Week9 10 Machining

MACHINING OPERATIONS AND
MACHINE TOOLS
Many of this lecture slides are adopted from the

Text book
©2012 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,
Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 5/e
MACHINING OPERATIONS AND
MACHINE TOOLS
1. Turning and Related Operations
2. Drilling and Related Operations
3. Milling
4. Machining Centers and Turning Centers
5. Other Machining Operations
6. High Speed Machining
Machining
A material removal process in which a sharp cutting
tool is used to mechanically cut away material so
that the desired part geometry remains
• Most common application: to shape metal parts
• Most versatile of all manufacturing processes in
its capability to produce a diversity of part
geometries and geometric features with high
precision and accuracy
– Casting can also produce a variety of shapes, but it lacks the
precision and accuracy of machining
Classification of Machined Parts
• Rotational - cylindrical or disk-like shape

• Nonrotational (also called prismatic) -
block-like or plate-like
Figure 22.1 Machined parts are classified as: (a) rotational, or (b)
nonrotational, shown here by block and flat parts.

Machining Operations and Part
Geometry
Each machining operation produces a
characteristic part geometry due to
two factors:
1. Relative motions between tool and
workpart
• Generating – part geometry determined by
feed trajectory of cutting tool
2. Shape of the cutting tool
• Forming – part geometry is created by the
shape of the cutting tool
Generating Shape
Figure 22.2 Generating shape: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning, (c)
contour turning, (d) plain milling, (e) profile milling.
Forming to Create Shape
Figure 22.3 Forming to create shape: (a) form turning, (b) drilling, and (c)
broaching.

Forming and Generating
Figure 22.4 Combination of forming and generating to create shape: (a)

thread cutting on a lathe, and (b) slot milling.

Cutting Operations
• Theoretically, the cutting operations are the
same, whether the tool is on a lathe, drill, mill
or saw.
• Most mathematical tool models are based on
the principles discussed last week (orthogonal
chip model, Merchant’s eqn.)
• However, how the tool is actually used is
different depending on the machine and part
being made.
Turning
 Turning is the process of machining external cylindrical and
conical surfaces.
 Single point cutting tool removes material from a rotating workpiece to
generate a cylinder
 The process uses a machine tool called a lathe. •
•Variations of turning performed on a lathe:

–Facing
–Contour turning
–Chamfering
–Cutoff
–Threading
Lathe Cutting Operations
• The Lathe is a single point cutting
operation.
• The Lathe usually only has 2-axis of
motion:
across the workpiece
into the workpiece

Turning-operation
•Turning – used for Close-up view of a

turning operation on
“turning” down the steel using a titanium
diameter of a part. nitride coated carbide
cutting insert (photo
•Useful to make shafts courtesy of Kennametal
and spindles Inc.)
Various Cutting Operations
Source: Kalpakjian, S, and Schmid, S, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 4th Ed, Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, 2001, pg. 595 Fig. 22.1
Various Cutting Operations (cont)
Saddle River, 2001, pg. 595 Fig. 22.1
Turning - Facing
Tool is fed radially inward
• Facing – process used to “square off” the end of a shaft

perpendicular to the part axis.
Contour Turning
• Instead of feeding
tool parallel to axis
of rotation, tool
follows a contour
that is other than
straight, thus
creating a
contoured shape
Figure 22.6 (c) contour
turning

Chamfering
• Cutting edge cuts an angle on the corner
of the cylinder, forming a "chamfer"
Figure 22.6
(e) chamfering

Parting (cut-off)
 Tool is fed radially into rotating work at some location to
cut off end of part
 Used to part (cut off) a part from the main stock.

 Tool is driven in perpendicular to the part axis.
Threading
• Pointed form tool is fed linearly across surface of
rotating workpart parallel to axis of rotation at a
large feed rate, thus creating threads
 Threading – a “V” shaped tool is used to put a thread into the stock
material
 Several passes are required to get to the full depth – process is called
“chasing a thread.”
Drilling, Boring
Turning – Drilling on Axis
Kalpakjian – Manufacturing Engineering

and Technology, p595
•Drilling can be accomplished by holding a drill

bit stationary in the tail stock and advancing the
tailstock into the workpiece.
•Drilled hole will be guaranteed to be “on-center”
of the stock material.
•Feeds & Speeds – see drilling section
Turning - Boring
Groover – pages 516, 517
• Once a small hole is drilled, a boring tool can be used to enlarge the end
hole to the final diameter.
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Turning - Tapering
• Tapering can be acomplished in a number of ways:

a) Following a master part with a jig
b) Using a compound rest
c) Off setting the tailstock out of line with the headstock
Turning Process Parameters
Feed Rate
• Feedrate is the speed that you feed the tool across the workpiece, usually
express in inches/min. The tables usually give the Feed in inches/rev.
• Feed is typically a given distance per

revolution.
• Units are--- (in./rev), and (mm/rev)
• Feed rate :
where: fr is the feedrate

f is the feed from the table

Turning Process Parameters
• Turning typically involves roughing procedures followed by a

finishing operation.
• If possible take only one roughing and one finishing cut
• Depth of cut for finishing should be 0.005” < d < 0.015” •
 Chip cross-sectional Area = f d

