Singtuen Et Al, 2023 (Khorat Basin)

PLOS ONE
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Geochemistry and provenance of Mesozoic

sandstones in Khon Kaen Geopark:
Implication for tectonics of the western
Khorat Plateau of Thailand
Vimoltip Singtuen ID1*, Burapha Phajuy2☯, Apussorn Anumart1☯, Punya Charusiri3,4,
Natnicha Chawthai1, Heiner Heggemann5
1 Department of Geotechnology, Faculty of Technology, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand,
a1111111111
2 Department of Geological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand,
a1111111111 3 Department of Mineral Resources, Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, Bangkok, Thailand,
a1111111111 4 MESA CE, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand, 5 Hessisches Landesamt für
a1111111111 Naturschutz, Umwelt und Geologie, Wiesbaden, Germany
a1111111111
☯ These authors contributed equally to this work.
* vimoltipst@gmail.com
OPEN ACCESS Abstract

Citation: Singtuen V, Phajuy B, Anumart A,
Charusiri P, Chawthai N, Heggemann H (2023) Khon Kaen Geopark, representing an area of dinosaur fossil diversity, was selected for
Geochemistry and provenance of Mesozoic investigations to reveal the origin and tectonic setting of the Khorat Group. The area occu-
sandstones in Khon Kaen Geopark: Implication for pied by Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of four formal formations of the Khorat Group, namely
tectonics of the western Khorat Plateau of Thailand.
the Phra Wihan Formation (PWF), Sao Khua Formation (SKF), Phu Phan Formation (PPF),
PLoS ONE 18(4): e0284974. https://doi.org/
10.1371/journal.pone.0284974 and Khok Kruat Formation (KKF). A field investigation and macroscopic observations sug-
gested that the immature sedimentary rocks of the study area are mainly clast-supported,
Editor: Shuan-Hong Zhang, Chinese Academy of
Geological Sciences, CHINA pebbly sandstone and siltstone with few calcretes. The 50 rock samples that were selected
for petrographical and geochemical investigations revealed that the sandstones of the PWF
Received: December 20, 2022
and PPF are quartz arenite and sublitharenite, with some subarkose, whereas those of the
Accepted: April 12, 2023
SKF are mainly subarkose and sublitharenite. In addition, the KKF dominantly presents sub-
Published: April 26, 2023 litharenite with pebbles and calcretes. Mesozoic sandstones contain quartz, feldspars, vari-
Copyright: © 2023 Singtuen et al. This is an open ous types of rock fragments, and accessory minerals (biotite, muscovite, zircon, and
access article distributed under the terms of the tourmaline), with siliceous, ferrous, and calcareous cement. Petrographic (Q–F–L) and geo-
Creative Commons Attribution License, which
chemical (major and trace element) data suggested that the sources of sediments are
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original mostly quartzose sedimentary rocks and some felsic-intermediate igneous rocks. Chon-
author and source are credited. drite-normalized rare earth element patterns indicated that the origins of the studied sand-
Data Availability Statement: All relevant data are stones are quartzose sedimentary rocks deposited in a passive continental margin or an
within the paper and its Supporting Information upper continental crust. Geochemical traits of the sedimentary successions demonstrated
files. that the provenance of the Khorat Basin prior to reworking by fluvial processes was situated
Funding: This work is a part of research on the in the passive continental margin or recycled orogen of the paleo-volcanic arc during the
Potential to Enhance the Geotourism of Khon Kaen Mesozoic period.
National Geopark, conducted by the Department of
Geotechnology, Khon Kaen University, and
received funding support from the National Science
Research and Innovation Fund (NSRF) of Thailand
under Grant 161719 (Fundamental Fund). The
PLOS ONE | https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284974 April 26, 2023 1 / 26

PLOS ONE Geochemistry and Provenance of Mesozoic sandstones in Khon Kaen Geopark
funders had no role in study design, data collection Introduction

and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of
the manuscript. The Khon Kaen Geopark (KKGp) is one of the national geoparks of Thailand, located in the
Khorat Plateau, a part of the Indochina Terrane. The area is situated in the Wiang Kao and
Competing interests: The authors have declared
that no competing interests exist.
Phu Wiang districts, Khon Kaen Province, and the western part is protected and conserved by
the Phu Wiang National Park. The highest peak of the mountain range is at 844 m msl. The
lowest level of the foothills is located at 210 m msl and the sedimentary basin is large, flat, and
wavy/folded in the middle. Most of the area comprises red sedimentary rocks belonging to the
Mesozoic Khorat Group, comprising the Phra Wihan Formation (PWF), Sao Khua Formation
(SKF), Phu Phan Formation (PPF), and Khok Kruat Formation (KKF). The Khorat Group is a
red-bedded sedimentary rock stratum, which formed within the continent during the Meso-
zoic era, consisting mainly of sandstone, siltstone, shale, and pebble sandstone associated with
calcrete, rock salt, gypsum, and anhydrite. There are nine formations in the Khorat Group,
namely the (i) Huai Hin Lat, (ii) Nam Phong, (iii) Phu Kradung, (iv) Phra Wihan, (v) Sao
Khua, (vi) Phu Phan, (vii) Khok Kruat, (viii) Maha Sarakham, and (ix) Phu Thok formations.
Field observations indicate multiphase syncline geomorphology including high mountains
and a valley in the region’s west (Fig 1). This may be owing to the formation process of colli-
sion between the mainland Indochina and Sibumasu Terranes (Indosinian orogeny) that took
place during the late Triassic [1–4]. A series of uplift movements and tectonic faulting during
this collision led to the formation of several inter-mountain thermal sag basins, which were
filled with continental sediments during the Jurassic-Cretaceous (e.g., Khorat Group, South
China Sea, Khorat Basin, Vietnam, Cambodia, and southern part of Laos) [5, 6].
U-Pb zircon dating was performed to determine the source of the Khorat Group sediment
associated with the Qinling Belt in China and revealed that the age modes are 2456±4 Ma, 2001
±4 Ma, 251±3 Ma, and 168±2 Ma [3]. Moreover, zircon fission tracks from sandstone on the
west part of the Khorat Plateau were assessed to determine the maximum depositional ages of
the Phu Kradung Formation, PWF, SKF, and KKF as 141±17 Ma to 210±24 Ma, 114±6 to 125
±18 Ma, 160±6 Ma, and 133±13 Ma, respectively, suggesting that the sediment of the Khorat
Plateau came from the Qinling Belt and the large basin parallel to the mountain range in the
Lasa Plate and Eurasia Plate collision event during late Jurassic to early Cretaceous [5, 7, 8].
The KKGp was the first dinosaur fossil excavation area in Thailand [10]. In addition to
dinosaur fossils, there are abundant vertebrate fauna fossils and non-marine bivalves in the
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks of the SKF, spanning from the Jurassic to the middle Cretaceous
[11–13]. This area presents a high diversity of dinosaur fossils, and five new dinosaur species
were identified here. The first sauropod fossil of Thailand, Phuwiangosaurus sirindhornae, was
discovered in the Jurassic SKF. The other four dinosaur species that were discovered for the
first time in the KKGp were Siamotyrannus isanensis, Kinnareemimus khonkaennsis, Phu-
wiangvenator yaemniyomi, and Siamosaurus suteethorni [14–27].
There are many scholars studying stratigraphy and paleontology in the KKGp; however, the
geochemical characteristics have not been systematically classified in terms of the petrographic
name and provenance of sedimentary rocks. The Mesozoic Khorat Group within the KKGp,
western Khorat Plateau can be divided into 4 formations and records the importance of local
structures. Therefore, this research will be a necessary supplement to describe the geochemical
characteristics and make an interesting addition to knowledge of the complicated Khorat Pla-
teau region. The consideration of the region’s structural complexity and adequately researched
provenance sources result in logical conclusions that can provide importance for geoscience
and the earth’s evolution to the geopark.

