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Received: 20 September 2021 Revised: 23 November 2021 Accepted: 25 November 2021
DOI: 10.1111/rge.12283

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

A new orogenic gold belt in Southeast Asia: Geology,

mineralogy and genesis of the Vangtat gold deposit,
Southeastern Laos

Patthana Bounliyong1 | Antonio Arribas2 | Yasushi Watanabe1 |

Takuya Echigo1 | Henry Wong3

1
Graduate School of International
Resource Sciences, Akita University,
Akita, Japan
2
Department of Earth, Environmental and
Resource Sciences, The University of
Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas, USA
3
Geology Department, Joint Assessment
and Development Exploration Co., Ltd,
Pakse, Laos
Correspondence
Patthana Bounliyong, Graduate School of
International Resource Sciences, Akita
University, 1-1 Tegata Gakuen, Akita
010-8502, Japan.
Email: to.geology@gmail.com
Funding information
JICA
Abstract
The Vangtat deposit is the major gold deposit in a new orogenic gold belt dis-
covered and developed in southeastern Laos in the past two decades. Our study
of the Vangtat orogenic gold deposit shows that it formed within a convergent
margin along the western segment of the Poko suture zone, which marks the
collision between the Indochina Terrane and the Kontum Massif. Shear struc-
ture and greenschist facies metamorphic rocks are the main hosts for gold
mineralization in the Vangtat deposit. High-grade gold-bearing quartz-sulfide
veins and wall rock hydrothermal alteration are genetically related, and alter-
ation minerals consist of quartz, carbonate, graphite, white mica, chlorite, and
pyrite. The study of fluid inclusions and wall rock alteration assemblages indi-
cate that the Vangtat gold deposit was formed by an aqueous-carbonic, low
salinity, reduced, weakly alkaline to near-neutral pH fluid, mainly composed
of H2O, NaCl, CO2, CH4, N2, H2S, H2, O2, Si, and K. Gold was predominantly
carried as a sulfide complex. The precipitation of gold is related to wall rock
sulfidation and the further reduction with the carbon-bearing host rock. The
correlation between trapping temperature obtained from arsenopyrite geo-
thermometry (360–395
C) and homogenization temperature obtained from
primary fluid inclusion microthermometry (240–250
C), indicates a pressure
and depth range for the Vangtat deposit of 380–420 MPa and 11–13 km,
respectively. Gold appears as inclusions mainly in pyrite, and auriferous pyrite
is homogeneous in textural, chemical, and sulfur isotopic composition. Aurif-
erous pyrite δ34S values range from +4 to +6‰, which is compatible with the
δ34S composition of igneous rocks. Together with cobalt/nickel ratios from the
Vangtat auriferous pyrite, which are significantly greater than one (avg. 6.3),
we suggest that mafic-ultramafic rocks in the geologic basement of the Vangtat
deposit are the plausible source of hydrothermal gold and sulfur. The forma-
tion of this orogenic gold deposit is associated with metamorphic dehydration
and devolatilization that transported gold to the site of deposition.

Resource Geology. 2022;72:e12283. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/rge © 2021 Society of Resource Geology. 1 of 22

https://doi.org/10.1111/rge.12283

2 of 22
KEYWORDS
greenschist facies gold, orogenic gold, shear zone mineralization, southeastern Laos,
Vangtat
1 | INTRODUCTION
Orogenic gold deposits form a widespread, coherent
group of epigenetic ore deposits that occur along conver-
gent margins and involve terrane accretion, translation,
or collision, during a later stage of regional metamor-
phism and magmatism within an orogenic belt (Groves
et al., 1998, 2003; Kerrich et al., 2000; Goldfarb
et al., 2001). Regional tectonic structures and greenschist-
facies metamorphic rocks are the main host for orogenic
gold mineralization and provide the main control on
deposit distribution (Groves, 1993; Kerrich et al., 2000;
Goldfarb et al., 2005). Gold mineralization in this envi-
ronment commonly occurs over a range of crustal depths
in association with deep-seated, aqueous-carbonic, low-
salinity fluids which transport gold as sulfide complexes
(McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998; Hagemann and
Cassidy, 2000; Goldfarb and Groves, 2015).
Mainland Southeast Asia is composed of a collage of
large continental blocks, including the Indochina, South
China, and Sibumasu terranes (Figure 1; Metcalfe, 1998,
2002). Precious- and base-metal deposits in Southeast
Asia are mainly found along the boundaries of the differ-
ent terranes and internal domains, such as the Truong
Son and Loei fold belts (Figure 1). Within the northern
and eastern regions of the Indochina Terrane several gold
deposits have been discovered and developed: the Song
Hien sediment-hosted gold deposits in NE Vietnam,
located in the western part of the South China Terrane
close to the northeastern margin on the Indochina
Terrane (Tran et al., 2016; Nevolko et al., 2017); distal dis-
seminated, sediment-hosted gold deposits associated with
skarn (and porphyry) mineralization in the Sepon Cu-
Au-Mo district (Smith et al., 2005; Cannell and
Smith, 2008; Cromie et al., 2018); and the Phuoc Son and
Bong Mieu orogenic gold deposits in central Vietnam
(Manaka, 2014, unpublished data; Tran et al., 2014). This
paper presents a study of a new gold belt that has been
discovered recently in the Vangtat region of southeastern
Laos (Figures 1, 2).
A recent radiometric dating study by Bounliyong
et al. (2021) estimated the age of gold mineralization in
the Vangtat district at ~200 Ma. This age is comparable
to the age of the Phuoc Son and Bong Mieu deposits
(250–200 Ma; Manaka, 2014, unpublished data; Tran
et al., 2014) which are located approximately 100 km to
the east of the Vangtat (Figure 1). The broad timing of
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BOUNLIYONG ET AL.
this regional gold mineralization event corresponds to
late- to post-collisional orogenic and metamorphic activ-
ity in the Indosinian orogeny (Lepvrier et al., 2004, 2008;
Osanai et al., 2008; Bounliyong et al., 2021). In this study,
we characterize gold mineralization in the Vangtat dis-
trict based on the geology, mineralogy, geochemistry of
the Vangtat deposit, and propose a conventional orogenic
gold genetic model for the deposit and district.
2 | EXPLORATION AND
DISCOVERY HISTORY
The presence of alluvial gold in the Vangtat region of
southeastern Laos was known to local inhabitants for
over a century. Organized artisanal mining in the area
commenced in the early 2000s with miners engaged in
alluvial and hard-rock gold mining in the vicinity of the
current Vangtat gold mine. The proximity to the interna-
tional border with Vietnam and the use of heavy equip-
ment and chemical processing to extract gold
(e.g., mercury, cyanide) brought the area to the attention
of the Laos Ministry of National Defense.
Initial regional geological mapping and mineral
assessment were conducted in 2006 by geologists from
the Geological Survey of Japan and the Department of
Geology, Laos, under an international cooperation pro-
ject (Vilayhack et al., 2008). A 1:200,000 scale geological
map was produced and alluvial resources of up to a few
grams per ton of gold in average in stream sediment sam-
ples, as well as several occurrences of gold bearing
quartz-sulfide veins, were recognized (Vilayhack
et al., 2008). Soon after, the Vangtat area was recognized
as having high potential for gold mineralization at a
regional scale.
In 2007, the Viet-Lao Joint Stock Company Ltd, in
cooperation with the Laos Ministry of National Defense,
started an alluvial and hard-rock gold exploration pro-
gram in the current Vangtat gold mine area. An explora-
tion license of 219 km2 was granted to the Viet-Lao
cooperation project, and detailed geological, geochemical,
geophysical, and drilling programs were conducted. In
2012, the company received a license for gold mining and
production at Vangtat. During this time (early 2010s),
several additional small-scale mining centers sprung up
in the district, including the Thongkai-Ok and Xekong
areas north of the Vangtat deposit (Figure 2).
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BOUNLIYONG ET AL. 3 of 22

