TITLE PAGE

TITLE OF EXPERIMENT: FIXED AND FLUIDIZED BED

AIM OF EXPERIMENT:

TO INVESTIGATE THE CHARACTERISTICS ASSOCIATED WITH WATER

FLOWING VERTICALLY UPWARDS THROUGH A BED OF GRANULAR
MATERIAL AS FOLLOWS:

a. To determine the head loss (pressure drop)

b. To verify the equation
c. To observe the unset of fluidization and differentiate between the
characteristics of a fixed bed and a fluidized bed.
d. To compare the predicted onset of fluidization with the measured head loss.

EXPERIMENT NUMBER: 03

STUDENTS NAME: OTARU KEHINDE AGBAGONODE

MATRICULATION NUMBER: ENG2002074

GROUP: A3

SERIAL NUMBER: 33

LEVEL: 300

COURSE CODE: CHE 302

DATE OF EXPERIMENT: 04/07/23

DATE OF SUBMISSION: 10/07/23

INSTRUCTORS NAME: MR WISDOM OSAYUKI

i
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Variation of fluidized bed pressure drop with gas velocity. ……….9
Figure 2: pipe …………………………………………….11
Figure 3: compressors……………………………… …………….. 12
Figure 4 : manometer ……………………………………………… 12
Figure 5: centrifugal pump ………………………………………..13
Figure : front view of fixed and fluidized bed …………………… 14

LIST OF TABLES
Table1 Raw experimental values……………………17

Table 2. ……………………17
Table 3. ………………….18
Table 4.

ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE--------------------------------------------------------------------------- i

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES------------------------------------------------- ii - iii

ABSTRACT---------------------------------------------------------------------------- iv
INTRODUCTION---------------------------------------------------------------------- 1- 4

THEORY-------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 5-6

DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS-------------------------------------------------6- 16

PROCEDURE--------------------------------------------------------------------------17

RESULTS/CALCULATIONS-------------------------------------------------------18 - 21

DISCUSSION--------------------------------------------------------------------------22-23

CONCLUSION------------------------------------------------------------------------24

RECOMMENDATION--------------------------------------------------------------26

REFERENCES------------------------------------------------------------------------27-33

APPENDICES------------------------------------------------------------------------24 - 26

iii
ABSTRACT

The experiment is carried out to investigate the characteristics associated with water flowing
vertically upwards through a bed of granular material this properties includes pressure drop at
minimum fluidized velocity, to verify the theoretical pressure drop using Ergun Equation, to
observe the unset of fluidization and differentiate between the characteristics of a fixed bed and a
Fluidized bed and finally to compare the predicted unset of fluidization with measured head loss.
In this experiment, air was allowed to pass through a column filled with a bed of balloting particles,
when the upward drag force exerted by the air on the particles is equal to the apparent weight of
particles in the bed, fluidization starts to occur and the effect of air flowrate on pressure drop was
then observed by varying the air flowrate and the results obtain are presented in the results section
of this report.
From table 1, as shown in the results section of this report it can be seen that the bed height
remained constant (i.e 315 mm) for the first three consecutive flow rates (i.e 0, 2 and 4 L/mins)
this shows that the bed hasn’t attained the flow rate that will give the minimum superficial velocity
required for fluidization at this stage the bed is said to be in the fixed states indicating that the solid
particles inside the bed are not undergoing any motion but might vibrate. As the flow rate is
increased continually a point is reached where the particles inside the beds start behaving like a
fluid at this flow rates, the particles have attained their minimum superficial velocity required for
fluidization hence the particles are said to be in a Fluidized state, as shown by an increase in bed
height of 319, 327, 340, 345, 370, 410, 440 mm for a flow rates of 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 L/mins
respectively. It can also be seen that the bed height increases with increase in flow rates this is
because and increase in flow rate results to and increase in fluid velocity which in turn increases
the upward force of the fluid as it flows through the particles up the backed bed.
From the values of the pressure drop as presented in table 4 in the results section of this report it
shows that the pressure drop increases with an increase in the flow rate this show that the flow
rates is proportional to the pressure drop but not linearly or directly proportional since the plot of
pressure drop against flow rate is not a straight line or linear graph as shown in figure 3.
And from table 4 it can be seen that there are deviations between the predicted pressure drop and
the experimental pressure drop for a specific flow rate the reasons for this deviations has been
listed and discussed in the discussion section of these report and possibly recommendations needed
in averting this deviations were also suggested.

iv
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Fluidization is an aspect of chemical engineering not usually covered in depth at the

undergraduate level, but engineers are as likely to meet with fluidization during their careers as
there are some other, more extensively taught, unit operations. It has applications ranging from
chromatography and fermentation through filtration, drying, and catalysis and is likely to be
encountered by non-engineering professionals such as chemists and biologists.