• cutting time for a workpiece of length L :
– This time does not include the time required for tool approach or
retraction. •
Machinery’s Handbook, 27th ed., p996
Example – Turning Speed
You wish to turn a workpiece made of 1118 steel, with a Brinell

Hardness of 125, from a diameter of 1” to .875” using uncoated
carbide tooling (hard). What would be the rotational speed (rpm)
under average conditions?
Example – Turning Feedrate
• From the last example, what should
the feedrate be?

Turning – Material Removal Rate
• The volumetric material removal rate is given as:
MRR    f  d (22.6)
D 0  Df
d
2
where: Df is the final diameter

d is the depth of the cut
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Example – Turning MRR
• Calculate the MRR for the last example.
Turning Guidelines
• Design Recommendations
– Minimize Material Removal
• Start with a Good Component
• Use Standard Stock
– Appropriate Tolerances
– Rigid Design
– Use of Standard Cutting Tools•

Lathe - Typical Uses
• As the part is turned, lathes are
limited to making cylindrical parts.

Lathe - Basic Parts

Lathe - Manual
Cross slide
crank. Allows
the tool to travel
into the work
piece.
Main “saddle” or
carriage wheel. Allows
travel down the lathe
bed.
Lathe - Specifications
• Size designation
– Length of Bed
– Maximum distance between centers
– Swing - maximum diameter that can be
rotated on the lathe
• Maximum RPM
• Horsepower

Basic Lathe
• Bed
– Foundation of the
lathe
– Supports all other
major components
– Top part has two
ways •
Basic Lathe: Headstock
• Fixed
• Mounted on the ways
• Consists of:
– Hollow spindle
• has provisions for
attaching
workholders
– Bearings
– motors, pulley and
belts or transmission
gears to drive the
spindle •

• Carriage Basic Lathe : Carriage
– Along with the apron—
provides the base for
mounting and moving
cutting tools
• Cross slide
– Mounted to the carriage
and provides movement
for facing and cut-off
operations.
• Compound rest
– Mounted to the cross
slide. Can rotate for angle
cuts.
– the component that holds
the tool post for cutting
tools. •
Basic Lathe: Tailstock
• Supports the other end
of the workpiece
• Lower portion of casting
fits inner ways
• Can slide along the
ways
– Locks at desired
location
– Tailstock quill •

Basic Lathe : Feed Rod
Feed rod
– Provides forward
and reverse motion
for carriage and
cross slide.
• Lead screw
– Used for threading
purposes.
– Engages with the
half-nut to provide
correct feed for
specific lead of
thread. •

Methods of Holding the Work in a
Lathe
• Holding the work between centers
• Chuck
• Collet
• Face plate
Holding the Work Between Centers
•Two centres
• one in head stock –device called dog
–drive the rotation from spindle
•the other in tail stock-cone shaped
point, inserted into a tapered hole(at
the end of the work part)
•The centre can be live centre(rotates
in a bearing-no friction-high speed
operation) or dead centre (fixed to tail (a) mounting the work between
centers using a "dog”
stock (does not rotate-heat build up-
low speed operation)
•For parts with large length to diameter
ratio
Chuck
 Chucks are quick and easy to hold the
workpiece.
 3 jaw chucks are used for round stock.
 4 jaw for square stock.
 Multi-jaw for other shapes
 Self centering chuck-jaw moves in and
out simultaneously-work centers on
(b) three-jaw chuck
spindle axis
 Other chuck-independent operation of
each jaw
 Can be used with or without tail stock
 For parts with low length to diameter
ratio-no tail stock and vice versa
Lathe - work holding collets
• Work holding device should be made in size to match the

work part size
• Collets provide an additional measure of accuracy and
holding power over chucks.
• They are available in a number of standard sizes. Custom one
can be made.
Face Plate
 Hold parts with irregular

shapes
 Custom designed clamps
for particular geometry of
the part
(d) face plate for non-cylindrical workparts