Initial hard-rock mining in the Vangtat deposit
started with shallow pits and short underground drives
within the near-surface oxidation zone, typically down to
less than 50 m (Figure 3a,b,c). The operation focused on
the extraction of oxidized ore for crushing and gold
extraction in nearby processing plants. The main ore type
was coarse-grained gold liberated by weathering and oxi-
dation of primary microparticulate gold encapsulated in
sulfide minerals. This relatively coarse free-gold was
extracted from the crushed ore, partly via gravity settling
and partly via mercury amalgamation, as well as heap
leaching. No data are available for ore-grade, reserve ton-
nage, or gold production from the supergene gold.
By 2016, open-pit mining had reached the top of the
unoxidized zone (Figure 3a). Mining ceased temporarily,
but soon exploration drilling intersected a series of aurif-
erous sulfide-bearing quartz veins. In addition, other
prospects located south of the Vangtat deposit
(e.g., Gieng Dat; Figure 2) were discovered, and a ~3 km
long extension to the north of the primary ore zone at the

F I G U R E 1 Main
lithotectonic terranes and
domains of mainland Southeast
Asia, and their associated metal
deposits (modified from Nakano
et al., 2007 and Lepvrier
et al., 2008). Abbreviations:
DBPF, Dien Bien Phu fault;
NSZ, Nan suture zone; PKSZ,
Poko suture zone; RRF, Red
River fault; SCF, Song ca fault;
SMSZ, Song ma suture zone;
TKPSSZ, Tam Ky-Phuoc son
suture zone. Metal deposits
1: Song Hien (au); 2: Ban Huay
Xai (au-ag); 3: Phu Kham
(cu-au); 4: Phu Lon (cu-au); 5:
Phu Thap fa (au); 6: Phu Thep
(cu-au); 7: Sepon (cu-au); 8:
Chatree (au-ag); 9: Phuoc son
(au); 10: Bong Mieu (au); 11:
Xekong (au); 12: Vangtat (au);
13: Cong Yong (cu-au); 14:
Sanxay (Pb-Zn)
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BOUNLIYONG ET AL.

Vilayhack et al., 2008) showing the distribution of metals deposit. Although the boundaries of the Vangtat shear zone are not well defined,
F I G U R E 2 Simplified geological map of the north–south Vangtat shear zone in the southeastern region of Laos (modified from

they are approximately in between two yellow dashed lines

4 of 22

BOUNLIYONG ET AL.
Vangtat deposit was indicated (Figure 4a,b). At present,
Vangtat Mining (the new name of the resident company)
is expanding its exploration and mining activities
(Figure 3c) and building a gold processing plant for
recovering sulfide ore via flotation followed by the
roasting of sulfide concentrate.
3 | B ACKGROUND GEOLOGY
3.1 | Regional geology
The Kontum Massif in central Vietnam is mainly com-
posed of granulite, amphibolite, and greenschist facies
metamorphic complexes (United Nations, 1990), rep-
resenting a core complex of the Indochina Terrane
(Hutchison, 1989). The north–south trending Poko suture
zone marks the collision between the western edge of the
Kontum Massif and the eastern extension of the Indo-
china Terrane (Figure 1). The Poko suture zone, which
hosts the Vangtat deposit, extends for >30 km from the
western limit of the Kontum Massif (Lepvrier et al., 2004).
The Vangtat shear zone is one of the main subsidiary
structures associated with the Poko suture zone (Figures 1,
2). It is hosted by early- to mid-Paleozoic metamorphic
rocks including Cambrian-Ordovician mica-schist, slate,
sandstone, and quartzite and Ordovician-Silurian green-
schist, pelitic schist, psammitic schist, quartzite, and quartz
arenite (Figure 2; Vilayhack et al., 2008). These metamor-
phic rocks are similar to those in low-grade metamorphic
complexes of the Kontum Massif and are interpreted to
have been deformed and metamorphosed during the
Indosinian orogenic event (Lepvrier et al., 2004; Osanai
et al., 2008). The metamorphic rocks within the Vangtat
shear zone are strongly sheared with north-northwest and
north–south striking schistosity, and commonly contain
asymmetrically deformed boudins indicative of right-lat-
eral, strike-slip shearing.
The Vangtat shear zone and associated regional meta-
morphic units are the main hosts for several recently dis-
covered gold deposits and prospects, including Gieng
Dat, Vangtat, and Thongkai-Ok (Figure 2). These
deposits line up for ~15 km along strike. Evidence for
gold mineralization at a wider regional scale is provided
by the Xekong gold deposit which appears to be hosted
by a sub-parallel north–south trending structural corridor
10 km to the northeast of the Vangtat shear zone
(Figure 2).
To the west of the Vangtat shear zone, mineralization
character changes to poorly documented base-metal
(gold) skarn and porphyry type deposits associated with
intrusive rocks (Figure 2) with a wide range of ages,
between 485 and 250 Ma (Sanematsu et al., 2011; Wang
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5 of 22
et al., 2020). Preliminary geochemical data on these igne-
ous rocks suggest a subduction-related island arc envi-
ronment with an adakitic signature (Sanematsu
et al., 2011; Gardner et al., 2017). The lithological base-
ment in the Vangtat region is of possible Precambrian
age and consists of scattered outcrops of mafic-ultramafic
rocks (Vilayhack et al., 2008).
3.2 | Geology of the Vangtat deposit
The lithological units around the Vangtat deposit, as well
as other hard-rock (primary) gold deposits within the
Vangtat shear zone, are covered by a thick (~up to 50 m)
weathering/oxidation blanket. Within the gold minerali-
zation area, this supergene activity led to the
remobilization of primary gold and the concentration of
secondary gold in surficial detrital sediments. Therefore,
this study of the host geology and associated gold miner-
alization at Vangtat is based on an open pit and drill core
examination. Two main country rocks in the Vangtat
deposit are found; the lower unit is made up of meta-
gabbro and the upper unit is composed of pelitic schist,
slate, meta-sandstone, and quartzite (Figure 4a,b,c).
3.2.1 | Meta-gabbro
In the southern part of the Vangtat deposit, meta-gabbro is
found below a depth of 190 m in drill hole VADH017
(Figure 4b). The age of this mafic-ultramafic unit is
unknown and it is labeled as undifferentiated in the
regional scale map (Figure 2). In drill core samples, the
meta-gabbro is characterized by green color with a coarse-
grained, equigranular texture (Figure 5a). The meta-
gabbro is mainly composed of amphibole (e.g., actinolite,
tremolite, hornblende), epidote, and plagioclase, with
minor K-feldspar and trace titanite (Figure 5b). Under the
microscope, actinolite and tremolite typically show pris-
matic and fibrous texture. Massive epidote is present
together with plagioclase and K-feldspar. Chlorite and cal-
cite are also observed in areas of hydrothermal alteration
closer to the mineralization zone (Figure 5a,b).
3.2.2 | Pelitic schist
Pelitic schist occurs as large outcrops throughout the
deposit, and characterizes the regional metamorphic belt of
the Vangtat shear zone. The pelitic schist is the principal
host to the mineralized bodies, both vertically and horizon-
tally (Figure 4a,b). This unit is made up of foliated musco-
vite and chlorite with finely interlayered quartz and