A fluidized bed is a state of a two-phase mixture of particulate solid material and fluid,
which is widely used in many modern technologies for efficient implementation of various
physical and chemical processes. Fluidized beds have been used in technological processes such
as: cracking and reforming of hydrocarbons (oil), carbonization and gasification of coal, ore
roasting, Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, polyethylene manufacturing, limestone calcining, aluminum
anhydride production, granulation, vinyl-chloride production, combustion of waste, nuclear fuel
preparation, combustion of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels, drying, adsorption, cooling, heating,
freezing, conveying, storing and thermal treating of various particulate solid materials.

The term “fluidized bed” is unavoidably connected to the term “particulate solid material”.
Particulate materials are mechanical mixtures of multitude of solid particles. Natural particulate
materials originate from many long-term natural processes: heating, cooling, thermal dilatation,
colliding, crushing, chopping up, atmospheric changes, river erosion and erosion caused by sea
waves. Many technological processes also produce particulate solid material: grinding, chopping
up, milling, evaporation, crystallization, spraying and drying. Particulate materials can also be of
organic (plant) origin: fruits and seeds.

Particulate materials most commonly consist of solid particles with a range of shape and size.
The majority of inorganic particulate solid materials found in nature have an extremely wide
range of particle sizes. Such materials are called polydisperse materials. By certain technological
processes, it is possible to produce particles with practically the same shape and size. Organic
particulate materials found in nature (fruits and seeds) consist of particles of similar shape and
size. Such materials are called monodisperse materials.

1
The geometrical, physical and aerodynamical properties of particulate solid materials all affect
the onset of fluidization, and the characteristics, behavior and the main parameters of fluidized
beds. The most important solid properties are:

 Particle density (not taking porosity into account),

 Skeletal (true) density,
 Bulk density—mass per unit volume of fixed bed,
 Porosity (or void fraction) of the fixed bed—ratio of volume of space between the
particles and the volume of the fixed bed,
 Mean equivalent particle diameter—particle characteristic dimension,
 Particle shape,
 Particle size distribution—probability distribution of particle distribution due to their
size,
 Archimedes and drag forces are in equilibrium

A fixed bed refers to a collection of solid particles, like zeolite pellets or granular activated
carbon, held within hollow tubes, pipes, or vessels. On the other hand, a fluidized bed is a
phenomenon that occurs when a quantity of solid particles in a container is subjected to specific
conditions that make the solid/fluid mixture behave like a fluid. This is typically achieved by
introducing pressurized fluid through the particles, causing the medium to exhibit properties
similar to regular fluids, such as the ability to flow freely under gravity or be pumped using fluid-
based technologies Free fall (or terminal) velocity—velocity of falling particle at which
gravitational,
Fixed beds find applications in various process industries as catalysts in chemical reactors, beds
for adsorption/desorption processes, thermal regenerators, heat storage devices, and pebble bed
heaters. In these operations, heat and mass transfer occur between the fluid and solid phases, which
can be either in a steady state or transient state.

Fluidized beds are employed as a technical process that enables a high degree of interaction
between gases and solids. They possess a unique set of fundamental properties that are vital in
modern process and chemical engineering. Some of these properties includes:
 High rates of heat and mass transfer: The configuration of a fluidized bed provides a large

2
 surface area for effective transfer of heat and mass. The continuous movement of particles
ensures that fresh solid surfaces are constantly exposed to the surrounding fluid, enabling
efficient transfer.
 Effective mixing and homogeneity of solids: The fluidization process ensures thorough
mixing of solid particles, preventing the formation of stagnant regions or concentration
gradients. This promotes uniform reaction or adsorption across the bed and avoids
preferential flow paths or channeling.
 Enhanced mixing: The vigorous mixing resulting from the fluidizing gas flow promotes
efficient contact between the gas and solid particles, facilitating improved rates of mass
and heat transfer.
 Uniform temperature distribution: The intensive mixing in a fluidized bed leads to a
relatively even distribution of temperature throughout the bed. This is advantageous in
processes that require precise temperature control, such as catalytic reactions or thermal
processes.
 Easy scale-up: Fluidized beds are easily scalable and can accommodate varying volumes
of solid particles without significant changes to the bed geometry. This makes them
adaptable to different process scales, from laboratory-scale reactors to large industrial
installations.

 Improved solid-gas contact: The fluidization process maximizes the contact area between
the gas and solid particles, facilitating efficient gas-solid interactions such as chemical
reactions, adsorption, or drying. This leads to enhanced process efficiency and product
quality.

 Effective control of reaction conditions: The fluidized bed allows for precise control of
operating conditions such as temperature, pressure, gas composition, and residence time.
This control enables optimization of process parameters to achieve desired product quality
and selectivity.
These properties make fluidized beds highly suitable for applications such as combustion,
gasification, catalytic reactions, drying, coating, granulation, and other processes where efficient
contact between gases and solids is crucial.

3
An important application of fluidization is in food processing industries where: Fluidized beds are
used to accelerate freezing in some individually quick frozen (IQF) tunnel freezers. These
Fluidized bed tunnels are typically used on small food products like peas, shrimp or sliced
vegetables, and may use cryogenic or vapor-compression refrigeration. The fluid used in Fluidized
beds may also contain a fluid of catalytic type; that's why it is also used to catalyze the chemical
reaction and also to improve the rate of reaction. It also find applications in efficient bulk drying
of materials where Fluidized bed technology in dryers increases efficiency by allowing for the
entire surface of the drying material to be suspended and therefore exposed to the air. This process
can also be combined with heating or cooling, if necessary, according to the specifications of the
application.