Lathe - Types
• Being such an old machine, lathes come in
many different types and configurations.
• Each type of lathe is particularly suited to
certain types of turning situations.
– Size of turned part
– Tolerances specified on the part
– Complexity of the part
Turning Machines
• Turning machines
– Lathes
• Engine
• Toolroom
• Turret
• Automatic (chucking)
• Automatic bar machines
• Vertical
– For very large diameters
• Computer controlled •
Engine Lathe
 Engine Lathes is a generic term

for shop lathes in general.
 Engine lathes were once driven
by steam engines (hence the
name), and are much bigger
that the “hand” driven lathe.
 Size range 12”x24” to 24”x48” -
can be larger
 Achievable tolerance : 0.005"
typical • Most frequently used lathe
Heavy duty
power drive for most tool movements
Types of Lathes : Engine Lathe
Toolroom Lathe
• Toolroom Lathes are
generally smaller but
more accurate that
engine lathes.
• Used in the
“toolroom” to make
tooling for other  Greater accuracy
machines.  More versatility
 Wider range of speeds and feeds
 Maximum Spindle Runout (TIR) of
.000025"/.00065mm •
Turret Lathe
Hex turret replaces tailstock  Turret lathes have a turret to
that holds up to six tools provide a variety of different
• Multiple tools set to machine part tools.
• Manually operated
• Tools rapidly brought into action
by indexing the turret
• Tool post replaced by four-sided
turret to index four tools
• Applications: high production
work that requires a sequence of
cuts on the part
Types of Lathes : Automatic (chucking)
• Automatic
– Similar to turret
– Eliminate operator control of machine
– Capable of simultaneous cuts
– Can be a cam controlled mechanism
– Can be single spindle or multiple spindle •
 Uses chuck in its spindle to hold workpart

 No tailstock, so parts cannot be mounted between
centers
 Cutting tool actions controlled automatically
 Operator’s job: to load and unload parts
 Applications: short, light-weight parts
Bar Machine
• Similar to chucking machine except collet
replaces chuck, permitting long bar stock to
be fed through headstock
• At the end of the machining cycle, a cutoff
operation separates the new part
• Highly automated (a.k.a. automatic bar
machine)
• Applications: high production of rotational
parts
Types of Lathes: Automatic bar
machines
Automatic Screw Machines-
 Same as automatic bar machine but smaller
 Applications: high production of screws and similar
small hardware items
• One of the important application of bar
machine is for production of screw-hence
names \screw machine
• Get their name from the fact they were
originally built to turn out small parts, many
with threads.
• Swiss-type machine has two main features
– Six tools mounted radially around the spindle on
cam operated slides
– Stock can be fed longitudinally during the cut,
allowing for contours
• High production machines
Swiss Type Automatic Screw Machine
Saddle River, 2001, pg. 610 Fig. 22.8 Source George Gorton Machine Company
Multiple Spindle Bar Machines
 Four, six, or eight spindles and corresponding cross slides
 Multiple parts are machined simultaneously by multiple
tool
 Example: six spindle automatic bar machine works on six
parts at a time
 After the necessary cuts are made at each station, the
chucks index(rotated) around to a new location.
 Continues until the part has passed all the tooling stations
and is then cut off or released
 High production machines
Multiple Spindle Bar Machine
Figure 22.9 (a) Part produced on a six-spindle automatic bar machine; and (b)
sequence of operations to produce the part: (1) feed stock to stop, (2) turn
main diameter, (3) form second diameter and spotface, (4) drill, (5)
chamfer, and (6) cutoff.

Six-Spindle Machine
Six Spindle Automatic Lathe
Source: Lindberg, Roy A., Processes and Materials of Manufacture 4th Ed, Prentice Hall, Upper
Saddle River, 1990 pg. 256 Fig. 6-23 (Courtesy of the National Acme Company)
Vertical Lathe
• Vertical lathes
are used for
exceptionally
large turnings.
• Easier to load
large
workpieces,
chips fall out of
the way. www.orttool.com
CNC Lathe
• Computer Numeric Control
– Computer controlled
– Wide variety of process
capability
– multiple axis
– Indexing and contouring head
– On- line and off- line
programming available www.haascnc.com
Boring
• Difference between boring and
turning:
– Boring is performed on the inside diameter of an
existing hole
– Turning is performed on the outside diameter of
an existing cylinder
• In effect, boring is internal turning
operation
• Boring machines
– Horizontal or vertical - refers to the orientation of
the axis of rotation of machine spindle
Boring
• Boring is the process of enlarging an existing
hole or internal cylindrical surface.
• This can be accomplished on a lathe or a
machine tool specifically designed for the
process; such as a horizontal boring machine. •
Vertical Boring Mill
Figure 22.12 A vertical boring mill – for large, heavy workparts.