6 of 22
plagioclase (Figure 5c,d), and it has a distinct schistose tex-
ture as a result of the intense deformation, foliation and
metamorphism of a sedimentary protolith (Figure 5c).
Calcite, dolomite, epidote, and K-feldspar, as well as trace
amounts of opaque minerals (i.e., pyrite, magnetite, hema-
tite), are the main mineral constituents of the pelitic schist.
Quartz, quartz-carbonate, and pyrite porphyroblasts
and mylonite are commonly observed in the pelitic schist
(Figure 5e,f). The porphyroblasts and porphyroclasts are
associated with pressure shadows, which are formed by the
foliated muscovite and chlorite enclosing quartz and pyrite
(Figure 5e,f). The presence of fine-grained (<200 μm)
euhedral pyrite crystals along the foliated metamorphic
chlorite and muscovite (Figure 5d,f), indicates that pyrite
crystallized and was deformed during the regional meta-
morphism. The schistosity of the pelitic schist is cut by later
thin quartz and carbonate veins (Figure 5c).
The pelitic schist also contains a minor amount
(<1 vol%) of carbonaceous, graphitic material which is fre-
quently found as a dark material interleaved in the foliated
texture of chlorite-muscovite. This graphitic material likely
originated as detrital fragments that were dispersed
through the sediment. The amount of graphite increases
F I G U R E 3 (a) Ground view of the current Vangtat mine showing initial mining has occurred on the weathering (oxidation) zone, and
primary sulfide ore lies immediately below the oxidation level; (b) short underground typical of the initial mining; (c) aerial view of the
Vangtat mine in 2018
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BOUNLIYONG ET AL.
toward the strongly sheared deformation zones. The
graphite layers appear segregated and deformed; together
with the foliation defined by metamorphic chlorite and
muscovite, graphite appears folded and host to micro-
shears (Figure 5g). This observation suggests graphite
transformation took place during regional metamorphism.
3.2.3 | Slate, meta-sandstone, and quartzite
Slate, meta-sandstone, and quartzite (Figure 6a) overlie
the pelitic schist and occupy the eastern part of the
Vangtat gold deposit (Figure 4a,c). Slate is composed of
fine-grained particles including carbonaceous materials;
slate is characterized by well-developed cleavage and foli-
ation and is occasionally cut by barren pyrite-bearing
quartz-veins (Figure 6b). The meta-sandstone is mainly
composed of recrystallized quartz grains in a matrix of
quartz and white mica (Figure 6c) with trace amounts of
disseminated pyrite. Quartzite is massive in texture and
made up of recrystallized quartz grains with a minor
amount of iron-oxide occurring along with the grain
boundaries of quartz crystals (Figure 6d).
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BOUNLIYONG ET AL. 7 of 22

F I G U R E 4 (a) Geological map of the Vangtat gold deposit area showing host lithologic units and gold mineralization; (b) schematic
cross-section through the Vangtat ore body (modified from Bounliyong et al., 2021); and (c) the stratigraphic column and distribution of gold
grade in the Vangtat deposit; red solid line: Major gold; red dashed line: Minor gold

4 | ANALYTICAL METHODS AND diffraction, and qualitative characterization of the wall

MATERIALS
This research focused on field investigations in open-pits
of the Vangtat deposit and core logging and sampling of
12 selected drill holes representative of the Vangtat min-
eralized belt along a ~ 3 km strike length (Figure 4a). For
this research, the following studies were conducted at
Akita University: a) petrographic observation, X-ray
rock lithologies and ore and gangue minerals, b) ore min-
eral chemistry, with a focus on pyrite, gold, and co-
existing pyrite-arsenopyrite, c) fluid inclusion petrogra-
phy and microthermometry in auriferous vein quartz
samples, d) laser Raman spectroscopy analysis for the
estimation temperature of graphite transformation and
the identified gaseous composition of fluid inclusions,
and e) sulfur isotope analyses of auriferous pyrite. The

8 of 22
analytical techniques used in these studies are standard
and their details are described in Data S1. Detailed ana-
lytical results are presented in Data S2 (Table B–F).
5 | G OL D M IN E R A LI Z A T I ON
Economic gold mineralization at the Vangtat deposit
extends continuously for almost 3 km along strike
(Figure 4a). The auriferous orebodies occur within the
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BOUNLIYONG ET AL.
heavily sheared zone, most commonly within the pelitic
schist. Gold orebodies rarely occur within slate or meta-
sandstone. The dominant form of gold mineralization is
quartz veining, in which gold is present next to and
within sulfides, predominantly pyrite. A minor amount
of gold-bearing pyrite is found in the graphite-carbonate
rich zone which forms an envelope around the veins
(Figure 4a,b) and grades into the less-altered pelitic
schist. The north–south trending gold-mineralized zones
(e.g., veins and graphite-carbonate alteration envelope)
F I G U R E 5 (a) Hand specimen
photo showing a coarse-grained and
equigranular texture of meta-gabbro;
(b) photomicrograph showing the
mineral assemblage of meta-gabbro;
(c) drill core photo showing the typical
schistose texture of pelitic schist;
(d) photomicrograph showing the
foliation and orientation of muscovite
with finely interlayer quartz and
plagioclase; the porphyroblastic texture
and an associated pressure shadow of
quartz (e) and pyrite (f) boudins were
enclosed by lineation and foliation of
muscovite and chlorite; (g) deformation
and folding of segregated graphite layer
associated with metamorphic chlorite-
muscovite (mineral abbreviations in
Table A, Data S2)