4
2.0 THEORY

The upward flow of fluid through a bed of particles is a situation encountered both in nature, as
with the natural movement of ground water, crude petroleum or natural gas, through porous
media, and in industrial operations such as backwashing filters, ion-exchange processes,
extraction of soluble components from raw materials and for certain types of chemical reactor. It
is well known that if the particles are loosely packed and the pressure drop due to the flow
through the bed is equivalent to the weight of the bed, the phenomenon of fluidization occurs.
The fluidized state occurs naturally is so-called ‘quick sand’ and industrially, use is made of the
high rate of solids mixing that accompanies fluidization for various operations such as drying,
coating, heat transfer and chemical reaction. This equipment is designed to allow the study of the
characteristics of flow through both fixed and fluidized bed of solid particles. Although the
majority of fixed and fluidized bed situations encountered by practicing engineers are three
dimensional, in order that students can readily observe the important phenomenon of bubbling
that occur sin gas-solid systems when the gas velocity is in the excess of that required for
fluidization. The transparent walls allow studies to be made of bubble behavior in the gas-solid
system.

For the exact definition of the term “fluidized bed,” it is not sufficient to say that the
fluidized bed is a state of the two-phase mixture of the particulate solid material and the fluid.
Between two limiting states of the mixture—fluid percolation in the vertical direction through a
fixed bed of particulate solids and the free fall of the particles through the stagnant fluid due to
the gravitational force, a variety of different states of the solid-fluid two-phase mixture exist. The
common characteristic of all these states in vertical, upward or downward, flow (of fluid,
particles or both, in the same or opposite directions) is the existence of fluid-to-particle relative
velocity and drag force. The various states of solid particle-fluid two-phase mixtures differ from
each other by the following characteristics:

 The solid particles can be stagnant, floating or moving chaotically,

 The solid particles movement can be in a preferred direction or chaotic—one phase or
both can be in movement,
 The flow direction can be vertical or horizontal,
 The fluid phase can be in concurrent or countercurrent flow,

5
  The movement of the solid material can be free or limited by some kind of mechanical
device (a perforated plate, for example),
 The density or concentration of the mixture may differ greatly from one state to another

There are several possible states for mixtures of solid particles and fluids. These include
fixed beds, stationary fluidized beds, fluidized beds with particle feeding at the bottom and
overflow at the bed’s surface (or vice versa), vertical conveying in dense beds, low density vertical
and horizontal conveying, downward particle movement in dense beds with fluid flowing in the
same direction, and low density conveying downwards. Special cases of these states are moving
beds and spouted beds.
The voidage, which refers to the volume fraction of void spaces within the mixture, is close to the
minimum fluidization value. Vertical down flow is commonly employed in stand-pipes, where the
fluid moves faster than the solids. On the other hand, the up-flow of non-fluidized particles is not
commonly observed.
The packed bed is fluidized when a jet-like upward-moving dilute fluidized phase is surrounded
by a slow downward-moving bed. Gas percolates upward through this bed. However, the use of
such systems is limited to specific physical operations involving large particles.
The Zenz diagram is a well-known representation that delineates the transition boundaries between
these different states of solid material-fluid mixtures. It serves as a useful tool for understanding
and studying their behavior.
When a fixed bed of particulate material is penetrated vertically by a fluid a velocity sufficient
to break up the bed, it enters a fluidized state. In a fixed bed, the particles are immobile and exert
forces on each other through numerous contact points. Gravity distributes the weight of the
particles and the entire bed in all directions through these contact points. Once the critical velocity,
also known as the minimum fluidization velocity, is reached, the solid particles begin to float and
move in a chaotic manner, colliding with each other. The duration of particle contacts becomes
short, and the forces between them weaken, resulting in the particulate solid material being in a
fluidized state.
In the fluidized state, the particles are in constant and chaotic motion, and their average distance
from each other increases with increasing fluid velocity, causing the bed height to rise. The
pressure drop in the fluid phase across the bed remains constant and is equal to the weight of the
bed divided by the surface area of the bed cross-section. This value is achieved at the minimum