Boring Machines -Horizontal
• Boring
– Vertical
– Horizontal (like a milling machine) •
Boring Tools

Drilling & Related Hole Making
Processes
• Basic hole making processes
account for approximately 50-
70% of all the metal removal
processes utilized today.
• Hole making methods
– Casting
• Sand, die, molding
– Punching
– Flame cutting
– Machining,
• Drilling, milling, EDM, etc.•

Drilling
• Creates a round
hole in a workpart
• Compare to boring
which can only
enlarge an existing
hole
• Cutting tool called
a drill or drill bit
• Machine tool: drill
press
Figure 21.3 (b) drilling

Drilling – Cutting Operations
• Drilling operations are used to make one thing – HOLES
• Holes are very important to industry, to lighten parts, to
provide passage of fluids, to fasten parts together.
• Most drill bits contain two cutting surfaces.
• Cutting action is only at the end of the drill bit.
• Flutes carry away the chips.
Holes drilled into bicycle

hub to lighten mass.
www.blackbirdsf.org
www.gadgetbuilder.com
Drill Geometry
• Three main components are the:
– Shank
– Body
– Point
• Shank : the portion which is “clamped” to provide the drive.
– Straight shank for drill up to ½”. Shank is equal to body diameter.
– Above ½”, shank can be tapered or reduced. •
Drill Geometry
Body
– Flutes - Helical grooves cut around the body
• Allow coolant to flow to the cutting edge
• Allow chips to be withdrawn
• For steel 24°, plastics 35-45° •
– Margin-Narrow raised section of the body.

– Body clearance -Reduced section of the drill between the flutes
and margin.
– Web-Thin section in the center of the drill which forms a “core”
for the drill. •
Drill Geometry
• Three standard point angles include:
– Conventional - 118 degrees
• General drilling applications (soft steel, most metals)
– Long angle point - 60-90 degrees
• Low helix angle
• Non-ferrous materials
– Flat angle point - 135 degrees(Harder metals)
• Thicker chips
• Tends to be self centering
• Shorter cutting edge with leads to reduced friction •
Work Holding for Drill Presses
• Workpart in drilling can be clamped in any of
the following:
– Vise - general purpose workholder with two jaws
– Fixture - workholding device that is usually
custom-designed for the particular workpart
– Drill jig – similar to fixture but also provides a means of
guiding the tool during drilling
Drill Material and Sizes
Material
• Usually made of HSS
• Carbide tipped or solid carbide drills available for working
with hard and abrasive material
Sizes
Numerical: No. 97 (0.0059 in.) to No. 1 (0.228 in.).
Letter: A (0.234 in.) to Z (0.413 in.).
Fractional: Straight shank from 1/64 in. to 1 1/4 in.(in 1/64 in.
increments) to 1 1/2in.(in 1/32 in. increments), and larger
drills in larger increments.
Millimeter: From 0.05 mm in increments of 0.01 mm 
Drilling Forces and Torques
• Thrust force:
– In the direction of hole axis
– Depends on
• Workpiece material
• Feed
• Rotational speed
• Drill diameter and design T
• Power = Specific energy × MRR
• Torque = Power / w  Fc
Drill Life Ft
Process Parameters
• Cutting speed (RPM)
• Feed (in/rev or in/min) (Rpm × in/rev)

Through Holes vs. Blind Holes
Through-holes - drill exits opposite side of work
Blind-holes – does not exit work opposite side
Two hole types: (a) through-hole, and (b) blind hole.

Drilling - cutting

Drilling Speed: N (22.7)
D
where: N is the rotational speed (rpm)
v is the cutting speed
Feed is proportional D is the drill diameter
to drill diameter- high
feed are used with
large diameter drill fr  Nf (22.8)

Drilling – Approach Allowance
• Approach allowance is to compensate for the drill bit angle.

A  0.5D tan(90  )
2
where:  is the point angle
Machining time to drill a through hole
tA
Tm 
fr
In Blind hole: hole depth “d” is Machining time to drill a blind hole
defined as the distance from the d
work surface to the “point” of the Tm 
hole – drill point angle
fr
allowance does not affect the Rate of material R   D 2
fr
time to drill the hole removal
MR
4
Drilling – types of bits
• There are hundreds of different types of drill bits for all sorts
of situations.
Kalpakjian – Manufacturing Engineering

and Technology, p628
Drilling - Reaming
• Used to slightly enlarge a hole, provide better tolerance
on diameter, and improve surface finish
• Drill bits will give roughly round holes, for

higher tolerances, a reaming operation
must be used.
• (step 3 is sometimes omitted)
Drilling - Tapping
• Used to provide internal screw
threads on an existing hole
• Tool called a tap
• Tap rpm must be synchronized with feed.
Step 3 Tapping with tap