BOUNLIYONG ET AL.
are commonly deformed and folded, and cut by east–west
and northeast-southwest faults (Figure 4a), resulting in
discontinuous segments of mineralized quartz veins. A
key element in understanding the processes that lead to
gold mineralization at Vangtat is the study of wall-rock
alteration associated with the hydrothermal fluids that
precipitated gold.
5.1 | Hydrothermal alteration
Wall rock alteration in the Vangtat deposit is closely
associated spatially with the shear zone; the hydrother-
mal alteration zone extends laterally for tens to hun-
dreds of meters beyond the ore-grade rock. The
resulting alteration assemblages reflect the wall rock
lithology: meta-gabbro in the lower portion of the
Vangtat deposit and pelitic schist in the upper portion.
The most prominent feature of the hydrothermal alter-
ation that accompanies gold mineralization is the
graphite-carbonate zone that occurs as an alteration
halo surrounding the mineralized quartz-pyrite veins
(Figure 4a,b).
5.1.1 | Hydrothermally altered meta-gabbro
Actinolite, tremolite, epidote, and plagioclase are the
major components of the meta-gabbro; the presence or
absence of minerals in this assemblage reflects the
degree of alteration of the meta-gabbro. Partially altered
meta-gabbro is found in the bottom of drill hole
VADH017 (from 190 m downward; Figure 4b) and is
characterized by randomly oriented aggregates of chlo-
rite and calcite replacing actinolite in its crystal margins
(Figure 7a). Above this depth (up to 150 m depth), close
to the core of the shear zone, which is marked by
pelitic schist and quartz-sulfide vein, the meta-gabbro is
completely altered and the original rock texture is
partly destroyed; the mineral assemblage within the
meta-gabbro changed to chlorite, calcite, dolomite, qua-
rtz, talc, and muscovite (Figure 7b,c,d). No gold or sul-
fide is observed in the hydrothermally altered meta-
gabbro.
5.1.2 | Hydrothermally altered pelitic schist
The pelitic schist occupies the center of the shear zone and
is commonly hydrothermally altered. The alteration min-
erals in the pelitic schist are for the most part the same
major silicate minerals present in the metamorphosed rock
(i.e., chlorite, muscovite, quartz, and plagioclase). When
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9 of 22
hydrothermally altered, the pelitic schist presents minor
but noticeable amounts of pyrite, titanite, rutile, ilmenite,
hematite, magnetite, and barite. Consequently, the hydro-
thermal alteration feature of the pelitic schist is subtle and
difficult to distinguish in hand specimens or outcrop.
The evidence for hydrothermal alteration of the
pelitic schist host consists of: a) muscovite replacement
of plagioclase (i.e., albite) along crystal margins and
within micro-fissures (Figure 7e); unlike the muscovite of
metamorphic origin this generation of muscovite is ran-
domly oriented and not foliated; b) the presence of
chromium-mica (fuchsite; Figure 7f); and, c) a marked
increase in the amount of pyrite present (Figure 7g).
Pyrite is an accessory mineral in the unaltered host
pelitic schist; the differentiation between diagenetic or
metamorphic pyrite and hydrothermal pyrite is difficult
in the marginal zones of the alteration corridor.
5.1.3 | Graphite-carbonate alteration
envelope
Graphite, calcite, dolomite, quartz, and pyrite (with a
minor amount of arsenopyrite and chalcopyrite) mark a
prominent feature of the hydrothermal alteration envelope
that surrounds the mineralized quartz veins. This mineral
assemblage locally overprints the foliated chlorite-
muscovite of the pelitic schist (Figure 8a,b). The presence
of pyrite in the graphite-carbonate alteration envelope typ-
ically indicates low-grade (avg. <1 g/t Au) ore. The abun-
dance of graphite in this zone is interpreted to involve the
transformation of graphite during regional metamorphism
(see above), plus additional hydrothermal graphite
remobilized by the hydrothermal fluids. Hydrothermal
graphite also occurs in cross-cutting structures, predomi-
nantly microshears, including the presence of graphite in
the quartz veins (Figure 8c,d). Pyrite and quartz-carbonate
porphyroblasts are commonly observed in the graphite-
carbonate zone, where they appear elongated and sub-
parallel to the pelitic schist foliation (Figure 8b).
5.2 | Auriferous veins
Auriferous quartz veins and strong silicification of the
host rock characterize the Vangtat deposit. To date,
both have been found over 3 km along strike
and ~200 m across (Figure 4a). Discrete quartz veins,
or the strongly silicified host rock, appear to overprint
the graphite-carbonate alteration zone. Individual veins
have a thickness of 10 cm and up to 3 m. The veins
are mainly composed of quartz and pyrite, with minor
amounts of graphite, calcite, dolomite, white mica,

10 of 22
chlorite, chalcopyrite, and arsenopyrite. Pyrite in high-
grade veins may reach up to 60 vol%, with average
mineralization grades greater than 3 g/t gold. Selected
hand specimens and drill core intercepts within these
quartz-pyrite veins can yield gold concentrations
greater than 90 g/t (Figure 8a). The vein zone includes
several fractures which are filled by quartz, calcite,
and graphite (Figure 8d). Fragments of quartz veins
are brecciated and cemented with pyrite in the silici-
fied zone (Figure 8e), and boudinaged within the
shear zone.
5.3 | Ore mineralogy
Pyrite is the most common sulfide mineral in the Vangtat
deposit. Abundant pyrite is commonly found in association
with gold mineralization, and the presence and abundance
of pyrite is an important indicator of the most gold-
mineralized rock in the Vangtat district. As a rule, pyrite
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BOUNLIYONG ET AL.
F I G U R E 6 (a) Outcrop photo of
slate, meta-sandstone, and quartzite in
the eastern rim of the Vangtat deposit;
(b) well-developed cleavage and
foliation of slate were cut by barren
quartz-pyrite vein; (c) photomicrograph
of meta-sandstone showing the
recrystallized quartz grains in the matrix
of quartz and white mica;
(d) photomicrograph of quartzite
showing the compact texture of quartz
and the iron oxide precipitated along the
grain boundaries (mineral abbreviations
in Table A, Data S2)
content decreases consistently with gold concentration,
from the quartz-sulfide vein zone at the center of the
Vangtat shear zone toward the altered host rocks in the
margins (Figure 8a). Pyrite in the vein zone and graphite-
carbonate alteration envelope presents a wide range in
grain size, from ~300 μm up to a few centimeters. The
finer-grained pyrite (<500 μm) commonly has a euhedral
shape, while the coarser-grained pyrite crystals are
anhedral to subhedral (Figure 9a). Disseminated pyrite in
the altered pelitic schist is relatively finer-grained, generally
ranging from a few tens of microns up to a few hundreds
of microns; typically, it has a euhedral shape. Under the
microscope, Vangtat pyrite appears uniform, with a homo-
geneous texture and rare evidence of zoning. Only a few
grains of pyrite in the veins displayed overgrowths texture,
with a porous core and compact rims (Figure 9b).
Chalcopyrite and arsenopyrite likely precipitated
together with pyrite, but have a more restricted distribution
than pyrite; chalcopyrite and arsenopyrite are typically
found in the most intensely altered part of the shear zone,
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BOUNLIYONG ET AL. 11 of 22