6
(incipient) fluidization velocity.
When a bed is fluidized with liquids, it is referred to as “homogeneous” fluidization. Gas
fluidization, on the other hand, leads to “heterogeneous” fluidization. At gas velocities slightly
above the minimum fluidization velocity, bubbles form, and the fluidized bed can be considered
as consisting of two phases: bubbles, which contain virtually no particles, and a particulate
(emulsion) phase that is in a condition similar to that of the bed at the minimum fluidization
velocity. Bubbles form near the distribution plate, rise through the bed, grow, and coalesce,
producing larger bubbles that sometimes break up into smaller bubbles. On the bed surface,
bubbles burst violently, ejecting particles far from the bed surface. This bubble behavior enhances
intensive particle circulation in the bed. Behind the bubble, particles move upwards, while around
and between the bubbles, particularly near the walls, particles move downwards. The movement
of bubbles thus promotes intense axial mixing of gas and particles in the fluidized bed.
The chaotic movement of particles in the fluidized bed is the primary reason why various
characteristics of fluidized beds resemble those of liquids, which explains the name given to this
state of a two-phase fluid-solid mixture. The free surface of the fluidized bed is horizontal but
irregular in shape due to the bursting bubbles. Nonetheless, it forms a clear and distinct boundary
between the densely concentrated bed and the space above it (freeboard), where particle
concentration exponentially decreases. Particles with higher density sink in the fluidized bed,
while those with lower density float or move chaotically near the surface. In the fluidized state,
particulate solid material can flow out through the openings of the vessel. Similar to liquids, the
mixing of two particulate materials in a fluidized bed is intense and homogeneous. Heat transfer
is also efficient, maintaining a homogeneous temperature field during heating, cooling, or
combustion processes within the bed. Fluidized beds adhere to the principles of hydrostatics.
The unique characteristics of fluidized beds make them suitable for efficient implementation of
various physical and chemical processes. The fluidized state, which falls between the fixed bed
filtration and pneumatic conveying regimes, encompasses three distinct regimes: stationary
bubbling fluidized bed, turbulent fluidized bed, and fast fluidization regime. In recent times, many
technological processes have been carried out in the latter two regimes.
The bubbling fluidized bed aligns closely with the aforementioned characteristics. The key
distinction between this regime and the other two is the presence of large bubbles and a well-
defined free surface. The bed exhibits significant non-homogeneity due to the bubbles, and the

7
pressure drop across the bed oscillates over time.
As the fluidization velocity increases, large bubbles break up into smaller ones. When the breakup
process surpasses bubble coalescence, the oscillations in the pressure drop decrease. This marks
the onset of the turbulent regime, where large bubbles are absent in the bed. The particulate phase
of the bed becomes more homogenous, with smaller voids in the form of channels and jets, and
particles forming clusters. Neither the gaseous phase nor the emulsion phase can be considered
continuous. Particle mixing intensifies, and phase interactions become stronger. The free surface
of the bed becomes irregular and indistinct. Many particles and clusters are carried off the bed
surface and then fall back into the bed. The maximum velocity in the turbulent regime is known
as the “transport velocity,” beyond which the fast fluidization regime occurs. At velocities
exceeding the transport velocity, particles are carried out of the system by the fluid, and the bed
can only be sustained by continuously feeding new particulate material.
At velocities higher than the transport velocity, the fast fluidization regime exhibits varying
concentrations depending on the flow rate of solid particles returning to the bed. In this regime,
particles move upward in clusters through the middle of the bed cross-section, while near the walls,
particles move downward. Particle mixing becomes even more intensive in both axial and radial
directions. Particle concentration in the freeboard region decreases exponentially in the upward
direction.
All the mentioned fluidization regimes, along with the fixed bed and pneumatic conveying states,
find applications in various devices and technological processes. A prominent example is the
combustion of solid fuels such as coal. Boilers with grates utilize fixed beds, while fluidized bed
combustion boilers employ bubbling fluidized beds or turbulent regimes (with fly ash
recirculation). Circulating fluidized bed boilers operate in the fast fluidization regime, and
pulverized coal combustion boilers function in the pneumatic conveying regime.
Parameters that describe the macroscopic behavior of the fluidized bed in the bubbling regime
include minimum fluidization velocity, pressure drop across the bed, increase in bed height, and
particle elutriation.
The easiest way to identify the transition from the fixed bed regime to the fluidized bed regime is
by measuring the pressure drop across the bed as a function of fluid velocity. This yields a
characteristic curve, as depicted in Figure 1.

8
 Figure 1: Variation of fluidized bed pressure drop with gas velocity.

When water is passed at very low velocity up through a bed of solid particles, the particles do not
move, and the pressure drop is given by the Ergun equation:

150𝜇 (1−𝜀)2𝐿 1.75𝜌𝑓 (1−𝜀)𝐿

𝛥𝑃 = 𝜌 2 𝑉𝑠𝑚 + 𝑉𝑠𝑚 2 Where:
𝑓 𝑔𝑑𝑝 𝜀3 𝑑𝑝 𝑔 𝜀3

𝛥𝑃, denotes the change in pressure

 L, denotes the fixed bed height
 𝜇𝑓 denotes the dynamic fluid viscosity
 𝜑𝑝 , denotes the particle sphericity
 𝑑𝑝 , denotes the particle diameter
 𝜌𝑓 , denotes the fluid density
 𝜀, denotes the porosity (voidage)
 𝐴𝑝 , denotes the particle surface area
 The Kozeny–Carman equation (or Carman–Kozeny equation or Kozeny equation) is a
relation used in the field of fluid dynamics to calculate the pressure drop of a fluid flowing
through a packed bed of solids. It is named after Josef Kozeny and Philip C. Carman.
The equation is only valid for laminar flow. It is often presented as porosity, grain size, and
tortuosity. When it is used to estimate permeability evolution versus porosity, some of these
arguments (e.g., the grain size and tortuosity) are held constant. Here we theoretically explore