• Speeds are usually recommended by the
manufacturer or use tables in Machinery’s
Handbook
• Feeds: fr  N  tap _ pitch
www.tapsdiesandreamers.com
Countersinking
• Operation for producing a tapered feature at the
end of a hole.
• Most popular application is a feature for a
flathead screw (82 degrees) to sit flush with a
surface. 
Counterboring
• Enlarging of an existing hole at one end.
• This enlarged hole is concentric with the existing hole and is flat
at the bottom.
• One application of this process is a feature to set the head of a
bolt below a surface. 
• Provides a stepped hole, in which a larger

diameter follows smaller diameter partially
into the hole
Spot facing
• Smoothing, squaring, and/or
flattening a surface 

Drill Presses-upright
• Upright drill press stands on the floor
• Bench drill similar but smaller and mounted on a
table or bench
• Light weight-light duty
• Feed of the drill is “sensitive” to the touch
of the operator
• Used primarily for low production 
• Upright Drill Press
– Larger than the sensitive
– Can be equipped with a gearbox and variable
speed head
– Hand and automatic feed mechanism
– Automatic coolant system
– Table can move on a rack and pinion system 
Drills - Radial Drill Presses
Large drill press designed for large parts
• Radial arm drill presses allows

holes to be drilled in large
workpieces.
• Drill head can be raised and/or
rotated.
/www.blueridgemachinery.com
Drills - Tapping machines
• Tapping machines
synchronize the
downward
feedrate with the
tool (tap) rotation.
www.rmt.net
Drills - Multi-Spindle
• Gang Drilling Machine
– Equipped with more than one
spindle
– Multi-head arrangement
– Single table
– Used for production set-up
– Multiple operations at one
location (drill, ream, tap,
c’sink, c’borte etc.)
www.wisc-online.com
Drill Presses: Turret
• CNC Turret (Conventional)
– 2 axis motion
– Computer controlled
– Series of operations
– Turret indexes to different tools
• Individual speeds / feeds 
Milling
Machining operation in which work is fed past
a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges
• Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to
feed
• Creates a planar surface
– Other geometries possible either by cutter path or
shape
• Other factors and terms:
– Interrupted cutting operation
– Cutting tool called a milling cutter, cutting edges called
"teeth"
– Machine tool called a milling machine

Milling-The Process
• The milling process:
– Typically uses a multi-tooth cutter
– Work is fed into the rotating cutter
– Capable of high MRR
– Well suited for mass production
applications
– Cutting tools for this process are called
milling cutters •
• Multi-tooth milling bits cut

and remove stock material
quickly.
• Tool rotates while workpiece
is fed into teeth.
Two Forms of Milling
Two forms of milling: (a) peripheral milling, and (b) face milling.
• Peripheral milling (also called as plain milling)

– Cutter axis parallel to surface being machined
– Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
• Face milling
– Cutter axis perpendicular to surface being milled
– Cutting edges on both
©2007the end
John Wiley and
& Sons, Inc. Moutside
P Groover, periphery of the cutter
Peripheral -Slab Milling -
• Basic form of peripheral milling in
which the cutter width extends
beyond the workpiece on both sides
(a) slab milling

Peripheral -Slotting
• Width of cutter is less than workpiece
width, creating a slot in the work
(b) slotting

Peripheral Milling: variations
• Milling is
accomplished
only on the
periphery of
the cutter. • Side milling
• Slotting
• Cutting teeth
at the very
edge of the
cutter.
• Straddle milling
• Gang milling•
Peripheral Milling: variations
• Slitting Form or Shape Milling

Cutter Geometry: Peripheral milling
• Helical milling cutter •

Face milling
• Axis of rotation perpendicular
to workpiece surface
• Milled surface is flat and has
no relationship to the contour
of the cutter
• Combined cutting action of the
side and face of the milling
cutter •
Cutter overhangs work

on both sides
High speed face
milling using
indexable inserts
(photo courtesy
of Kennametal
Inc.).
Face Milling: variations
• End Milling • Surface contouring•

• Partial
Facing
Face Milling -End Milling
• Cutter diameter is
less than work
width, so a slot is
cut into part
(c) end milling

Face Milling -Profile Milling
Form of end milling in which
the outside periphery of a
flat part is cut
• Profile milling is used to cut
a profile, such as the parts
edges.
(d) profile milling

Face Milling -Pocket Milling
• Another form of end

milling used to mill
shallow pockets into
flat parts
• Pocket milling
involves creating a
depression in the
stock material, ie. a
“Pocket.”