Fig 1. Geologic map of Khon Kaen Geopark area showing the location of rock sampling and bedding attitudes, and the geologic section along AB showing the
synclinal structure of the Khorat Group rocks. The stereonet diagrams present the orientation of the bedding planes in each location (A–F). The geological data is from
[9].
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284974.g001
Geologic setting
The KKGp has a unique topography, comprising a large plain bordered by hills and moun-
tains. The park has only one entrance (Fig 2). There is a basin at the region’s center, with a roll-
ing landscape enclosed by cliffs. The outermost mountain comprises two rings of resistant
bedrock, with a steep slope and cuesta landform that reaches an elevation of 844 m. This area
is dominated by non-marine rocks of the Khorat Group, which comprises the PWF, SKF, PPF,
and KKF [9]. These sedimentary rocks—almost entirely red—are a red bed succession from
the Mesozoic era, comprising mudstone, siltstone, sandstone, conglomerate, and freshwater
limestone [11]. Abundant fossils are mainly found in the Sao Khua strata, whereas dinosaur
footprints can be found in the Phra Wihan strata [28]. Furthermore, landforms, such as cliffs
and waterfalls, are mainly observed in the Phra Wihan and Phu Phan strata.
White fine-to-coarse-grained sedimentary rocks of the PWF largely comprised of sandstones
interbedded with siltstones, mudstones, and conglomerates (S1 Table), deposited in thin
braided streams in the early Cretaceous (Barriasian to Barremian, 125–145 Ma) based on paly-
nological data [10, 12, 29, 30]. In addition, based on research on Sphenopteris goepperti, it is sug-
gested that cyclic sequences of reddish-brown sandy mudstone of the SKF were deposited on
top of semi-arid meandering rivers interbedded with sandstone, siltstone, and conglomerate
during the late Jurassic to early Cretaceous [23, 24, 30, 31]. This formation is among the richest

Fig 2. Outcrops of sedimentary rocks in Khon Kaen Geopark. (A) White sandstone of the Phra Wihan Formation at 48Q 216316E 1852542N, (B) maroon
pebbly sandstone of the Sao Khua Formation at 48Q 212405E 1842716N, (C) pebbly sandstone and cross-bedding of the Phu Phan Formation at 48Q 208082E
1841546N, (D) white sandstone of the Phu Phan Formation at 48Q 211484E 1842718N, (E) maroon sandstone of the Sao Khua Formation at 48Q 214392E
1843976N (looking north), and (F) maroon sandstone of the Sao Khua Formation at 48Q 214911E 1844509N (looking south).
fossil formations from the Khorat Group, comprising freshwater hypsodont sharks, actinoptery-
gian fishes, turtles, crocodilians, and dinosaurs [16]. Through analysis of its vertebrate fossil
content, the age of the SKF is dated to the early Cretaceous [17], whereas research on non-
marine bivalves suggests that this formation was deposited during the late Barremian [24].
The light grey sandstone and conglomerate of the PPF appear to be poorly sorted medium-
to-coarse-grained quartz, green volcanic rocks, and chert, with expansive planar and trough
cross-bedding. This formation was deposited in braided streams in a humid to semi-arid envi-
ronment during the early Cretaceous [12, 30]. Moreover, the reddish-brown stratum of the
KKF (sandstones, siltstones, mudstones, and conglomerates, interbedded with gypsum lenses
and calcrete nodules) was deposited in meandering rivers, in a semi-arid to an arid environ-
ment [30], during the early-middle Cretaceous (dated by freshwater bivalves [32]). The differ-
ent lithologic and depositional aspects found in previous works [10, 12] are of interest to the
current work for identifying and classifying the petrographical and geochemical characteristics
of the Mesozoic sandstones in detail.
Methodology
Initial field observations, samples, and measurements were taken in the Khon Kaen National
Park (Fig 1) to determine the structure, orientation, etc. This area shows many geological
structural features, including folds, faults, joints, and primary structures of sedimentary rocks.
Fifty samples were collected from the early Cretaceous sedimentary rocks of the Khorat Group
(PWF, SKF, PPF, and KKF) for study in petrographic and geochemical laboratories. Represen-
tative rocks were gathered to be studied in the petrographic lab for texture, mineral content,
rock name identification (400-point counts, see S2 Table), and sedimentary characteristic

classification. A petrographic examination was conducted on all 47 fresh rocks distributed

among every rock unit in the studied areas. Moreover, at the Department of Geotechnology of
Khon Kaen University, photomicrographs were taken using ZEN 3.4 (blue edition) core imag-
ing software, using ZEISS (Carl Zeiss NTS Ltd., Oberkochen, Germany) imaging and Motic
microscope BA310POL. Powder samples (200 μm) were made from finely chosen rock chips
to detect chemical properties, individual rock names, and modification processes in the
Department of Geological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University.
For the geochemical study, 34 typical samples with the least amount of alteration, weather-
ing, and replacement by secondary minerals (carefully evaluated under a polarizing micro-
scope) were chosen for whole rock analysis using X-ray fluorescence (XRF76C) and
inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP95A). Analysis of the major
oxides (SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fetotal, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, and P2O5) was performed
using the Axios model at SGS (Thailand) Co., Ltd (lower reporting limit: 0.01%; Bangkok,
Thailand), see S3 Table. For low-atomic-number elements, lithium metaborate fusion was
employed, whereas, for higher-atomic-number elements, the pressed pellet technique was
used. Fusion is a technique for analyzing key elements, which involves melting the sample
with flux and casting it into a glass disc. In addition, trace elements (Rb, Sr, Zr, Y, Nb, Ni, Cr,
V, Sc, Hf, Th, and Ta) and rare earth elements (REEs; La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho,
Er, Tm, and Yb) were analyzed using the 5300DV ICP-OES and nexion300X ICP-MS of
SGS-CSTC Standards Technical Services Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China), see S4 Table.
Results
Field observation and petrography
The sampling location comprised 20 sites distributed in the KKGp, excluding the protected
area of the Phu Wiang National Park (Table 1). Fig 2 shows representative pictures of outcrops
of road cuts, in situ rock, and geomorphological sites (e.g., rock pillar, mountain, and cliff)
with planar bedding and cross-bedding with some calcretes. The main structure comprises
multi-phases of syncline and high mountains surrounding a valley. Based on field observation,
the studied area was divided into six areas (A, B, C, D, E, and F) for analyzing structural geol-
ogy, as shown in Fig 1.
The sedimentary stratum in area A presents the orientation E-W/10–17˚ S, whereas the
bedding of area B is approximately NW-SE and dips 40˚ in the SW direction. In addition,
areas C, D, and E present the same strike in NE-SW and dip values are 24–67˚ NW. However,
the strike of area F is NNW-SSE dipping 10–16˚ in the NE direction. Thus, based on the data
on the orientation of the geological structures, the KKGp may be affected by folding
structures.
The PWF is made up of white-colored, thick-bedded, poorly to well-sorted, fine-to-coarse
sandstone, pebbly sandstone, and siltstone. Moreover, the SKF comprises maroon, moderate-
to-well-sorted, very fine-to-very coarse sandstone interbedded with pebbly sandstone, and
sandy siltstone. The uppermost part of the PWF is conformably overlaid by the SKF. In addi-
tion, the SKF can be divided into two parts: lower (medium-to-thick-bedded sandstone inter-
bedded with siltstone) and upper (reddish siltstone, sandstone, limestone, conglomerate,
calcrete layer, and fossils) parts.
There are nine excavation sites in the SKF of the KKGp, presenting with four associated
sedimentary facies, as shown in Fig 3: 1) channel fill deposit, 2) crevasse splay deposit, 3) lake
and flood plain deposit, and 4) over bank deposit [28]. The maroon pebbly sandstone of the
KKF is gravel-rich with coarse-to-very coarse, moderate-to-well-sorted sand.