particularly in quartz veins. Arsenopyrite is intimately
related to pyrite and the abundance of arsenopyrite consis-
tently corresponds to the presence of pyrite. Arsenopyrite
appears mainly as microscopic inclusions in pyrite and is
rarely recognized in hand samples. Individual arsenopyrite
crystals present a wide size range, from tens of microns up
to a few hundreds of microns, and are anhedral to euhedral
in shape (Figure 9c). Chalcopyrite, as well as arsenopyrite,
are not observed in the host pelitic schist. Other sulfide
minerals such as sphalerite, galena, unidentified Bi-sulfide,
and pyrrhotite are present as small (avg. ~30 μm) anhedral
grains and as inclusion in pyrite; they could be found only
under the microscope (Figure 9d). Native gold typically
appears together with sulfides, mainly as inclusions in
pyrite and along pyrite crystal boundaries (Figure 9a,e,f).
Gold is also found in chalcopyrite and with unidentified
Bi-sulfide (Figure 9g,h).
5.4 | Mineral paragenesis
The gold mineralization at Vangtat is closely associated
with a shear zone which affected the pelitic schist host
unit and created permeable zones for hydrothermal activ-
ity and associated gold deposition. Therefore, the
sequence marked by metamorphic minerals, minerals
associated with deformation, and minerals formed during
hydrothermal alteration and mineralization captures the
key elements of the paragenetic sequence of the Vangtat
gold deposit. The paragenetic sequence of gold minerali-
zation in the Vangtat deposit is summarized in Figure 10,
as follows: a) a shear zone that cuts across the host pelitic
schist marks a favorable site for fluid flow and potential
precipitation, b) a graphite-carbonate alteration envelope
forms in the early stages of mineralization, and c) quartz-
pyrite veins represent the main gold mineralization stage.
6 | MINERAL C HEMISTRY
6.1 | Temperature of graphite
transformation
Laser Raman spectroscopy was used to measure the
degree of graphite transformation in the Vangtat host
rock and estimate the temperature of metamorphic
grade. The first-order region of Raman spectra of
graphite-bearing host pelitic schist from the Vangtat
deposit showed higher intensity of the disordered or
defect “D” band compared to the fully ordered graphite
“G” band (Figure 11a). “Peak Fit 4.2” software was used
to place the hidden peaks (e.g., D2, D3, D4; Figure 11b),

FIGURE 7
(a) Photomicrograph showing
chlorite and calcite replaced
actinolite in its crystal margin,
which indicates the partially
altered metagabbro;
(b)–(d) hand specimen photos of
completely altered metagabbro
showing its hydrothermal
alteration mineral assemblage
within the modification of
original rock texture;
(e) photomicrograph showing
hydrothermal muscovite
replacing albite in its crystal
margins and micro fissure;
(f) hand specimen photo
showing the presence of Cr-mica
along the lineation of muscovite
in the pelitic schist; (g) the
dissemination of pyrite in the
pelitic schist (mineral
abbreviations in Table A,
Data S2)

12 of 22
and estimate their parameters (the results are summa-
rized in Data S2, Table B). Using the equation of Beyssac
et al. (2002), the estimated temperature of graphite trans-
formation for the host rocks of the Vangtat gold deposit
ranges between 347 and 407
C (Figure 11a; Data S2,
Table B). This temperature range is consistent with the
major mineral assemblage of the pelitic schist, which
consists of chlorite, muscovite, quartz, and plagioclase,
suggesting that graphite-bearing pelitic schist had trans-
formed under greenschist facies metamorphic grade.
6.2 | Pyrite chemistry
Pyrite is the most abundant sulfide mineral in the
Vangtat deposit and represents the main mineral host for
gold mineralization. Auriferous pyrite in the Vangtat
deposit is homogenous in texture and its chemical com-
position is consistent; likewise, trace and impurity ele-
ment contents in pyrite are uniformly low, most
commonly less than 1 wt% (see Data S2, Table C). The
iron and sulfur content measured in Vangtat pyrite varies
between 44.6 and 46.2 wt% iron (avg. = 45.5 wt% Fe) and
51.9–55.0 wt% sulfur (avg. 53.5 wt% S; Data S2, Table C).
Arsenic is a common substitution element for sulfur
in pyrite (Blanchard et al., 2007), an average of
3,500 ppm arsenic that reached up to 9,520 ppm arsenic
was measured at Vangtat pyrite (Data S2, Table C). Gold
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BOUNLIYONG ET AL.
was below the detection limit of the electron microprobe
analysis. Based on our observations, we believe that most
of the gold in the Vangtat deposit occurs as particle grain
inclusions in pyrite (visible gold), rather than in solid
solution in the pyrite crystal structure.
Cobalt and nickel are common impurity metals in
pyrite, which are easily incorporated into the mineral lat-
tice (Morse and Luther Iii, 1999; Large et al., 2009).
Cobalt is an abundant trace element in Vangtat pyrite,
with an average concentration of 1,100 ppm and up to
11,960 ppm cobalt; nickel content is lower than that of
cobalt, with an average of 850 ppm and a maximum of
2,180 ppm nickel, commonly nickel values were below
the detection limit (~100 ppm Ni). The cobalt to nickel
ratio from eleven selected samples ranges from 0.4 to
36.2, with an average of 6.3 (Data S2, Table C). The con-
centrations of lead, mercury, copper, zinc, and cadmium
in Vangtat pyrite reached hundreds of ppm; whereas ele-
ments such as selenium, tellurium, chromium, bismuth,
gold, silver, and antimony were typically below the detec-
tion limit (Data S2, Table C).
6.3 | Arsenopyrite chemistry and
geothermometry
Arsenopyrite in the Vangtat mineralized quartz veins
occurs with pyrite, as inclusions, and along pyrite crystal
F I G U R E 8 (a) Drill core
photo showing high grade gold
occurs in the quartz-suflide vein,
surrounded by the graphite-
carbonate rich zone
accompanied with lower-grade
gold; hand specimen photos
showing (b) graphite-carbonate-
quartz-pyrite overprinted the
foliated chlorite-muscovite in
the pelitic schist; (c) the
dominant of graphite
accompanying pyrite in the
microshear occurs cross-cutting
pelitic schist; (d) the fractures of
quartz-sulfide vein have filled by
graphite and calcite;
(e) fragments of quartz in the
vein are cemented and
brecciated with pyrite (mineral
abbreviations in Table A,
Data S2)
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BOUNLIYONG ET AL. 13 of 22

boundaries (Figure 9c). The textural relations and the
coexistence of pyrite and arsenopyrite suggest equilibrium
conditions and validate the estimation of the formation
temperature of the Vangtat quartz-gold veins using the
arsenopyrite geothermometer by the equilibrium phase
relationship of the Fe-As-S system (Clark, 1960;
Kretschmar and Scott, 1976; Sharp et al., 1985). Electron
microprobe analyses of arsenopyrite yielded iron, sulfur,
and arsenic contents ranging between 33.5 and 33.9 atom%
Fe, 34.6–35.8 atom% S, and 30.7–31.5 atom% As, respec-
tively (Data S2, Table D). The range of arsenic content in
arsenopyrite plotted in the pyrite-arsenopyrite phase
diagram of the Fe-As-S system by Sharp et al. (1985)
results in a temperature range of 360–395
C (and a sulfur
fugacity range of 8.9 to 6.8) (Data S3, Figure A). We
interpret this to be a reasonable average temperature
range for the formation of the Vangtat gold veins.
6.4 | Gold chemistry
Major and trace element contents in visible gold or gold
grains were determined by microprobe analysis (Data S2,
Table E). Gold and silver contents in gold particle grains

F I G U R E 9 Photomicrographs of
ore minerals in the Vangtat deposit,
(a) various crystal sizes and shapes of
auriferous pyrite; (b) the overgrowth
texture of pyrite; (c) the coexistence of
pyrite and arsenopyrite in the
mineralized quartz-sulfide vein; (d) the
presence of other sulfide minerals
(e.g., sphalerite, galena) as inclusion in
pyrite; (e) the typical occurrence of gold
particle grains inclusion in pyrite and
gold occurs along the crystal boundaries
of pyrite (f); (g) gold incorporated with
chalcopyrite and with unidentified bi-
sulfide (h) (mineral abbreviations in
Table A, Data S2)