9
 the internal consistency of this assumption and offer alternative forms for the Kozeny-Carman
equation.
 At low Reynolds number and for spherical particles the Carman Kozeny equation is obtained
as
𝛥𝑃 𝑑𝑝 𝜀3 (1−𝜀)
 ×𝜌 × (1−𝜀) = 150×
𝐿 2 𝑅𝑒
𝑓× 𝑉𝑠𝑚

𝜌𝑓× 𝑉𝑠𝑚 × 𝑑𝑝
 Were Reynolds number based on superficial velocity is Re= 𝜇𝑓

 The pressure drop predicted from the Wen and Yu equation

 𝛥𝑃=L (1- 𝜀)( 𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑓 ) g
 Then for the Carman Kozeny equation
(1− 𝜀)
 𝛥𝑃= L ( 𝜌𝑠 − 𝜌𝑓 )
𝜌𝑓

 The Superficial velocity V sm (m/s) can be calculated from the flow rate(Q) and the cross-
sectional area (A)of the bed using its internal diameter.
𝑄
 Vsm = 𝐴

10
3.0 DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS

3.1 APPARATUS:
1. Air compressor
2. Pipe
3. Sump tank
4. Flow meter
5. Manometer
3.1.1 PIPE:
A pipe is a tubular section or hollow cylinder, usually but not necessarily of circular cross-section,
used mainly to convey substances which can flow — liquids and gases (fluids), slurries, powders
and masses of small solids delivery of fluids, either gaseous or liquid, in a process plant from one
point to another point in the process.

Figure 2: Pipe

3.1.2 AIR COMPRESSOR:

An air compressor is a pneumatic device that converts power (using an electric motor, diesel or
gasoline engine, etc.) into potential energy stored in pressurized air (i.e., compressed air). By one
of several methods, an air compressor forces more and more air into a storage tank, increasing the
pressure. When the tank’s pressure reaches its engineered upper limit, the air compressor shuts off.
The compressed air, then, is held in the tank until called into use.[1] The energy contained in the
compressed air can be used for a variety of applications, utilizing the kinetic energy of the air as it
is released and the tank depressurizes. When tank pressure reaches Its lower limit, the air
compressor turns on again and re-pressurizes the tank. An air Compressor must be differentiated

11
from a pump because it works for any gas/air, while pumps work on a liquid.

Figure 3: Air compressor

3.1.3 SUMP TANK: this is a vessel at the back of the apparatus that stores water. It serves as a
source of fluid to the water test column
3.1.4 FLOW METER
Flow meters are instruments used to measure the rate of flow of a liquid or gas through a specific
point in a system. They are commonly used in industrial, commercial, and scientific applications
to monitor and control the flow of fluids. Flow meters provide valuable information about the
quantity, velocity, and pressure of the fluid passing through them.
3.1.5 MANOMETER

A manometer is a device used to measure the pressure of a fluid (liquid or gas) in a closed
system. It consists of a tube partially filled with a liquid, typically mercury or a colored liquid,
and connected to the system where pressure needs to be measured

Figure 4 : manometer

3.1.6 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

Centrifugal pumps are used to transport fluids by the conversion of rotational kinetic energy to the

12
hydrodynamic energy of the fluid flow. The rotational energy typically comes from an engine or
electric motor. They are a sub-class of dynamic axisymmetric work-absorbing turbomachinery.
The fluid enters the pump impeller along or near to the rotating axis and is accelerated by the
impeller, flowing radially outward into a diffuser or volute chamber (casing), from which it exits.
Common uses include water, sewage, agriculture, petroleum and petrochemical pumping.
Centrifugal pumps are often chosen for their high flow rate capabilities, abrasive solution
compatibility, mixing potential, as well as their relatively simple engineering. A centrifugal fan is
commonly used to implement an air handling unit or vacuum cleaner.

Figure 5: Centrifugal pump (F1-26 )

3.1.7 SWITCH: the switch to the left is used to switch on the compressor for air column test
while the switch to the right is used to switch on the pump for water column test
3.1.8 TEST COLUMN: The water and the air test column parked bed filled with billotini
through which the their respective fluids flow during the experiment

13
 FIXED AND FLUIDIZED BED APPARATUS

Switch
Orange
Back Board

Water test Column Water Manometer

Air test Column

Air Flow Control
Valve

Support Frame

Fig 6: Front View of the Fixed and Fluidized Bed

14
 Flexible Overflow Pipe

Sump Tank

Air Compressor

Fig 7: Back View of the Fixed and Fluidized Bed

3.2 PRINCPLE OF OPERATION OF THE FIXED AND FLUIDIZED BED

All numerical references relate to figure 1 and 2. The equipment consists of a water circuit and an
air circuit main field on a support frame and back board. The water circuit is located at the left-
hand side and the air circuit is located at the right-hand side when looking from the front. The two
circuits are independent of each other and therefore may be operated separately or together
according to choice.
Water is drawn from a plastic sump tank by a centrifugal pump, both situated at the rear of
equipment. The pump delivers water to the base of the water test column via a flow control value
and a direct reading variable-area flowmeter. Having passed vertically upwards through the test
column, the water discharges rearwards from the top of the column and return via a flexible
overflow pipe (IS) lo the sump tank for recycling. A drain lap at the base of the sump tank allows