Table 1. Sampling location and petrographic data of studied clastic sedimentary rocks in Khon Kaen Geopark.
sample location fm hand spimecen composition grain size (mm) Petrographic Name
%clast %matrix %Q %Ft %Lt
KK1-1 48Q 217490 1845994 PW sandstone 94.09 5.09 91.48 4.12 4.40 0.22–0.56 quartz arenite
KK1-2 PW sandstone 89.39 5.65 91.10 4.15 4.75 0.10–0.55 quartz arenite
KK1-3 PW sandstone 89.64 5.52 90.94 4.16 4.90 0.13–1.19 quartz arenite
KK2-1 48Q 216041 1851981 PW sandy mudrocks 54.13 8.26 53.60 19.60 26.80 0.02–0.06 lith arenite
KK2-2 PW sandy mudrocks 51.99 7.49 53.78 18.49 27.73 0.02–0.05 lith arenite
KK3-1 48Q 216316 1852542 PW calcrete 54.95 2.97 69.37 18.47 12.16 0.08–0.11 subarkose
KK3-2 PW calcrete 62.53 10.74 57.04 23.47 19.49 0.01–0.11 subarkose
KK4-1 48Q 215776 1852503 PW sandstone 95.82 1.82 83.02 7.17 9.81 0.13–0.75 sublitharenite
KK5-1 48Q 217122 1850109 SK sandstone 94.83 2.87 91.18 4.48 4.33 0.56–1.35 quartz arenite
KK5-2 SK sandstone 71.22 3.90 53.00 22.97 24.03 0.09–0.17 subarkose
KK5-3 SK gravelly sandstone 93.35 4.19 92.74 4.39 2.87 0.62–1.01 quartz arenite
KK5-4 48Q 217159 1850045 SK gravelly sandstone 88.51 6.22 91.00 4.64 4.35 0.12–1.14 quartz arenite
KK6-1 48Q 214864 1851142 SK sandstone 87.82 7.46 76.27 12.37 11.36 0.13–0.57 subarkose
KK7-1 48Q 212955 1851936 SK sandy mudrocks 65.85 6.10 54.18 24.30 21.51 0.02–0.11 subarkose
KK7-2 SK sandy mudrocks 73.00 11.00 54.49 23.08 22.44 0.02–0.12 subarkose
KK8-1 48Q 212854 1851800 SK sandstone 81.61 10.11 58.53 21.52 19.95 0.05–0.15 lithic arenite
KK9-1 48Q 208514 1841448 PP sandy conglomerate lithic arenite
KK9-3 PP sandy conglomerate 91.13 7.30 91.42 4.56 4.01 0.31–4.81 lithic arenite
KK10-1 48Q 208082 1841546 PP gravelly muddy sandstone lithic arenite
KK10-2 48Q 208036 1841525 PP gravelly sandstone 94.43 2.94 90.57 4.88 4.55 0.16–1.02 quartz arenite
KK10-3 PP gravelly sandstone 96.34 1.34 90.87 4.94 4.18 0.84–1.46 quartz arenite
KK11-1 48Q 207786 1841913 PP sandstone 94.92 3.98 91.73 4.19 4.08 0.36–0.90 quartz arenite
KK11-2 PP sandstone 84.24 4.68 77.27 8.52 14.20 0.86–1.51 sublitharenite
KK12-1 48Q 211484 1842718 PP sandstone 91.36 5.68 72.48 11.06 16.46 0.28–0.64 sublitharenite
KK13-1 48Q 212322 1842712 SK gravelly sandstone 87.80 8.29 61.39 14.72 23.89 0.50–6.25 sublitharenite
KK13-2 SK sandstone 88.70 6.49 62.80 13.19 24.01 0.11–0.36 sublitharenite
KK13-3 48Q 212304 1842702 SK subarkose 95.58 3.72 91.37 4.32 4.32 0.31–1.06 quartz arenite
KK13-4 48Q 212405 1842716 SK gravelly sandstone 92.74 4.36 67.20 12.53 20.27 0.13–7.50 sublitharenite
KK14-1 48Q 212639 1843518 PP sandstone 76.51 17.68 69.27 16.17 14.56 0.04–0.24 subarkose
KK15-1 48Q 214392 1843976 SK sandstone 81.17 10.51 76.01 10.98 13.01 0.32–1.00 sublitharenite
KK15-2 SK gravelly sandstone 82.47 5.17 72.92 9.38 17.71 0.50–2.66 sublitharenite
KK17-1 48Q 216132 1845425 SK sandstone 95.79 2.75 91.49 4.51 4.01 0.31–1.77 quartz arenite
KK17-2* 48Q 206706 1843651 SK sandstone sublitharenite
KK18-1 48Q 206706 1843651 KK pebbly sandstone 72.70 9.97 68.20 13.78 18.02 0.53–1.88 sublitharenite
KK18-2 48Q 208548 1841063 KK pebbly sandstone 83.82 12.80 68.93 10.18 20.89 0.50–1.53 sublitharenite
KK18-3 48Q 208548 1841064 KK pebbly sandstone sublitharenite
KK18-5 48Q 208703 1841320 PP pebbly sandstone sublitharenite
KK19-1 48Q208627 1841068 PP pebbly sandstone 88.15 7.65 69.00 10.24 20.75 0.50–1.25 sublitharenite
KK19-2 PP pebbly sandstone 85.02 10.83 72.58 12.01 15.40 0.42–2.50 sublitharenite
KK20-1 48Q 217363 1849514 PP sandstone 84.28 14.00 56.68 20.16 23.16 0.25–0.79 sublitharenite
KK21 48Q 207786 1841913 PP sandstone 94.92 3.98 91.73 4.19 4.08 0.36–0.90 sublitharenite
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284974.t001

Fig 3. Stratigraphic columns in nine dinosaur excavation sites distributed in the Sao Khua Formation, Khon Kaen Geopark (stratigraphical and paleontological
data from [28].
Forty-seven lithological and petrographical studies conducted in 30 sites in the KKGp

(Table 1) suggested that those rocks mainly comprise clast-supported, poor-to-well-sorted,
subangular-to-angular shapes, and low-to-moderate sphericity clastic sedimentary rocks (Fig
4). The cementation is composed of three types: siliceous, ferrous (Fe-rich), and calcareous.
These clastic sedimentary rocks comprise quartz, feldspars, plagioclase, tourmaline, muscovite,
zircon, and opaque minerals. In addition, these rocks comprise various rock fragment types:
shale/argillite (very fine-grained with lamination), quartzose sedimentary rocks (siltstone/
sandstone), limestone (carbonate-rich), silicified rocks/quartzite (quartz-rich with sutured tex-
ture), and phyllite (very fine crystals with foliated texture), as well as felsic igneous rocks with
some epidote and perthite.
Based on the quartz–feldspars–lithic fragments (Qt–F–Lt) classification [33, 34] in Fig 5A,
the rocks from the PWF were classified as quartz arenite (Fig 4A), litharenite, and sublithare-
nite, with some subarkose (Fig 4B) (53.00%–69.37% quartz, 4.12%–23.47% feldspars, 4.33%–
24.03% lithic fragments), whereas rock samples from the SKF were identified as sublitharenite
(Fig 4C) and subarkose (53.55%–76.27% quartz, 9.38%–24.30% feldspars, 4.01%–24.73% lithic
fragments). In addition, the petrographic data classified rocks from the PPF as quartz arenite,
sublitharenite (Fig 4D and 4E), and some subarkose (61.39%–91.73% quartz, 4.19%–14.72%