14 of 22
range from 87 to 94 wt% and 3 to 8 wt%, respectively; the
Au:Ag ratio ranges from 30:1 to 10:1, with an average of
15:1. Gold fineness expressed as [Au(wt%)/(Au(wt%) +
Ag(wt%)  1,000], is commonly used to characterize the
gold content of the Au-Ag alloy in hydrothermal deposits.
For instance, the gold fineness from epithermal deposits
has a large range from 302 to 998, while the orogenic and
reduced intrusion-related gold deposits have similar
ranges, from 702 to 994, and 740 to 990, respectively (Liu
and Beaudoin, 2021).
Our microprobe data revealed the gold fineness of
the Vangtat deposit ranges between 915 and 969, with
an average of 929 (Data S2, Table E). High gold fine-
ness together with low silver content in gold particle
grains from the Vangtat auriferous pyrite would indi-
cate the sulfidation is the dominant of ore deposition,
in which gold will prefer sulfide ligand and deposit in
high temperature (Morrison et al., 1991; Huston
et al., 1992).
FIGURE 10 Mineralization and paragenesis of the Vangtat gold deposit along with the mineralization stage
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BOUNLIYONG ET AL.
Minor elements such as iron, copper, sulfur, bismuth,
cadmium, and mercury typically have concentrations
above the detection limit; however, other minor elements
(As, Se, Si, Pb, Te, Cr, Co, Ni, Zn, and Sb) have few mea-
surements above the detection limit (Data S2, Table E).
7 | FLUID I NCLUS I ON STUDY
To better understand the nature of the hydrothermal
fluids responsible for gold mineralization in the Vangtat
deposit, drill core (VADH017-98.00 m and
VADH018-134.6 m) and outcrop (20190424–3) samples
from mineralized quartz-sulfide veins were prepared for
a fluid inclusion study. The appearance of quartz is clo-
udy and characterized by a milky luster; commonly, qua-
rtz shows a feather texture.
Various grain sizes and textures of quartz are
observed under the microscope, including randomly

BOUNLIYONG ET AL.
distributed, fine-grained subhedral-anhedral crystals.
Locally, quartz is elongated with fine-grained crystallites
along the boundary of larger crystals. Zoning within the
quartz crystals studied is rarely observed; the growth
zonation of quartz is locally indicated as lamella texture.
Thus, fluid inclusions trapped in the lamella texture of
quartz crystals (Figure 12a) and isolated groups of fluid
inclusion are interpreted as primary fluid inclusion
assemblages (FIAs) (e.g., Roedder, 1984). These fluid
inclusions are relatively tiny in size, most commonly less
than 10 μm, and typically show an oval to oblate shape.
They are randomly oriented, individual inclusions which
are dominantly liquid-rich or two-phase liquid–vapor
inclusions with similar volumetric proportion
(Figure 12b).
Most of the larger (>20 μm) fluid inclusions are
deformed and/or adapted to irregular shapes and col-
lapsed inclusion cavities, with leakage or partial decrepi-
tation likely. The inclusions are composed of tiny newly
formed (neonate) inclusions, surrounding irregular shape
relicts of the precursor inclusions (Figure 12c), suggesting
that quartz has been weakly deformed by ductile shear-
ing after the vein formation. This texture of fluid inclu-
sions is common in hydrothermal vein systems
associated with shear zones (e.g., Diamond and
Tarantola, 2015).
Most of the fluid inclusions found in the quartz crys-
tals of the Vangtat deposit are relatively small, thus the
measurement of temperatures (e.g., homogenization and
melting temperatures) of fluid inclusions is complicated
and in many cases the measurements were unsuccessful.
F I G U R E 1 1 (a) Representative Raman spectra of graphite-bearing pelitic schist and results of their temperature estimates;
(b) schematic illustration showing an example of decomposition of the first-order region of the Raman spectrum
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15 of 22
Nevertheless, significant FIAs were successfully studied
by microthermometry and the results are summarized in
Figure 12d,e, and Data S2, Table F. The primary FIAs
analyzed homogenized to the liquid phase, where the
vapor bubbles disappeared, and this was recorded as
homogenization temperature (Th). Although the total Th
measured in FIAs ranges widely from 190 to 325
C, a
narrow range of 240–250
C was observed for the majority
of the FIAs (Figure 12d). The liquid phase of fluid inclu-
sions became ice when they were frozen down to 90
C,
and the final melting temperature of ice was recorded for
the estimation of the salinity of fluid inclusions. Based on
the equation by Bodnar (1993), the calculated salinity of
FIAs ranges from 0.7 to 10.0 wt.% NaCl equivalent, but a
narrow range of 4–6 wt.% NaCl equivalent is observed for
the majority of FIA (Figure 12e).
Representative primary fluid inclusions were analyzed
by laser Raman spectroscopy to understand the composi-
tion of the gas phase. The results show the presence of CO2
with a minor amount of CH4, N2, and H2S (Figure 12f).
Combined, the results of microthermometry and Raman
spectrometry indicate that the essential components of the
hydrothermal fluid responsible for gold mineralization in
the Vangtat deposit are H2O, NaCl, CO2, CH4, N2, and
H2S, reflecting an aqueous-carbonic fluid system.
8 | SULFUR IS OTOPE S TUDY
Fifteen samples of pyrite from altered pelitic schist,
graphite-carbonate zone, and quartz-sulfide veins were

16 of 22
analyzed for their sulfur isotope composition and the
results are presented in Table 1. Pyrite from quartz-
sulfide veins and the graphite-carbonated alteration
envelope yield δ34S values that range between +3.8
and +7.8‰, while most data from the high-grade
(>3 g/t) gold samples are between +4 and +6‰
(Figure 13). Two hydrothermal pyrites from altered
pelitic schist show δ34S values of +1.3 and +10.7‰
(Figure 13).
9 | DISCUSSION
9.1 | Regional controls and location of
the Vangtat gold deposit
The Indochina Terrane is a major tectonic unit of main-
land Southeast Asia and is made up of several tectonic
domains, volcanic arcs, and suture zones (Charusiri
et al., 2002; Metcalfe, 2002; Lepvrier et al., 2004; Burrett
et al., 2021). The Tam Ky-Phuoc Son and Poko suture
zones mark the tectonic collision between the main part
of the Indochina Terrane and the Kontum Massif in cen-
tral Vietnam and southeastern Laos, respectively
(Figure 1; Lepvrier et al., 2004, 2008; Tran et al., 2014).
The Poko suture zone is a segmented structure,
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BOUNLIYONG ET AL.
FIGURE 12
(a) Photomicrograph showing
primary fluid inclusion
assemblages (FIAs) trapped in
the lamella texture of quartz
crystal; (b) two-phase liquid and
vapor inclusions;
(c) decrepitation of relict fluid
inclusion and was surrounded
by neonate inclusion planes; the
histogram summarized the
result of microthermometric
data from fluid inclusion
studies, homogenization
temperature (d) and salinity (e);
(f) representative of Raman
spectrum analyzed the gaseous
composition of fluid inclusions
composed of subsidiary fault zones that are traced over
tens of kilometers into its western part (Lepvrier
et al., 2004). The gold deposits of the Vangtat district are
directly associated with one of these subsidiary struc-
tures, the Vangtat shear zone. Lepvrier et al. (2004, 2008)
suggested a model involving westward dipping oceanic
subduction along the Poko suture zone during the
Permo-Triassic (Figure 14).
At the Vangtat deposit, quartz-sulfide veins mark
the core of the shear zone and represent the center of
hydrothermal fluid flow, which was responsible for
gold mineralization and the associated envelope of wall
rock alteration. Hydrothermal alteration and fluid–rock
interaction expanded laterally outwards of the main
fluid conduits, the quartz veins. The innermost alter-
ation is marked by a graphite-carbonate-quartz alter-
ation envelope. This extends laterally to the adjacent
wall rock consisting of pelitic schist and/or meta-
gabbro. In addition, the mineralogy of alteration
assemblages associated with the evolution of fluid
transected two lithologies (e.g., metagabbro in the
lower portion and pelitic schist in the upper portion)
of contrasting composition have provided a vertical
zonation and variety of alteration assemblages,
reflecting equilibrium and disequilibrium of fluid-wall
rocks interaction reaction.

