-soluble vitamin, 77
color blindness, 337, 337 water treatment, 507–508
gene therapy for blindness, 376, 376 water treatment plant, 506–507, 507
normal, 337 water vapor, 42, 502
vision correction technology, 54, Watson, James, 264, 265, 265, 270
54–56 waxes, 95, 97
Index R35
PERIODIC TABLE
6 Atomic number
1 C Chemical symbol
Carbon Element name

1
12.01 Average atomic mass
1 H
Hydrogen
Values appearing in parentheses do not represent average
atomic mass but instead represent the mass number of that
1.008 2
element’s most stable or most common isotope.
3 4
2 Li
Lithium
Be
Beryllium
6.94 9.012
11 12
3 Na
Sodium
Mg
Magnesium
22.99 24.31 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27
4 K
Potassium
Ca
Calcium
Sc
Scandium
Ti
Titanium
V
Vanadium
Cr
Chromium
Mn
Manganese
Fe
Iron
Co
Cobalt
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.87 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
5 Rb
Rubidium
Sr
Strontium
Y
Yttrium
Zr
Zirconium
Nb
Niobium
Mo
Molybdenum
Tc
Technetium
Ru
Ruthenium
Rh
Rhodium
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.96 (98) 101.1 102.9
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77
6 Cs
Cesium
Ba
Barium
Hf
Hafnium
Ta
Tantalum
W
Tungsten
Re
Rhenium
Os
Osmium
Ir
Iridium
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.8 186.2 190.2 192.2
87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109

7 Fr
Francium
Ra
Radium
Rf
Rutherford-
Db
Dubnium
Sg
Seaborgium
Bh
Bohrium
Hs
Hassium
Mt
Meitnerium
(223) (226) (265) (268) (271) (270) (277) (276)
57 58 59 60 61 62 63
Lanthanide Series La
Lanthanum
Ce
Cerium
Pr
Praseodymium
Nd
Neodymium
Pm
Promethium
Sm
Samarium
Eu
Europium
138.91 140.1 140.9 144.2 (145) 150.4 152.0
89 90 91 92 93 94 95
Actinide Series Ac
Actinium
Th
Thorium
Pa
Protactinium
U
Uranium
Np
Neptunium
Pu
Plutonium
Am
Americium
(227) 232.0 231.0 238.0 (237) (244) (243)

Metals Metalloids Nonmetals
18
State of Element at STP
2
Solid Liquid
He
Helium
Gas Not yet known 13 14 15 16 17 4.003
5 6 7 8 9 10
B
Boron
C
Carbon
N
Nitrogen
O
Oxygen
F
Fluorine
Ne
Neon
10.81 12.01 14.007 15.999 19.00 20.18
13 14 15 16 17 18
Al
Aluminum
Si
Silicon
P
Phosphorus
S
Sulfur
Cl
Chlorine
Ar
Argon
10 11 12 26.98 28.085 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
Ni
Nickel
Cu
Copper
Zn
Zinc
Ga
Gallium
Ge
Germanium
As
Arsenic
Se
Selenium
Br
Bromine
Kr
Krypton
58.69 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.63 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Pd
Palladium
Ag
Silver
Cd
Cadmium
In
Indium
SnTin
Sb
Antimony
Te
Tellurium
I
Iodine
Xe
Xenon
106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Pt
Platinum
Au
Gold
Hg
Mercury
Tl
Thallium
Pb
Lead
Bi
Bismuth
Po
Polonium
At
Astatine
Rn
Radon
195.1 197.0 200.6 204.38 207.2 209.0 (209) (210) (222)
110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118

Ds
Darmstadtium
Rg
Roentgenium
Cn
Copernicium
Nh
Nihonium
Fl
Flerovium
Mc
Moscovium
Lv
Livermorium
Ts
Tennessine
Og
Oganesson
(281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (293) (294) (294)
64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Gd
Gadolinium
Tb
Terbium
Dy
Dysprosium
Ho
Holmium
Er
Erbium
Tm
Thulium
Yb
Ytterbium
Lu
Lutetium
157.3 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.1 175.0
96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103

Cm
Curium
Bk
Berkelium
Cf
Californium
Es
Einsteinium
Fm
Fermium
Md
Mendelevium
No
Nobelium
Lr
Lawrencium
(247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (262)
Elements with atomic numbers of 95 and above are not known to occur naturally,
even in trace amounts. They have only been synthesized in the lab. The physical and
chemical properties of elements with atomic numbers 100 and above cannot be
predicted with certainty.
Periodic Table R37

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Biology

Stephen Nowicki, Ph.D.

Dean and Vice Provost for Undergraduate Education

WILL SPARK YOUR CURIOSITY

Where do you see yourself in

individual Defend Your

Tools to help you be successful

ENGLISH LANGUAGE ARTS

THING EXPLAINER features that

3.2 Cellular Respiration 128 Evidence for Evolution 380

1.2 Organisms: Cells to Body Systems 16

BAGS OF STUFF INSIDE YOU 62

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xii HMH Science Dimensions Biology

2.2 Carbon-Based Molecules 90

UNIT REVIEW 110

Matter and Energy

3.2 Cellular Respiration 128

3.3 Modeling Matter and Energy in Ecosystems 140

3.4 Cycling of Matter and Energy in Ecosystems 158

UNIT REVIEW 176

xiv HMH Science Dimensions Biology

4.2 Ecosystem Dynamics 196

HOW FORESTS COME BACK 212

UNIT REVIEW 216

5.2 Mitosis and Differentiation 234

TINY BAGS OF WATER YOU’RE MADE OF 248

UNIT REVIEW 252

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The Structure and

6.2 Protein Synthesis 272

6.3 Gene Expression and Regulation 286

UNIT REVIEW 298

BI_CNLESE861787_FMTOC.indd 17 6/6/2017 9:30:12 AM

7.2 Mendel and Heredity 316

7.3 Traits and Probability 328

7.4 Mutations and Genetic Diversity 342

7 .5 Genetic Engineering 356

EXPLORATION 4 Further Applications of Genetic Engineering 366

BOOKS INSIDE US 372

UNIT REVIEW 376

xviii HMH Science Dimensions Biology

8.2 Theory of Natural Selection 396

UNIT REVIEW 412

9.2 Changes in Species 434

9.3 Adaptive Value of Behavior 448

TREE OF LIFE 460

UNIT REVIEW 464

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xx HMH Science Dimensions Biology

10.2 Human Impacts on Biodiversity 486

10.3 Engineering Solutions to Environmental Impacts 498

UNIT REVIEW 512

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