Fig 4. Photomicrographs in cross-polarized light of sedimentary rocks in Khon Kaen Geopark. (A) Quartz arenite of Phra Wihan Formation sample no. KK1-3,
(B) subarkose of Phra Wihan Formation sample no. KK3-1, (C) sublitharenite of Sao Khua Formation sample no. KK15-1, (D) sublitharenite of Phu Phan Formation
sample no. KK13-1, (E) sublitharenite of Sao Khua Formation sample no. KK20-1, (F) sublitharenite of Sao Khua Formation sample no. KK18-1. Qz: quartz, Pl:
plagioclase, Afs: alkaline feldspars, Ms: muscovite, Tur: tourmaline, Zr: zircon, Cal: calcite, Sh: shale fragment, Sf: silicified rock fragments, Fs: felsic igneous rock
fragments, Lm: limestone fragments.
feldspars, 4.01%–20.75% lithic fragments). The rock samples from the KKF present only sub-
litharenite (68.20%–68.93% quartz, 10.18%–13.78% feldspars, 18.02%–20.89% lithic frag-
ments) with pebbles and calcrets, as shown in Fig 4F.
Fig 5. Diagrams of plotted petrographic data of sedimentary rocks in Khon Kaen Geopark. (A) Qt–F–Lt name classification diagram [34], (B) Qt–F–Lt, and
(C) Qm–F–Lt diagrams with tectonic fields [35], (D) Lm–Lv–Ls diagrams with tectonic fields [36], and (E) Qp–Lv–(Ls+Lm) diagrams with tectonic fields [37].
Qt: total quartz, Qm: monocrystalline quartz, Qp: polycrystalline quartz, F: feldspar (plagioclase and K-feldspar), L: lithic fragment, Lt: lithic fragment and
polycrystalline quartz, Ls: sedimentary lithic grains, Lv: volcanic lithic grains, Lm: metamorphic lithic grains.

Table 2. Whole-rocks analysis for major oxides, trace elements, and REEs of studied clastic sedimentary rocks in Khon Kaen Geopark.
Analysis no. Phra Wihan Formation Sao Khua Formation
KK1-2 KK1-3 KK-2-2 KK-3-1 KK3-2 KK-4-1 KK-5-1 KK-5-2 KK5-4 KK-6-1 KK7-2 KK-8-1
Major Oxides (wt%)
SiO2 95.71 94.6 66.03 67.49 62.12 97.55 95.98 77.64 95.91 87.29 69.02 87.48
TiO2 0.12 0.2 0.55 0.26 0.33 0.03 0.05 0.24 0.06 0.46 0.57 0.44
Al2O3 1.91 2.29 7.1 4.32 4.7 1.33 2.21 5.25 1.63 5.82 5.89 5.96
Fe2O3t 0.9 1.21 2.36 0.78 1.02 0.32 0.22 0.88 0.68 1.47 1.81 1.83
MnO <0.01 <0.01 0.08 0.2 0.26 <0.01 0.02 0.07 <0.01 0.16 0.14 0.12
MgO 0.04 0.05 0.98 0.34 0.49 0.04 0.06 0.32 0.08 0.42 0.56 0.51
CaO 0.05 <0.01 10.35 13.58 16 <0.01 0.01 7.1 <0.01 0.12 10.44 0.08
Na2O 0.03 0.04 0.88 0.68 0.74 0.09 0.05 0.21 0.02 0.7 1.11 0.32
K2O 0.18 0.19 0.9 0.44 0.57 0.05 0.24 0.67 0.15 0.99 0.51 0.81
P2O5 0.06 0.03 0.11 0.06 0.07 0.02 <0.01 0.05 0.06 0.04 0.1 0.02
Trace Elements REEs (ppm)
La 9.1 11.8 30.4 19.4 26.9 6.8 7.3 21.6 10.6 78.7 31.9 32.1
Pr 2.1 2.92 7.49 5.59 6.47 1.76 1.58 5.84 2.49 15.84 8.27 8.38
Nd 7.5 10.3 28.8 21.2 25 6 5.5 23.4 9.7 58.6 32.7 32.6
Eu 0.23 0.35 1.11 0.93 1.17 0.17 0.16 0.97 0.52 2.31 1.78 1.28
Gd 1.08 1.54 4.76 3.94 4.73 0.72 0.69 3.81 1.79 9.28 5.54 5.48
Tb 0.19 0.25 0.81 0.67 0.83 0.09 0.09 0.62 0.27 1.48 0.86 0.9
Dy 1.1 1.29 4.43 3.57 4.57 0.45 0.47 3.15 1.34 7.81 4.76 4.8
Ho 0.22 0.24 0.85 0.65 0.86 0.08 0.09 0.56 0.24 1.4 0.92 0.9
Er 0.67 0.72 2.56 1.85 2.34 0.25 0.26 1.56 0.63 3.89 2.88 2.56
Tm 0.1 0.11 0.4 0.26 0.34 <0.05 <0.05 0.22 0.08 0.55 0.43 0.37
Yb 0.6 0.7 2.5 1.6 2 0.2 0.3 1.3 0.5 3.1 2.8 2.2
Ce 23.9 32.4 76.6 55.2 70.1 21.4 30.3 55.5 24.2 90.5 78.9 73.3
Sm 1.3 2.1 6.3 4.2 5.7 1 1 5.1 1.9 10.5 6.4 6.3
Th 3.1 4.2 10 5.7 6.3 1.3 2.5 5.1 2.2 4.9 9.1 8.2
Ta <0.5 <0.5 1.1 0.5 0.6 <0.5 <0.5 2 <0.5 0.7 1.1 0.7
Nb 1 2 13 6 7 <1 <1 9 <1 7 12 8
Zr 66.2 160 336 201 268 30.2 32.5 122 30.7 252 618 265
Hf 2 5 9 5 7 <1 1 3 1 8 17 7
Y 5.3 9.7 24.2 18.9 24.5 2.5 4.4 20.9 7.8 45.3 27.2 26.9
Rb 10.6 9.9 48.2 22.7 25.7 2.9 11.1 29.3 8.3 37.4 24.1 40
Sr 8.8 14.9 52.2 50.5 69.2 4.4 13.1 37.2 14.5 43.9 88.4 21.5
Ga 3 3 10 5 5 1 2 5 2 7 6 8
Lu 0.06 0.09 0.37 0.23 0.29 <0.05 <0.05 0.17 <0.05 0.46 0.42 0.32
U 0.95 1.08 2.21 1.62 1.9 0.48 0.86 1.4 0.68 1.9 2.37 1.72
Rb/Sr 1.205 0.664 0.923 0.450 0.371 0.659 0.847 0.788 0.572 0.852 0.273 1.205
Th/U 3.263 3.889 4.525 3.519 3.316 2.708 2.907 3.643 3.235 2.579 3.840 3.263
Analysis no. Phu Phan Formation
KK9-1 KK10- KK10- KK11- KK11- KK12- KK12-2 KK13-2 KK13-3 KK13-4 KK14
1 2 1 2 1
Major Oxides (wt%)
SiO2 96.25 95.83 96.44 95.96 95.42 91.78 89.69 92.96 96.95 89.75 87.63
TiO2 0.06 0.24 0.13 0.02 0.04 0.2 0.22 0.17 0.06 0.16 0.2
Al2O3 1.55 1.76 1.91 2.21 2.4 4.2 4.06 3.41 1.53 3.88 6.03
Fe2O3t 0.68 0.71 0.3 0.17 0.38 0.78 2.76 1.01 0.36 0.8 0.94
(Continued )