15
the tank to be emptied. A lid on the sump tank keeps the contents clean. The water pump is
switched on or off the mains switch that is located above the water flowmeter.
The base of the test column Incorporate; a sintered brass disk that supports the particles inside the
test column and helps lo distribute the water uniformly across the section of the test column.
The lest column is circular in cross section (50mm) inside diameter) and
Manufactured from clear acrylic to allow visualization of the bed of particles in operation. The
column is mounted on top of a base plate that is common to
The water and air columns. The test column can be removed easily for Emptying/cleaning by
unscrewing the two knurled screws. The test column is scaled to the base plate by a sensible ‘O’
ring. The height of the bed inside the test Column can tic measured directly on a scale that is
attached to the front of the Column. The test column is provided with two pressures tappings,
located at the rear of the column, that allow the pressure drop across the bed of particles lo be
monitored. The pressure: tapping’s in corporate sintered brass plugs to prevent the bed material
Horn escaping. The pressure drop is measured using a differential water manometer that is
mounted adjacent to the test column. The manometer incorporates a bleed screw on the lop
manifold and a Schrader value on the bottom manifold (connected via a lube al the rear to the top
manifold) that are used to adjust the levels in the manometer. The levels can be raised by opening
the bleed screw. Provided that the test column is filled with water, pump connected to the Schrader
valve. The hand pump is stored at the rear of the equipment when not is use. Two samples of
granular material are available.

16
4.0 PROCEDURES

 The air column was filled to a height of 310 mm with the coarse grade of balloting
 The air flow control valve was closed.
 The water manometer or tubing connected to it was checked to ensure that there were no
air bubbles.
 The air compressor was switched on.
 The air flow rate was then adjusted in increments of 1 L/min from 1 L/min to maximum
flow rate.
 The conditions at each setting were allowed to stabilize, then the bed height, the differential
reading of the manometer and state of bed were recorded.
 By weighing a known volume of the balloting the particle density was determined.

17
 5.0 RESULTS

Below are the values recorded from the experiment:

TABLE 1: RAW EXPERIMENT DATA
S/N Bed Flow P1 P2 Actual Bed Bed
Height(mm) Rate, (mmH20) (mmH20) Pressure State
Q(L/min) drop(mmH2O)

{P2-P1}

1 315 0 170 170 0 Fixed

2 315 2 165 174 9 Fixed

3 315 4 151 188 37 Fixed

4 319 6 126 214 88 Fluidized

5 327 8 101 238 137 Fluidized

6 340 10 85 253 168 Fluidized

7 345 12 78 260 182 Fluidized

8 370 14 73 266 193 Fluidized

9 410 16 65 272 207 Fluidized

10 440 18 54 281 227 Fluidized

18
Table 2: SUMMARY OF CALCULATED EXPERIMENT DATA
S/N
BED HEIGHT FLOWRATE BED PRESSURE BED STATE
(m) (m3/s) x 10-5 DROP
(mm H2O)
1 0.315 0.00 0.0 FIXED

2 0.315 3.33 9.0 FIXED

3 0.315 6.67 37.0 FIXED

4 0.319 10.00 88.0 FLUIDIZED

5 0.327 13.33 137.0 FLUIDIZED

6 0.340 16.67 168.0 FLUIDIZED

7 0.345 20.00 182.0 FLUIDIZED

8 0.370 23.33 193.0 FLUIDIZED

9 0.410 26.67 207.0 FLUIDIZED

10 0.440 30.00 227.0 FLUIDIZED

TABLE 3: SUMMARY OF CALCULATED VALUES FOR V SM,

PREDICTED PRESSURE DROP, EXPERIMENTAL PRESSURE DROP
AND FLOWRATE

S/N PREDICTED EXPERIMENTAL

VSM (m/s) FLOWRATE PRESSURE DROP

19
 (m3/s) x 10-5 (mm H2O) x 103 BED PRESSURE
DROP
(mm H2O)
1 0.000 0.00 0.00 0.00
2 0.0170 3.33 10.17 9.00

3 0.034 6.67 20.84 37.00

4 0.051 10.00 458.37 88.0
5 0.068 13.33 469.87 137.0
6 0.085 16.67 488.55 168.0
7 0.102 20.00 495.74 182.0
8 0.119 23.33 531.66 193.0
9 0.136 26.67 589.14 207.0
10 0.153 30.00 632.25 227.0