Face Milling -Surface Contouring
• Ball-nose cutter fed back
and forth across work
along a curvilinear path at
close intervals to create a
three dimensional surface
form
• The end mill (usually a ball end
mill) is used to cut a surface
contour.
• Used quite often to make
injection molds.
Milling - Feed Direction
Conventional Milling
•Typical method of
machining
•Chip is thinnest at start
•Results in less “shock”
to cutter
•Less vibration & chatter
•Tends to lift the work
part
Milling - Feed Direction
Climb Milling
•Chip is thickest at start
•Results in more “shock” to
cutter
•Greater vibration & chatter
•Part must be securely held.
•Gives better surface finish on
brittle materials
•Tends to hold the work
against the machine table
•Suited for machining of thin and
hard to hold parts
Milling Machines
• Lathes are single point cutters
• Drills are two point cutters
• Milling machines cutters can range from a
single point to several dozen points.
• Column and Knee type

• Bed type Six flute ball end mill
• Other types
– Planer type
– Rotary tables
– Duplicating machines
– Profiling milling
– Skin mills •
www.gnstools.com
Milling machines
Knee & Column
• Basic job shop type mill
• Column mounted to the base which is
the major support frame.
• Construction provides controlled
motion of the worktable in three
mutual perpendicular directions.
• Quill moves parallel in Z axis or, if head
is rotated, X axis
• Versatile general purpose machine •
tobkes.othellomaster.com
www.precisionmeasure.com
Horizontal Milling Machine
(a) horizontal knee-and-column milling machine.

Vertical Milling Machine
Figure 22.23 (b) vertical knee-and-column milling machine

Milling machines
Universal & Ram
Milling Machines
Bed-type Mill
• Used extensively in production milling
operations •
Bed Mill - Horizontal spindle
•Used for
machining large
workpieces.
•Often used with
a rotary table to
access multiple
sides of the
workpiece.
www.haascnc.com
Mills - CNC
www.haascnc.com
Milling - Speeds and Feeds

Milling Speed: N (22.13)
D
where: N is the rotational speed (rpm)
v is the cutting speed
D is the mill diameter
Milling Feed: fr  Nntf (22.14)

nt is the number of teeth on the cutter
Milling – Feeds & Speed Table
Machinery’s Handbook, 27th ed., p1014

Milling - Material Removal Rate
• MRR is the product of the cross-sectional area
of the cut and the feedrate.
MRR  wdfr (22.15)
where: w is the width of the cut

d is the depth of the cut
fr is the feedrate
Milling - Example
• You wish to use a 1” dia end mill, uncoated carbide, with 8 teeth on some
1020 steel with a Brinell Hardness of 120. Determine the Speed, Feedrate
and MRR if you plan on having 20% overlap on each cut, and a depth of cut
of 0.125”. (avg conditions)
Cutting Conditions
• Rpm (N)
– Rpm converted into CS based on cutter diameter
Feed rate
– Feed per tooth (chip load) f
– Table feed rate
• Depth of cut•
Cutting Conditions

Milling Process Calculations-slab milling
(peripheral milling)
• Cutting time:
d-depth of cut A-approach distance to reach full cutter

L-work piece depth
length
D-diameter of
cutter
Milling Process Calculations-face milling
Allow for approach distance A + over travel distance O
Cutter is centered over the work Cutter is offset to one side over
piece the work
• Cutting time: w- width of the cut

• Estimate the time and
MRR required for face- Example
milling a 20 cm long, 5 cm
wide aluminum block with
a 20 cm diameter cutter if
the depth of cut is 2 mm
and the workpiece is fed
at a rate of 0.05 mm/s.
D = 20 cm, fr = 0.05 mm/s, d = 2 mm, L = 20 cm, w = 5 cm

Time of cut, t = { distance cut (L) + approach distance (A)+ Overtravel
distance (O) } / fr
A = O = D/2 = 10 cm
t = (200 mm + 200 mm) / (0.05 mm/s) = 8000 s = 133.33 min!•
MRR = w d fr = (50 mm) (2 mm) (0.05 mm/s) = 5 mm3/s
•
Example
Assume that for a face milling operation, D=150 mm, w=60 mm