Table 2. (Continued)
MnO 0.03 <0.01 <0.01 0.02 <0.01 <0.01 0.03 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.02
MgO 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.35 0.33 0.14 0.06 0.21 0.56
CaO <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 0.09 0.07 0.02 <0.01 0.02 0.19
Na2O 0.06 0.03 <0.01 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.05 1.23
K2O 0.13 0.26 0.19 0.57 0.51 0.5 0.43 0.6 0.2 0.67 1.07
P2O5 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.09 <0.01 0.01 0.16 0.04 0.02 0.02
La 15.9 13.4 8.1 8.6 9.4 11.3 18.4 12 10.6 15.6 9.7
Pr 2.67 3.34 2.07 1.73 2.01 3.76 3.16 2.29 1.95 2.74 1.97
Nd 9.7 10.9 7.6 6.5 7.6 13 11.5 8.2 7.2 9.4 7.2
Eu 0.35 0.28 0.27 0.28 0.36 0.45 0.52 0.35 0.29 0.32 0.38
Gd 1.47 1.4 1.04 1.1 1.45 1.58 1.95 1.33 1.1 1.37 1.13
Tb 0.22 0.2 0.15 0.17 0.25 0.19 0.29 0.2 0.17 0.21 0.19
Dy 1.19 1.09 0.76 1.05 1.4 0.9 1.6 1.05 0.93 1.08 1.09
Ho 0.2 0.22 0.14 0.2 0.26 0.16 0.3 0.19 0.17 0.2 0.22
Er 0.62 0.71 0.41 0.59 0.77 0.49 0.9 0.57 0.53 0.63 0.7
Tm 0.14 0.11 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.07 0.14 0.08 0.07 0.1 0.12
Yb 0.7 0.7 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.5 0.8 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7
Ce 32.6 38.9 20.8 18.5 21.1 37.2 85.9 25.1 20 28.3 20.8
Sm 1.7 1.8 1.3 1.3 1.6 2.2 2.2 1.6 1.4 1.8 1.5
Th 3.1 4.4 2.2 2.4 3.1 3.1 3.2 3.6 2.8 4.4 3.2
Ta <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5
Nb <1 1 1 <1 1 3 4 4 <1 3 4
Zr 41.7 156 52.7 33.1 73.3 51.5 91.2 56.4 40.6 88 106
Hf 1 4 2 1 2 2 3 2 1 2 3
Y 5.1 8.2 4.5 10.2 9.2 6.4 11.7 7 6.3 7.6 9
Rb 5.9 11.3 9 23 24.4 17.3 17.7 33.2 10 34.9 45.2
Sr 18.4 15 13.2 19.7 17.1 27.3 24.9 24.9 14.4 21.1 68.4
Ga 2 4 2 2 3 4 5 3 3 4 7
Lu <0.05 0.08 <0.05 0.05 0.07 <0.05 0.09 <0.05 <0.05 0.06 0.08
U 0.71 1.38 0.76 0.8 0.93 0.55 0.91 1.93 0.88 1.25 0.9
Rb/Sr 0.321 0.753 0.682 1.168 1.427 0.634 0.711 1.333 0.694 1.654 0.661
Th/U 4.366 3.188 2.895 3.000 3.333 5.636 3.516 1.865 3.182 3.520 3.556
Analysis no. Sao Khua Formation Khok Kruat Formations Sao Khua Formation
KK15- KK15- KK16- KK17- KK17- KK17-2* KK18-1 KK18-3 KK19-2 KK20-1 KK21
1 2 1 1 2
Major Oxides (wt%)
SiO2 88.83 93.56 93.85 96.8 94.24 90.26 84.41 95.25 95.23 94.75 96.12
TiO2 0.21 0.08 0.12 0.04 0.06 0.26 0.11 0.06 0.11 0.2 0.03
Al2O3 4.42 2.87 3.06 2.06 3.45 5.14 2.48 2.37 2.31 2.88 2.16
Fe2O3t 1.06 0.59 0.36 0.16 0.35 0.86 0.63 0.44 0.4 0.39 0.16
MnO <0.01 0.05 0.02 <0.01 0.03 0.03 0.09 0.06 0.02 <0.01 <0.01
MgO 0.19 0.11 0.14 0.05 0.11 0.27 0.12 0.13 0.11 0.09 0.05
CaO <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 6.86 0.1 <0.01 0.23 <0.01
Na2O 0.08 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.04 0.07 0.04 0.04 0.06 0.06
K2O 0.46 0.27 0.4 0.2 0.79 0.9 0.48 0.28 0.71 0.24 0.55
P2O5 0.02 0.01 0.02 <0.01 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.01 0.02 0.01
(Continued )

Table 2. (Continued)
La 20 14 14.9 8.7 12.3 22.8 10.9 9.6 12.9 16.4 8.5

Pr 4.27 4 2.98 1.76 2.12 4.04 2.27 2.66 2.79 2.44 1.64
Nd 15.3 14 11.1 6 7.5 14.3 8.6 10.5 10.2 8.5 6.3
Eu 0.6 0.46 0.5 0.17 0.35 0.54 0.43 0.57 0.35 0.3 0.28
Gd 2.37 1.72 1.93 0.8 1.09 2.34 1.58 2.04 1.43 1.3 1.15
Tb 0.33 0.23 0.36 0.12 0.18 0.37 0.26 0.35 0.18 0.19 0.2
Dy 1.5 1.18 2.02 0.59 0.87 2.13 1.39 1.74 0.96 0.93 1.07
Ho 0.25 0.2 0.39 0.11 0.15 0.43 0.26 0.32 0.17 0.17 0.2
Er 0.71 0.6 1.21 0.38 0.47 1.35 0.79 0.95 0.53 0.54 0.61
Tm 0.1 0.08 0.18 0.05 0.07 0.2 0.12 0.14 0.07 0.08 0.09
Yb 0.6 0.5 1.1 0.3 0.5 1.2 0.7 0.9 0.5 0.5 0.6
Ce 74 38.6 29.4 27 24.7 39.5 22.1 26.9 29.4 26.1 17.4
Sm 3.3 2.5 2.4 1 1.6 2.6 1.6 2.3 2 1.6 1.4
Th 4.8 4.5 2.9 2.7 3.1 6.3 3.3 3.2 3.6 3.3 2.3
Ta <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5
Nb 5 3 2 <1 2 5 4 3 1 3 1
Zr 88.7 57.7 44.2 35.6 87 152 66.7 71.5 98.6 69.5 30.7
Hf 3 2 1 1 3 4 2 2 3 2 1
Y 7.6 3.7 16.6 3.8 7.6 17.9 8.6 9 8.2 9.2 7.7
Rb 26.8 17.3 20 9.2 32.8 46.9 19.5 16.1 28.7 10.4 23.6
Sr 20.8 15.3 19.6 15.4 26.7 27.2 17 10.2 27.8 29.2 21.7
Ga 5 4 3 2 3 6 2 2 2 3 2
Lu 0.06 <0.05 0.13 <0.05 <0.05 0.16 0.08 0.09 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05
U 0.92 0.78 0.85 0.82 0.88 1.55 0.85 1.01 0.82 0.82 0.73
Rb/Sr 1.288 1.131 1.020 0.597 1.228 1.724 1.147 1.578 1.032 0.356 1.088
Th/U 5.217 5.769 3.412 3.293 3.523 4.065 3.882 3.168 4.390 4.024 3.151
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0284974.t002
The sandstones in the KKGp were plotted in the diagrams of feldspars–lithic fragments–
quartz (Qt–F–Lt) and–monocrystalline quartz (Qm–F–Lt) with tectonic fields [35] mostly as
recycled orogen with quartzose recycled, craton interior, and mixed sources (Fig 5B and 5C).
In addition, the lithic fragments, metamorphic rocks (Lm)–volcanic rocks (Lv)–sedimentary
rocks (Ls) diagram [36] shown in Fig 5D suggests that these rocks are related to rifted conti-
nental margin, mixed arc, and subduction complex. Moreover, these rocks were plotted in the
diagrams of polycrystalline quartz (Qp) and lithic fragments [37] as collision suture fold-thrust
(Fig 5E).
Geochemistry
Thirty-four representative samples were analyzed for major oxides, trace elements, and REEs
(Table 2). The rock sequence of the PWF and SKF showed a wide rank of silica (SiO2 62.12–
97.55 wt% and 69.02–96.12 wt%, respectively), whereas the PPF and KKF presented 87.63–
96.95 wt% and 84.41–95.25 wt%, respectively. The maroon sedimentary rocks presented Fe2O3
higher than 1%; however, the iron concentrations (Fe2O3) of white sandstone were lower than
1%. According to the relationship of Fe2O3/K2O and SiO2/Al2O3 [38] in Fig 6A, the PWF was
classified as quartz arenite and subarkose, with a small amount of arkose, whereas rock sam-
ples from the SKF were identified as arkose and subarkose. The sandstones of the PPF were