TABLE 4: SUMMARY OF VALUES TO BE PLOTTED

EXPERIMENT PREDICTED
FLOWRATE BED PRESSURE DROP BED PRESSURE DROP
(m3/s) x 10-5 (mm H2O) (mm H20)
0.00 0.0 0.00
3.33 9.0 10.17
6.67 37.0 20.84
10.00 88.0 458.37
13.33 137.0 469.87
16.67 168.0 488.55

20
 20.00 182.0 495.74
23.33 193.0 531.66
26.67 207.0 589.14
30.00 227.0 632.247

GRAPHS

GRAPH OF EXPERIMENTAL AND PREDICTED PRESSURE

DROP AGAINST FLOWRATE
700

600
PRESSURE DROP

500

400 Fixed bed

300

200

100

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
FLOWRATE

EXPERIMENTAL PREDICTED
2 per. Mov. Avg. (EXPERIMENTAL) 2 per. Mov. Avg. (PREDICTED)

FIGURE 3: Graph for experimental values

21
6.0 DISCUSSION

. When a fixed bed of particulate material is penetrated vertically by a fluid velocity sufficient to
break up the bed, it enters a fluidized state. In a fixed bed, the particles are immobile and exert
forces on each other through numerous contact points. Gravity distributes the weight of the
particles and the entire bed in all directions through these contact points. Once the critical velocity,
also known as the minimum fluidization velocity, is reached, the solid particles begin to float and
move in a chaotic manner, colliding with each other. The duration of particle contacts becomes
short, and the forces between them weaken, resulting in the particulate solid material being in a
fluidized state.
In the fluidized state, the particles are in constant and chaotic motion, and their average distance
from each other increases with increasing fluid velocity, causing the bed height to rise. The
pressure drop in the fluid phase across the bed remains constant and is equal to the weight of the
bed divided by the surface area of the bed cross-section. This value is achieved at the minimum
(incipient) fluidization velocity.
From table 1, as shown in the results section of this report it can be seen that the bed height
remained constant (i.e 315 mm) for the first three consecutive flow rates (i.e 0, 2 and 4 L/mins)
this shows that the bed hasn’t attained the flow rate that will give the minimum superficial velocity
required for fluidization at this stage the bed is said to be in the fixed states indicating that the solid
particles inside the bed are not undergoing any motion but might vibrate. As the flow rate is
increased continually a point is reached where the particles inside the beds start behaving like a
fluid at this flow rates, the particles have attained their minimum superficial velocity required for
fluidization hence the particles are said to be in a Fluidized state, as shown by an increase in bed
height of 319, 327, 340, 345, 370, 410, 440 mm for a flow rates of 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 L/mins
respectively. It can also be seen that the bed height increases with increase in flow rates this is
because and increase in flow rate results to and increase in fluid velocity which in turn increases
the upward force of the fluid as it flows through the particles up the backed bed.
Also it can also be seen from table.1 that as the flow rates increases from 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,
14, 16, 18 L/mins the pressure drop also increases from 0, 9, 37, 88, 137, 168, 182, 193, 207, 227
mm H2O respectively this show that the flow rates is proportional to the pressure drop but not
linearly or directly proportional since the plot of pressure drop against flow rate is not a straight
line or linear graph as shown in figure 3.

22
 From table 4 it can been seen that there are deviations between the experimental pressure drop
(i.e pressure drop recorded directly from the fixed and fluidized bed equipment) and the predicted
pressure drop (i.e pressure drop calculated for from theory) and this deviations increases as the
pressure drop increases, this deviations might be as a result of the following possible reasons
 Assumptions and simplifications: The predicted pressure drop is often based on
mathematical models and assumptions about the behavior of the fluid and particles in the
bed. These models may make simplifying assumptions that do not fully capture the
complex nature of the system. For example, the model may assume idealized particle
behavior, uniform flow, or neglect certain factors such as particle attrition or wall effects.
 Experimental setup and conditions: The experimental pressure drop is directly influenced
by the specific conditions and setup of the experiment. Variations in particle size, shape,
and bed height, as well as the presence of any external factors like baffles or irregularities
in the system, can affect the pressure drop. If the experimental setup differs from the
assumptions made in the model, it can lead to differences between the predicted and
observed values.
 Flow regime and operating conditions: Fluidized beds can exhibit different flow regimes
depending on the operating conditions, such as the fluid velocity and particle properties.
These different flow regimes can have distinct pressure drop characteristics. If the
predicted pressure drop assumes a particular flow regime that differs from the actual flow
regime in the experiment, it can result in disparities between the predicted and
experimental values.
 Measurement uncertainties: Pressure drop measurements can have inherent uncertainties
associated with them. Factors like measurement equipment accuracy, data acquisition
methods, and human errors can introduce variations between the measured and true
pressure drops.
To improve the agreement between predicted and experimental pressure drops, it is crucial to
refine the mathematical models used, accurately measure or estimate input parameters, carefully
design and control the experimental setup, and account for measurement uncertainties.