BOUNLIYONG ET AL.
9.2 | Variation in alteration assemblages
and mineral paragenesis
The variation in wall rock alteration is mainly a reflec-
tion of the host-rock units and the distance away from
the veins. Fluid–rock interaction within metagabbro in
the lower portion is characterized by the reaction
between an H2O-CO2 bearing fluid and the mafic mineral
components (e.g., actinolite, tremolite) of the metagabbro
(Equation (1), (2)). The presence of chlorite and carbon-
ate as alteration products represents the hydrothermal
evolution that occurred in the greenschist facies environ-
ment (Groves, 1993).
6Ca2 Fe5 Si8 O22 ðOHÞ2 þ 12CO2 þ 14H2 O
ðActinoliteÞ ðFluidÞ
¼ 5Fe6 Si4 O10 ðOHÞ8 þ 12CaCO3 þ 28SiO2
ðChloriteÞ ðCalciteÞ ðQuartzÞ
Ca2 ðMgFeÞ5 Si8 O22 ðOHÞ2 þ 4CO2
ðTremoliteÞ ðFluidÞ
¼ Mg3 Si4 O10 ðOHÞ2 þ 2CaMgCO3 þ 4SiO2
ðTalcÞ ðDolomiteÞ ðQuartzÞ
Hydrothermally altered pelitic schist broadly marks
the site of gold deposition surrounding the gold-bearing
quartz veins. However, the alteration feature and/or the
zone of hydrothermal alteration are not too prominent,
because the hydrothermal alteration mineral assemblage
within the altered pelitic schist is mostly the same as the
silicate mineral component of unaltered rock; in other
words, the fluid was generally in equilibrium with the
host pelitic schist (e.g., greenschist facies metamorphic
rocks; Goldfarb et al., 2005). The most intensely altered
part of the pelitic schist is characterized by albite altered
to muscovite (Equation (3)), reflecting cation exchange
during fluid–rock interaction and a weakly alkaline to
near-neutral hydrothermal fluid.
3NaAlSi3 O8 þ Kþ þ 2Hþ ¼ KAl3 Si3 O10 ðOHÞ2 þ 3Naþ
ðAlbiteÞ ðFluidÞ ðMuscoviteÞ
þ 6SiO2
ðQuartzÞ
The development of chromium-mica along the foliation
texture together with muscovite is a recognizable feature
of the altered pelitic schist; chromium being possibly
derived from the mafic-ultramafic rocks known to be pre-
sent at deeper levels at Vangtat. Wang et al. (2020) identi-
fied that mafic igneous rocks in southeastern Laos, which
form the lower portion of the Vangtat deposit, have an
anomalous chromium content.
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17 of 22
The abundance of graphite in the alteration envelope
may suggest the mixing of two different fluids: a) carbon
dioxide + water and b) methane + water (e.g.,
Holloway, 1984; Craw, 2002), This hypothesis is supported
by the evidence from the fluid inclusion study, which indi-
cates the presence of CO2 and CH4 in the ore-forming fluids
(Figure 12f). The abundance of graphite in the high-grade
mineralized areas and its presence in the alteration enve-
lope would reflect a favorable environment for gold miner-
alization. We propose that precipitation of gold in the
Vangtat deposit is related to a) wall rock sulfidation involv-
ing Fe-bearing minerals (e.g., chlorite) in the host rock and
S-bearing fluid (Equation (4); Phillips and Groves, 1984;
Phillips and Powell, 2010) and b) reduction by reaction with
the carbon-bearing host rock (Poulsen et al., 1986; Cox
et al., 1991; Ridley, 1993). This process assumes that gold
ð1Þ was transported in the ore fluid as a sulfide complex.
Fe2þ þ 2AuðHSÞ2 þ 2H2 ¼ FeS2 þ Au0 þ 2H2 O
ðFemineralÞ ðOre fluidÞ ðPyrite and gold deposition in rockÞ
ð4Þ
ð2Þ
9.3 | Depth of ore formation
Quartz, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and arsenopyrite are the major
component of the Vangtat mineralized veins leading us to
assume that the trapping temperature (Tt) estimated from
arsenopyrite geothermometry and Th estimated from
aqueous-carbonic fluid inclusions in quartz are approxi-
mately contemporaneous. The temperature ranges
obtained for Tt and Th differ by a significant amount
(~100
C) which reflects the necessary ambient pressure
correction due to the depth of ore formation. A relatively
narrow range of 240–250
C accounts for a majority of the
fluid inclusions Th of the Vangtat ore-forming fluid (see
above). Based on Diamond (2003), a Tt range of 360–395
C
would project to a Th range of 240–250
C, corresponding to
an estimated pressure range of the Vangtat gold minerali-
zation of 380–420 MPa (Data S3, Figure B). This pressure
range translates to a depth range of 11–13 km (based on lit-
hostatic pressure gradient of 100 MPa = 3 km). This depth
ð3Þ
of ore formation in the Vangtat deposit is comparable to
the proposed depth of orogenic gold mineralization glob-
ally (5–15 km; e.g., Goldfarb and Groves, 2015).
9.4 | Implication for ore genesis and
sources
The petrographic and chemical observations of the
Vangtat hydrothermal auriferous pyrite show a
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18 of 22 BOUNLIYONG ET AL.