Fig 6. Chemical classification of sedimentary rocks in Khon Kaen Geopark. (A) log(Fe2O3/K2O) and log(SiO2/Al2O3) fields [38], and (B) log(Na2O/K2O) and log(SiO2/
Al2O3) fields after [34].
identified as quartz arenite, sublitharenite, and subarkose. However, the rock samples from the
KKF were plotted in the subarkose and quartz arenite fields.
Based on the diagram of log(Na2O/K2O) versus log(SiO2/Al2O3) [34], the PPF sandstone
was plotted in the quartz arenite, lithic arenite, subarkose, and sublitharenite fields (Fig 6B). In
addition, the SKF sandstone was classified as subarkose and sublitharenite, the PPF as quartz
arenite and sublitharenite, and the KKF as sublitharenite. According to the isotopic systems of
zircon-specific and whole-rock geochemistry of granitoids in Sukhothai Terrane and the west-
ern part of Indochina [39, 40], the geochemical characteristics are relatively consistent with the
lithic arenite and sublitharenite in KKGp. However, SiO2 has been increased, while Al2O3 has
been lost during feldspars and other inconsistent minerals weathering and alteration. The
ratios of Th/U in PWF, SKF, PPF, and KKF are 2.579–4.525, 3.293–5.769, and 3.168–3.882,
respectively that lower than Th:U of comparison granitoid (8.0–11.8) indicating that both Pb
and Th have been lost from the zircon during subsequent tectonic events and sedimentary
process.
Provenance
The relationships of major oxides (TiO2, Fe2O3, MgO, K2O, Na2O, SiO2, and Al2O3) can be
used to classify the tectonic settings of sedimentary rocks [41–45]. The sandstones of the
KKGp were mostly plotted in the passive margin field, whereas some fell in the active conti-
nental arc (Fig 7A–7C). The basicity index can be calculated by Eq 1.
Basicity Index ¼ ðFeO þ MgOÞ=ðSiO2 þ K2 O þ Na2 OÞ ð1Þ

Fig 7. Tectonic-setting discrimination diagrams for the sedimentary rocks in Khon Kaen Geopark. (A) FeO+MgO vs. TiO2 fields [41], (B) SiO2–Log(K2O/Na2O)
diagram [43], (C) basicity diagram [44, 45], and (D) discriminant function analysis using major oxides [42].
Moreover, the following functions were used for classifying the provenance of sandstone
using major oxides for Fig 7D.
DF1 ¼ 1:773 TiO2 þ0:607 Al2 O3 þ0:76 Fe2 O3 1:5 MgOþ0:616 CaOþ0:509 Na2 O 1:224 K2 O 9:09 ð2Þ
DF2¼0:445 TiO2 þ0:07 Al2 O3 0:25 Fe2 O3 1:142 MgOþ0:438 CaOþ1:475 Na2 Oþ1:426 K2 O 6:9 ð3Þ
Ternary trace elements classification diagrams were used to classify provenance and tec-
tonic settings. The La-Th-Sc discrimination diagrams [46] in Fig 8A and 8B suggest that the
studied sandstones in the KKGp were from mixed sources (granitic gneiss metabasite, clay,
silt, sand, and gravel). In addition, based on the Th-Sc-(Zr/10) discrimination diagram [41]
and La-Th-Sc discrimination diagram [41] in Fig 8C and 8D, these sources were related to the
continental arc setting. Thus, the PWF, SKF, PPF, and KKF of the Khorat Group may be
formed from sediments of mixed sources (felsic-intermediate rocks) of the continental arc.

Fig 8. Ternary trace elements classification of sedimentary rocks in Khon Kaen Geopark. (A) La-Th-Sc discrimination diagram [45], (B) La-Th-Sc discrimination
diagram [44], (C) Th-Sc-(Zr/10) discrimination diagram [46], and (D) La-Th-Sc discrimination diagram [47].
Based on the discriminant function analyses using major oxides [42], the sandstones were
mostly classified as quartzose sedimentary (Fig 7D). Furthermore, some very fine-grained
sandstones of SKF, siltstones of PWF, and calcareous sandstones of PWF were plotted in the
intermediate igneous provenance field because these rocks have high CaO (wt%) from soluble
cement, which affects the CaO value in the discriminant functions. However, similarities
appeared when comparing REEs and immobile trace elements in the La/Yb versus Ce diagram
[48], suggesting that the sandstones of the KKGp were formed from quartzose sedimentary
provenances (Fig 9A). In addition, the La/Th versus Hf classification diagram [49] suggests
that the sandstones of the KKGp were formed from the intermediate arc and felsic passive
margin sources (Fig 9B). Furthermore, the Th/Sc versus Zr/Sc diagram [50] indicates that the
sandstones are related to the upper crust and sediment recycling (Fig 9C).

Fig 9. Chemical classification to determine source rock compositions of sedimentary rocks in Khon Kaen Geopark. (A) La/Yb versus Ce diagram [47], (B) La/Th
versus Hf diagram [48], and (C) Th/Sc versus Zr/Sc diagram [49].
Comparison with previous studies