l=500 mm, d=3 mm, v=0.6 m/min. and N=100 rpm. The cutter
has 10 inserts and the workpiece material is a high-strength
aluminum alloy. Calculate the MRR, cutting time and feed per
tooth.
Machining Centers
Highly automated machine tool can
perform multiple machining
operations under CNC control in one
setup with minimal human attention
– Typical operations are milling and drilling
– Three, four, or five axes
• Other features:
– Automatic tool-changing
– Pallet shuttles
– Automatic workpart positioning
Figure 22.26 Universal machining center; highly automated,
capable of multiple machining operations under computer control in
one setup with minimal human attention (photo courtesy of
Cincinnati Milacron).
Figure 22.27 CNC 4-axis turning center (photo courtesy of
Cincinnati Milacron); capable of turning and related operations,
contour turning, and automatic tool indexing, all under computer
control.
Milling Cutters
Milling Operations - 4th axis
• The addition of a 4th axis greatly expands the
machining possibilities of a 3-axis mill.
• The 4th axis is usually in the form of a rotary
table, either set up parallel with the x-axis or
parallel with the z-axis.
Milling - Rotary Table
www.lathemaster.com
www.jjjtrain.com
Milling – Multi-axis Rotary
•For higher production,

rotary tables can be ganged
together
•Others offer 2-axis of
rotation to give access to
additional surfaces
Manufacturing engineering, SME Aug. 2006, p139

Milling - rotary table vertical
www.fox302.com/magclamps.jpg www.mdaprecision.com
Milling - rotary table horizontal
www.mdaprecision.com www.precisionscalereplicas.com
Milling - clock making
www.orologeria.com
Machining - difficult shapes CNC
www.allistool.com www.haas.com
Milling - 5-axis mills CNC
www.formcoplastics.com

Mill-Turn Centers
Highly automated machine tool that can perform
turning, milling, and drilling operations
• General configuration of a turning center
• Can position a cylindrical workpart at a specified
angle so a rotating cutting tool (e.g., milling
cutter) can machine features into outside surface
of part
– Conventional turning center cannot stop workpart at a defined
angular position and does not include rotating tool spindles
Operation of Mill-Turn Center
Operation of a mill-turn center: (a) example part with turned, milled, and drilled
surfaces; and (b) sequence of operations on a mill-turn center: (1) turn second
diameter, (2) mill flat with part in programmed angular position, (3) drill hole with
part in same programmed position, and (4) cutoff.

Shaping and Planing
• Similar operations
• Both use a single point cutting tool moved
linearly relative to the workpart
• A straight, flat surface is created in both operations

• Interrupted cutting
– Subjects tool to impact loading when entering work
• Low cutting speeds due to start-and-stop motion
• Typical tooling: single point high speed steel tools
Shaper
Figure 22.30 Components of a shaper.

Shaping
• L= stroke length N = stroke per minute
• C =cutting time ratio(cutting time/total time)
• S = number of strokes W = width of work

• f = feed T= total time
Planer
Figure 22.31 Open side planer.

Planing

BROACHING

Broaching
• Moves a multiple tooth cutting tool linearly relative
to work in direction of tool axis
Advantages:
• Good surface finish
• Close tolerances
• Variety of work shapes
possible
Cutting tool called a broach
• Owing to complicated and
often custom-shaped
geometry, tooling is
expensive
Broaching
• Broaching is the process of removing
metal with a tool which has “teeth”
arranged in a row.
• Each tooth is successively higher than the
previous tooth and removes more
material.
• In broaching, one stroke or cycle of the
machine produces a finished part. •
• Broaching is used to produce both
internal and external features.
• Production rates are high and
tolerances of +/- .0005” are possible. •

Internal Broaching
• Performed on internal surface of a hole

• A starting hole must be present in the part
to insert broach at beginning of stroke
Figure 22.34 Work shapes that can be cut by internal broaching;

cross-hatching indicates the surfaces broached.

Broaching
Advantages & Disadvantages
– Advantages
• Rough to finish in one pass
• Production rates are high
• Cutting time is quick
• Rapid load and unload of parts
• External and internal features
• Any form that can be produced on
a broaching tool can be produced
• Production tolerances are excellent
• Surface finishes are equal to
milling
• Required operator skill is low •
Advantages & Disadvantages
– Disadvantages
• Tooling cost can be high
• In some cases--not suited for low
production rates
• Parts to be broached must be
strong enough to withstand the
forces of the process
• Surface to be broached must be
accessible •
Sawing
• Cuts narrow slit in work by a tool consisting of
a series of narrowly spaced teeth
• Tool called a saw blade
• Typical functions:
– Separate a workpart into two pieces
– Cut off unwanted portions of part
Machines Classifications
• Circular saws
• circular saw – rotating saw
blade provides continuous
motion of tool past workpart
– Sometimes called cold sawing
machines
– Saw blades are large and
rotate at low rpms
– Cutting is similar to a milling
operation due to geometry of
saw blade •
Bandsaw (vertical) –
linear continuous
• Band saws motion of bandsaw
– Irregular shapes blade, which is in the
– Very versatile form of an endless
– Profile cuts flexible loop with
– Internal cuts teeth on one edge
– external configurations •
power hacksaw –linear
reciprocating motion of hacksaw
blade against work
• Reciprocating saws
– Horizontal hacksaw and vertical
sawing machines
– Light to heavy duty
– Simple and most economical to
operate
– Manual to fully automatic feed
mechanisms
– Uses blades similar to hacksaw
blades •
SAWING