TABLE 1 Sulfur isotope composition and gold concentration in pyrite from the Vangtat deposit

Sample number Mineral δ 34SV-CDT‰ Gold grade (g/t) Zone occurrence

ADH016-172.20 Pyrite 10.7 - Altered pelitic schist
VADH018-160.00 Pyrite 1.3 - Altered pelitic schist
VADH018-141.00 Pyrite 5.0 11.55 Graphite-carbonate
VADH018-146.50 Pyrite 4.7 5.00 Graphite-carbonate
VADH051-75.50 Pyrite 7.1 0.22 Graphite-carbonate
VADH051-152.30 Pyrite 5.6 0.67 Graphite-carbonate
VADH017-90.70 Pyrite 4.6 93.30 Quartz vein
VADH017-98.00 Pyrite 4.8 30.30 Quartz vein
VADH018-134.6 Pyrite 5.1 10.55 Quartz vein
VADH018-145.50 Pyrite 4.7 24.00 Quartz vein
VADH033B-92.60 Pyrite 3.8 1.71 Quartz vein
VADH055-50.35 Pyrite 4.6 1.37 Graphite-carbonate
VADH076-57.10 Pyrite 5.3 5.74 Graphite-carbonate
VADH131-81.00 Pyrite 7.8 14.65 Graphite-carbonate
VADH154-100.00 Pyrite 5.5 4.52 Graphite-carbonate

microprobe data reveal that cobalt/nickel ratios from the

F I G U R E 1 3 Gold concentration versus sulfur isotope
composition of Vangtat pyrite
homogeneous texture and the presence of trace elements,
including gold, as separate mineral phases or inclusions
inside the pyrite crystals, rather than incorporated in
solid solution in the pyrite crystal structure (e.g., Butler
and Rickard, 2000). The variations in cobalt/nickel ratios
in pyrite have been used as a proxy for classifying the ori-
gin and source of hydrothermal deposits (Bralia
et al., 1979; Large et al., 2009; Koglin et al., 2010). Our
Vangtat auriferous pyrite are generally greater than one,
with an average of 6.3, indicating that the Vangtat aurif-
erous pyrite is closely linked with hydrothermal fluid or
pyrite related to magma at depth (e.g., Bralia et al., 1979).
Most of the sulfur isotope data within the high-grade
gold samples constrained the sulfur isotopic composition
of the Vangtat auriferous pyrite in a narrow range
between +4 to +6‰ (Figure 13). This sulfur isotopic
composition is compatible with the δ34S composition
range of igneous rocks (Ohmoto and Rye, 1979), and is
inferred to have a magmatic-derived source (Figure 15).
The sulfur isotopic composition of the Vangtat aurif-
erous pyrite corresponds to the range of δ34S value of the
known orogenic gold deposits globally (Figure 15,
Goldfarb et al., 2005), and is also comparable to the δ34S
value of the Phuoc Son orogenic gold deposits (4 to
+4‰, Figure 15). The Vangtat sulfur isotopic values are
heavier than the δ34S values of distal disseminated,
sediment-hosted gold deposit at the Sepon District (down
to 29‰, Figure 15), which was interpreted as involving
some sedimentary sulfur (Cromie, 2010, unpublished
data). The sulfur isotopic values of the Vangtat auriferous
pyrite in hydrothermally altered pelitic schist are +1.3
and +10.7‰, and one sample in the graphite-carbonate
alteration envelope yielded +7.8‰ (Figure 13; Table 1);
these δ34S values possibly suggest a minor contribution of
sedimentary sulfur.
Combined with the evidence above, we believe the
mafic igneous rocks situated in the footwall and forming
the basement of the deposit could be a plausible source
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BOUNLIYONG ET AL. 19 of 22

F I G U R E 1 4 Tectonic model
showing the location of the Vangtat
district in southeastern Laos related to
the forearc of a convergent margin
(modified from Lepvrier et al., 2008).
Abbreviation: HP, High pressure
metamorphic rocks, granulite facies

F I G U R E 1 5 Comparisons of the
sulfur isotopic composition of the
auriferous pyrite in the Vangtat deposit
with other gold deposits in the region,
well-known orogenic gold deposits
globally, and natural sulfur isotope
reservoirs. References are:
(1) Rollinson (1993); (2) Goldfarb
et al. (2005); (3) Cromie (2010,
unpublished data); (4) Manaka (2014,
unpublished data)

for gold in the Vangtat deposit and gold would possibly
be transported to the site of deposition during the meta-
morphic dehydration and devolatilization (e.g., Phillips
and Powell, 2010; Goldfarb and Groves, 2015; Evans and
Tomkins, 2020; Patten et al., 2020).
1 0 | C O N C L U S IO N S
This study documents a new primary gold district discov-
ered in the late 2010s in southeastern Laos. Evidence of
discontinuous ore-grade gold mineralization along
a > 15 km long, north–south belt parallel to the border
with Vietnam is presented. The results of our geological,
mineralogical, and geochemical study of the Vangtat gold
deposit, the main operating mine in the district, indicates
that the style of mineralization in the Vangtat district cor-
responds to an orogenic gold deposit model, as described
by previous authors (e.g., Groves et al., 1998; Ridley and
Diamond, 2000; Goldfarb et al., 2005).
The Vangtat gold belt formed along a convergent
margin within the western segment of the Poko suture
zone, which, together with the Tam Ky-Phuoc Son suture
zone, marks the collision in the Triassic between the
Kontum Massif and the Indochina Terrane. At a district
scale, the gold deposits are associated with the Vangtat
shear zone, a subsidiary structure of the Poko suture
zone. Host rocks associated with greenschist facies mark

20 of 22
the main host for hydrothermal alteration and location of
the gold-bearing quartz veins. Alteration mineral assem-
blages are dominated by quartz, carbonate, graphite,
white mica, chlorite, and pyrite.
Gold predominantly occurs as visible gold or gold
inclusions in pyrite, with a low base-metal sulfide over-
all content. A positive correlation exists between the
abundance of quartz-pyrite veins and silicification and
gold mineralization, as well as between gold mineraliza-
tion and pyrite abundance. Gold likely precipitated
together with pyrite and the deposition of gold may
have been facilitated by reduction of the hydrothermal
fluid through wall rock sulfidation and/or reaction of
the hydrothermal fluids with the carbon-bearing host
rock sequence.
The Vangtat auriferous pyrite is mostly homoge-
nous in textural and composition with respect to the
mineral structure and trace-element characteristics. Its
sulfur isotopic composition is restricted to a narrow
δ34S range between +4 to +6‰, which is not consistent
with the isotopic signature of sedimentary pyrite as is
commonly observed in orogenic deposits globally
through geologic time. The high cobalt content and
high cobalt/nickel ratios of pyrite at Vangtat suggest
that mafic and ultramafic rocks situated in the base-
ment of the deposit are the plausible source for sulfur
and gold. Gold was mobilized to the site of deposition
during the regional orogenesis via metamorphic dehy-
dration and devolatilization.
A C K N O WL E D G M E N T S
This study is part of a Ph.D. project by the first author
who has been funded by JICA in the fiscal year
2017-2021. We express our deepest gratitude to Vangtat
Mining Company for supporting us during the field
study. The authors are indebted to Tatsuo Nozaki,
Takayuki Manaka, and Khin Zaw for their insightful
reviews and suggestions to improve the quality of the
paper, Dr. Hinako Sato and Dr. Pearlyn Manalo are also
thanked for their technical assistance with sulfur isotope
analysis.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Data is openly available in a public repository that does
not issue DOIs.
ORCID
Patthana Bounliyong https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8248-
4787
Antonio Arribas https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2861-1802
Yasushi Watanabe https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0162-
2277
Takuya Echigo https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1246-7321
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BOUNLIYONG ET AL.
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SU PP O R TI N G I N F O RMA TI O N
Additional supporting information may be found in the
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How to cite this article: Bounliyong, P., Arribas,
A., Watanabe, Y., Echigo, T., & Wong, H. (2021). A
new orogenic gold belt in Southeast Asia: Geology,
mineralogy and genesis of the Vangtat gold
deposit, Southeastern Laos. Resource Geology,
72(1), e12283. https://doi.org/10.1111/rge.12283