The major and minor oxides normalized analyses were compared with the results of the upper
continental crust (UCC) from [51], as shown in Fig 10A. The graph shows that SiO2 content is
close to that of the (UCC; TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, and P2O5 content
tended to be lower than that in the UCC, but in some samples, MnO and CaO values were
higher than that in the UCC. The study of the lithology and petrography showed that the sam-
ples had a calcareous cement binder, resulting in high CaO and MnO content of the samples,
consistent with the results of the chemical analysis.
Trace elements and REEs in the rock samples were compared with those in the UCC from
[52], and the result is presented in Fig 10B. The graph shows that the amount of Sc, V, Cr, Cu,
Ni, and Zn tended to be lower than that in the UCC, indicating that the rock sample contained
very few mafic minerals, which are found in small quantities when the rock is high in SiO2,
excluding some calcrete samples (KK3-1) presenting high Cu (wt%). In addition, the lower Sr
content than that in the UCC was owing to the high CaO content of the rock samples. More-
over, some sandy mudrock (KK7-2) presented high Ba content, suggesting that the rock sam-
ple contained a very large amount of potassium-bearing minerals (alkaline feldspars, mica,
and clays). From the graph in Fig 10, it can be seen that only rock samples from the SKF (KK3
and KK6-8) have high Zr, Hf, and Y content, suggesting that these rocks may have a high zir-
con proportion in rock fragments, which is consistent with the petrographic classification of
the rocks as lithic wacke, lithic arenite, and feldspathic lithic arenite. Furthermore, the prove-
nance discrimination diagram from the major and minor oxide data (TiO2-Al2O3-Fe2O3-
MgO-CaO-Na2O-K2O) [42] suggested that the PWF, SKF, PPF, and KKF originated from
quartzose sedimentary rocks (Fig 7D).
Numerous studies have shown that the chemical composition of clastic rocks is partly influ-
enced and controlled by tectonic settings, with different tectonic landscapes exhibiting differ-
ent geochemical characteristics [41–45]. There are three main types of tectonic margins:
passive continental margin, active continental margin, and oceanic island arc; these were clas-
sified using major and minor oxides in Fig 7A–7C. These tectonic classifications [41–45]
revealed that most are deposited in the passive continental margin or intracratonic basin. Fur-
thermore, REE tectonic classification diagrams [41] demonstrate the samples were deposited
in either a passive continental margin or intracratonic basin. Rare Earth Elements (REEs) are

Fig 10. Upper continental crust (UCC)-normalized patterns of the KKGp sedimentary rock. (A) Major-minor oxides and (B) trace elements. Data for UCC are from
[51].
not mobile during weathering so are more reliable than major elemental analysis. Therefore, it
was concluded that most rock samples are associated with passive continental margins or
intracratonic basins (Fig 8).
Fig 11. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of the KKGp sedimentary rocks, Shijia sandstone, granites from Qinling Orogenic Belt, and UCC. Data for Shijia
sandstone, granites from Qinling Orogenic Belt, UCC, and chondrite are from [51–54].

When comparing REEs in chondrite from [52, 53] concluded that the sandstones in the
study area originated from quartzose sedimentary rocks deposited in the passive continental
margin. REE patterns from Shijia sandstone [53] and REE patterns (Khorat Group) from this
research were found to be similar (Fig 11) and their patterns also according to felsic igneous
rocks from Qinling Orogenic Belt [54]. Therefore, it was concluded that the studied rock sam-
ples had similar origins and tectonic landscapes to those in the previously mentioned research.
Although the rock samples from the two studies were collected at very different ages, the REEs
within the rocks were not lost. Thus, the use of REEs is quite accurate and it can be concluded
that studies of provenances and tectonic settings using rare earth data have some degree of
reliability.
Discussion
The KKGp comprises Mesozoic sedimentary rocks: sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, inter-
bedded limestone lenses, calcrete, an evaporitic layer, and fossils. Many researchers have stud-
ied the sedimentology, stratigraphy, and paleocurrents of the formation [55–57]. Several
studies attest to varied origins and tectonic environments [14, 15, 19, 21–27, 30, 41–43, 47].
Previous studies [10, 58, 59] have suggested that the late Triassic Huai Hin Lat and Nam
Phong Formations originate from intermediate to felsic igneous rocks and quartzose sedimen-
tary rocks and accumulate in the active continental margin to the passive continental margin
or intracratonic basin (Fig 12). Based on lithology, petrography, and geochemistry, it has been
suggested that the Jurassic to Cretaceous Phu Kradueng Formation, PWF, SKF, PPF, and KKF
[60] originate from quartzose sedimentary rocks and accumulate in the passive continental
margin or intracratonic basin (Fig 12).
The Huai Hin Lat deposition in the sedimentary basin was created by the late Paleozoic col-
lision of the microcontinents (Fig 13A) at a higher latitude than the present location or near
Southeast Tibet [62]. Therefore, intermediate and felsic igneous rocks, as well as quartzose sed-
imentary rocks, were transported from the western part and accumulated in the basin [63].
Fig 12. Simplified scheme of Khorat Group stratigraphy and tectonic setting from the late Triassic to early
Cretaceous. Stratigraphic data from [12, 61].

Fig 13. (A) a simplified map of the Khorat sediments and other basins containing Cretaceous recycled orogen sediments, (B) a tectonic model of the Khorat
basin during the Early Cretaceous, and (C) present-day tectonics of the Khorat Plateau. The synthesis of the geotectonic evolution of Thailand is from [86, 87].
The location of the Khorat Basin and transportation (black arrow) of sediments are modified from [32, 70].
Meanwhile, U-Pb geochronology and Lu-Hf isotopic signatures of the Huai Hin Lat formation
(HHF) suggest that the western margin of the Khorat Plateau may have been part of an early
Paleozoic arc system [64–70], which is consistent with the prominence of early Paleozoic zir-
cons, or approximately 452 Ma [71, 72], and similar to the South China Terrane [73–76]. In
addition, the 290 Ma zircon isotopic signature in the HHF is consistent with crystallization
ages from granitoids within the Indochina Terrane that span from 310 to 203 Ma [54, 77–84]
and is more evolved than the Khao Khwang Fold-Thrust Belt [85, 86]. Therefore, these ages
may be associated with Late Carboniferous to Middle Permian subduction-related volcanic
arcs as a result of the early stages of the South China collision with Vietnam and Indochina
[73, 76], or the similarly timed Indosinian orogeny caused by the collision of the Sibumasu
and Indochina Terranes [58, 83].
Over time, these two microcontinents became more stable, and the Nam Phong Formation
occurred (Fig 13B) from sediments of felsic igneous rocks and quartzose sedimentary rocks
[59], bounded below and above by major unconformities, deposited in the NW-SE trending
basin in similarity to south Vietnam and NE Cambodia [84]. The ostracod assemblage and
microfacies in the lower Jurassic Nam Phong Formation, above the oldest known dinosaur
footprints site in Thailand, indicate deposition in a shallow and low-energy fluvial-lacustrine
regime [85]. During this period, a contractional fold belt in the basin developed during the
Early and Middle Jurassic affected by the Jurassic tectonic of the southeastern Indochina Ter-
rane [84].
Many researchers suggest that the Khorat Group was essentially deposited in a layer-cake
fashion, accompanied by local faulting [58, 88], whereas Racey described the Khorat Group as
being deposited in a craton interior setting or intracontinental basin [12]. In addition, strati-
graphic investigation described that the Khorat Group in the Lom Kao (the western part) and
Phu Phan Mountain (the eastern part) as being generally oriented in a westerly direction from