High Speed Machining (HSM)
Cutting at speeds significantly higher than those
used in conventional machining operations
• Persistent trend throughout history of
machining is higher and higher cutting speeds
• At present there is a renewed interest in HSM
due to potential for faster production rates,
shorter lead times, and reduced costs
High Speed Machining
Conventional vs. high speed machining
Indexable tools (face mills)
Work material Conventional High speed

speed
m/min ft/min m/min ft/min
Aluminum 600+ 2000+ 3600+ 12,000
+
Cast iron, soft 360 1200 1200 4000
Cast iron, 250 800 900 3000
ductile
Steel, alloy 210 700 360 1200
Source: Kennametal Inc.
Other HSM Definitions – DN Ratio
DN ratio = bearing bore diameter (mm)
multiplied by maximum spindle speed
(rev/min)
• For high speed machining, typical DN ratio is
between 500,000 and 1,000,000
• Allows larger diameter bearings to fall within
HSM range, even though they operate at
lower rotational speeds than smaller bearings
Other HSM Definitions – HP/RPM Ratio
hp/rpm ratio = ratio of horsepower to maximum
spindle speed
• Conventional machine tools usually have a
higher hp/rpm ratio than those equipped for
HSM
• Dividing line between conventional machining
and HSM is around 0.005 hp/rpm
• Thus, HSM includes 15 hp spindles that can
rotate at 30,000 rpm (0.0005 hp/rpm)
Other HSM Definitions
• Emphasis on:
– Higher production rates
– Shorter lead times
– Rather than functions of spindle speed
• Important non-cutting factors:
– Rapid traverse speeds
– Automatic tool changes
Requirements for High Speed
Machining
• Special bearings designed for high rpm
• High feed rate capability (e.g., 50 m/min)
• CNC motion controls with “look-ahead”
features to avoid “undershooting” or
“overshooting” tool path
• Balanced cutting tools, toolholders, and
spindles to minimize vibration
• Coolant delivery systems that provide
higher pressures than conventional
machining
• Chip control and removal systems to cope
with much larger metal removal rates
High Speed Machining Applications
• Aircraft industry, machining of large
airframe components from large
aluminum blocks
– Much metal removal, mostly by milling
• Multiple machining operations on
aluminum to produce automotive,
computer, and medical components
– Quick tool changes and tool path control
important
• Die and mold industry
– Fabricating complex geometries from hard
materials

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MACHINING OPERATIONS AND

Many of this lecture slides are adopted from the

• Rotational - cylindrical or disk-like shape

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Figure 22.4 Combination of forming and generating to create shape: (a)

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

•Variations of turning performed on a lathe:

across the workpiece

into the workpiece

•Turning – used for Close-up view of a

Tool is fed radially inward

• Facing – process used to “square off” the end of a shaft

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

 Used to part (cut off) a part from the main stock.

Kalpakjian – Manufacturing Engineering

•Drilling can be accomplished by holding a drill

Groover – pages 516, 517

• Tapering can be acomplished in a number of ways:

• Feed is typically a given distance per

where: fr is the feedrate

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

• Turning typically involves roughing procedures followed by a

 Chip cross-sectional Area = f d

You wish to turn a workpiece made of 1118 steel, with a Brinell

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

• The volumetric material removal rate is given as:

where: Df is the final diameter

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

• Work holding device should be made in size to match the

 Hold parts with irregular

(d) face plate for non-cylindrical workparts

 Engine Lathes is a generic term

 Uses chuck in its spindle to hold workpart

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Figure 22.12 A vertical boring mill – for large, heavy workparts.

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

Figure 21.3 (b) drilling

Holes drilled into bicycle

– Margin-Narrow raised section of the body.

• Feed (in/rev or in/min) (Rpm × in/rev)

Two hole types: (a) through-hole, and (b) blind hole.

where: fr is the feedrate

Kalpakjian – Manufacturing Engineering

• Drill bits will give roughly round holes, for

Step 3 Tapping with tap

• Provides a stepped hole, in which a larger

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

• Radial arm drill presses allows

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

• Multi-tooth milling bits cut

• Peripheral milling (also called as plain milling)

(a) slab milling

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover,

• Slitting Form or Shape Milling