the South China Terrane [63]. Considering the orientations of the cross-bedding data in the
field, the paleocurrent pattern in the PWF and PPF was in a westerly direction [32].
Collisional orogens are one of the factors that affect the sedimentary rift basin of the tec-
tonic passive continental margins [39, 89]. This event may apply to the Khorat Basin, which
was developed as a series of major half-grabens in the extensional event during the Triassic
(Fig 13C). In addition, the Indosinian orogeny during the early Cretaceous may have caused
the collapse of the over-thickened crust, and multi-sequence continental sediments were
deposited during the Jurassic and Cretaceous [90]. Usually, the intracontinental basin is
flanked by mountains on both sides. The drainage transports sediments to the basin on each
side until it accumulates as a stratum. Moreover, dinosaur footprints (small theropods Carme-
lopodus isp.) were discovered in the PWF [16, 91, 92], supporting the premise that dinosaurs
lived in this terrane during the Jurassic-Cretaceous in a braided stream environment [30].
U-Pb zircon dating of sediments in the Khorat Group were reported as 2,456±4 Ma, 2,001
±4 Ma, 251±3 Ma, and 168±2 Ma [1], whereas Wang et al. identified them as 2,500 Ma and
1,860 Ma [93]. These ages are similar to the sediments in the Kangdian basement, Sichuan,
Songpan-Garze, Qiangtang, Yidun geological domains, and Qinling Orogen [40, 54, 74–81]
potentially representing the provenances.
The thick sequence of SKF continental redbeds in KKGp is mostly discovered to be abun-
dant and diverse dinosaur fossils, especially the first Thai dinosaur fossil “Phuwiangosaurus sir-
indhornae” [14, 23, 94]. In addition, the SKF first found four other dinosaur species:
Kinnareemimus khonkaenensis, Siamotyrannus isanensis, Siamosaurus suteethorni, and Phu-
wiangvenator yaemniyomi [14, 20, 21, 24, 25], as well as Jurassic to mid-Cretaceous vertebrate
and Mollusca fossils [11] deposited in the semi-arid meandering rivers and swamps along the
riverbank [30, 31]. According to the radiometric dating of detrital zircons, the SKF was depos-
ited no later than 133.8 Ma. [95]. Similarly, the detrital zircon age pattern of the early Creta-
ceous in Southeast Asia closely resembles that of the Qinling-Dabie and Songpan-Ganzi
orogenic belts or South China Volcanic Arc [95–97].
On the other hand, the 470–430 Ma zircon isotopic characterization was also found in the
late Cretaceous–early Paleogene sandstones (Phu Khat Formation) further northwest of the
Khorat Plateau [1, 98]. This evidence suggests the western Indochina Terrane may also be
related to the Proto-Tethys closure in the early Paleozoic (500–420 Ma) [64–70].
Based on the age constraints of detrital zircons in the Khorat Plateau (PWF-PPF), the sedi-
mentary rocks were from a major early Cretaceous drainage disruption across Southeast Tibet
[60]. According to Jurassic-early Cretaceous zircons (U-Pb dating and U-Pb-Hf compositions)
from the Khorat Plateau [60], the sedimentary rocks of the PWF, SKF, PPF, and KKF were
largely recycled from multiple source terranes, with some possibly transported from the Sibu-
masu terrane or terrane in the western flank (Fig 13A), which is consistent with our petro-
graphic and chemical results. According to the cross-section illustrated in Fig 1, the KKGp
shows the fold structures (Fig 13B) that may be affected by the extensive Palaeogene deforma-
tion and neotectonics (Miocene–Pleistocene) during the Himalayan orogeny event [99]. The
fold and strike-slip fault structures along the NW–SE direction in the Khorat Plateau represent
the dominant tectonic deformation fabric evolved by compression [100]. The regional struc-
tures and tectonic evolution were recorded by fold structures in the KKGp, supporting that
tectonically this region is located on the western margin of the composite Indochina Terrane
and deposited in diverse tectonic settings.

Conclusion
The geological record of the KKGp involves Mesozoic sandstone of the Khorat Group, includ-
ing the PWF, SKF, PPF, and KKF, representing the western part of the Khorat Plateau. The
SKF is the main stratum for fossil exploration, especially dinosaur footprints and dinosaur
bones. According to field observation, lithology, petrography, and geochemistry, the conclu-
sions and interpretations regarding the sedimentary rocks of the KKGp are as follows:
• Field investigation and lithological data suggest that Mesozoic sandstones of the Khorat
Group have several sequences of maroon and white clastic sedimentary successions, which
consist mainly of sandstone, pebbly sandstone, and siltstone interbedded with calcrete, con-
glomerate, and some evaporite layers.
• Petrographical data (Qt–F–Lt) and geochemical data (SiO2, Al2O3, Na2O, K2O, and Fe2O3)
are consistent; the PWF is made up of quartz arenite, litharenite, sublitharenite, and subar-
kose. Moreover, the SKF comprises subarkose and sublitharenite. Furthermore, the PPF
comprises quartz arenite, sublitharenite, and arkose, similar to the KKF.
• Using Qm, Qp, F, Lv, Lm, and Ls, petrographic data classified the provenance from diverse
tectonics, including recycled orogen with quartzose recycled, craton interior, mixed sources,
subduction complex, and collision suture fold-thrust.
• Major oxide relationships (TiO2, Fe2O3, MgO, K2O, Na2O, SiO2, and Al2O3) identified that
the sources of the Mesozoic sandstones were quartzose sedimentary rocks of the passive
margin, and some were felsic-intermediate igneous rocks of the active continental arc.
• Sandstones of the KKGp were from mixed provenances (quartzose sedimentary and felsic-
intermediate igneous rocks) related to the UCC, characterized by La, Yb, Ce, Th, Hf, Sc, Zr,
and chondrite-normalized REE patterns.
• The sandstones in the KKGp were predominantly sourced from the exposed proximal rocks
in the terrane, from the northwestern recycled orogen, based on their maturity, grain charac-
teristics, and previous U-Pb Lu-Hf isotopic signatures.
• This publicity could increase the international scientific value of KKGp allowing it to achieve
the status of a UNESCO Global Geopark and facilitate development of sustainable geotour-
ism. However, the results of this study based on the relatively small dataset and geochemistry
remain inconclusive. Thus, additional electron probe microanalyses (EPMA) for heavy
metal minerals and isotopes are required for additional resolution.
Supporting information
S1 Table. Lithological data of sedimentary rocks in Khon Kaen Geopark.
(XLSX)
S2 Table. Petrographical data of sedimentary rocks in Khon Kaen Geopark.
(XLSX)
S3 Table. Major oxides of sedimentary rocks in Khon Kaen Geopark by XRF analysis.
(XLSX)
S4 Table. Trace and rare earth elements of sedimentary rocks in Khon Kaen Geopark by
ICP analysis.
(XLS)

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the undergraduate students (G44) of the Department of Geo-
technology, Khon Kaen University for their help in fieldwork and sampling: Mr. Weerakieat
Khumwong, Mr. Woraphon Theingwiset, Ms. Kanitta Phanthong, and Ms. Boonthida
Nunchan.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization: Vimoltip Singtuen, Burapha Phajuy.
Data curation: Vimoltip Singtuen, Burapha Phajuy, Apussorn Anumart.
Formal analysis: Vimoltip Singtuen, Apussorn Anumart, Natnicha Chawthai.
Funding acquisition: Vimoltip Singtuen, Burapha Phajuy.
Investigation: Vimoltip Singtuen, Apussorn Anumart, Natnicha Chawthai.
Methodology: Vimoltip Singtuen, Burapha Phajuy, Apussorn Anumart, Natnicha Chawthai.
Project administration: Vimoltip Singtuen.
Resources: Vimoltip Singtuen, Burapha Phajuy, Apussorn Anumart.
Software: Vimoltip Singtuen, Apussorn Anumart.
Supervision: Vimoltip Singtuen, Burapha Phajuy, Punya Charusiri, Heiner Heggemann.
Validation: Vimoltip Singtuen, Burapha Phajuy, Punya Charusiri.
Visualization: Vimoltip Singtuen, Burapha Phajuy, Punya Charusiri, Heiner Heggemann.
Writing – original draft: Vimoltip Singtuen.
Writing – review & editing: Vimoltip Singtuen, Punya Charusiri, Heiner Heggemann.
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PLOS ONE

Geochemistry and provenance of Mesozoic

OPEN ACCESS Abstract

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funders had no role in study design, data collection Introduction

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classification. A petrographic examination was conducted on all 47 fresh rocks distributed

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Forty-seven lithological and petrographical studies conducted in 30 sites in the KKGp

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La 20 14 14.9 8.7 12.3 22.8 10.9 9.6 12.9 16.4 8.5

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Comparison with previous studies

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