23
7.0 CONCLUSION

A fixed bed can be differentiated from a fluidized bed based on the movement of the particles in
the bed, a bed is fluidized when the particles in the bed are agitated and behaves like a boiling fluid
on the other hand a bed is fixed when the particles are static or no noticeable movement of the bed
particles
From the values of the pressure drop as presented in table 4 in the results section of this report
it shows that the pressure drop increases from 0, 9, 37, 88, 137, 168, 182, 193, 207, 227 mm H2O
as the flow rate increases from 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18 L/mins respectively this show that
the flow rates is proportional to the pressure drop but not linearly or directly proportional since the
plot of pressure drop against flow rate is not a straight line or linear graph as shown in figure 3.
And from table 4 it can be seen that there are deviations between the predicted pressure drop
(0, 10.17, 20.84, 458.37, 469.87 ,495.74, 531.66, 581.14 and 632.247 mmH2O) and the
experimental pressure (0, 9, 37, 88, 137, 168, 182, 193, 207, 227 mm H2O) drop for a specific flow
rate the reasons for this deviations has been listed and discussed in the discussion section of these
report and possibly recommendations needed in averting this deviations were also suggested.

24
8.0 RECOMMENDATION
 The Wen and Yu equation can also be used to calculate the pressure drop in this
experiment.
 The installation of ball valves on the exit plumbing of each bed.
 Appropriate understanding of conversion factors to ensure consistency of units.
 Images or videos of the fluidized bed should be captured to observe bubble formation,
mixing, and particle behavior.

25
9.0 REFERENCES

 Napier-Munn, TJ,( 1998), Analysis plant trails by comparing recovery-grade regression

lines, Minerals Engineering,.
 Niven, RK, (2002)Physical insight into the Ergun and Wen & Yu equations for fluid flow
in packed and fluidized beds, Chemical Engineering Science,.
 Smith, J. K. (2019). Introduction to Fixed and Fluidized Bed Reactor Design. Cambridge
University Press
 Johnson, A. B., & Patel, R. M. (2022). Comparative Study of Fixed and Fluidized Bed
Reactors for Catalytic Cracking. Chemical Engineering Journal, 156(2), 78-91.
 Garcia, M. P., & Nguyen, H. T. (2021). Optimization of a Fixed Bed Reactor for
Hydrogen Production from Biomass. In Proceedings of the 12 th International Conference
on Chemical Engineering (pp. 234-242). Harvard University Press
 Kunii, D., & Levenspiel, O. (2022). Theoretical Models for Fluidization. Chemical
Engineering Science, 78(3), 209-225.
 Chen, C. L., & Grace, J. R. (2021). Experimental Investigation of Gas-Solid Flow
Behavior in a Fluidized Bed Reactor. In Proceedings of the 10 th International Conference
 on Fluidization (pp. 56-68). Harvard University Press.

26
10.0 APPENDICES 1

Sample Calculation:

Viscosity of air ( µAir )at room temperature = 1.844×10-5 Kg/m.s

Density of air at room temperature = 1.1845 Kg/m3

Voidage (ε) = 0.425

Internal Diameter (d) = 0.05 m

Particle Size (Dp) = 0.485mm = 4.85 × 10-4 m

g = 9.8 m/s2;
ρp = 2960 kg/m3 ;
Πd2 Π×0.052
Cross-sectional area of bed (A) = = = 1.963 × 10−3m2
4 4

CALCULATIONS

Converting Liter per min (L/min) to cubic-meter per second (m3/s)

1L = 10-3 m3
1 min = 60 seconds
2 𝑥 10−3
2L/min = = 3.333 x 10-5 m3/s
60
4 𝑥 10−3
4L/min = = 6.67 x 10-5 m3/s
60
6 𝑥 10−3
6L/min = = 10.0 x 10-5 m3/s
60
8 𝑥 10−3
8L/min = = 13.33 x 10-5 m3/s
60

27
 10 𝑥 10−3
10L/min = =16.67 x 10-5 m3/s
60
12 𝑥 10−3
12L/min = = 20.0 x 10-5 m3/s
60
14 𝑥 10−3
14L/min = = 23.33 x 10-5 m3/s
60
16 𝑥 10−3
16L/min = = 26.67 x 10-5 m3/s
60
18 𝑥 10−3
18L/min = = 30.0 x 10-5 m3/s
60

Millimeter to meter
1mm = 10-3 m
315
315mm = = 0.315m
1000
319
319mm = = 0.319 m
1000
327
327 mm = = 0.327 m
1000
340
340 mm = = 0.340 m
1000
345
345 mm = = 0.345 m
1000
370
370 mm = = 0.370 m
1000
380
410 mm = = 0.410 m
1000
400
440 mm = = 0.440 m
1000

𝑸×𝟏𝟎^−𝟑
Calculating for VSM (m/s) =
𝑨×𝟔𝟎

At Q = 2 L/min
𝑸×𝟏𝟎^−𝟑 2 𝑥 10−3
VSM = = = 0.0170 m/s
𝑨×𝟔𝟎 1.963 𝑥 10−3×60

At Q = 4 L/min
𝑸×𝟏𝟎^−𝟑 4𝑥 10^−3
VSM = = = 0.034 m/s
𝑨×𝟔𝟎 1.963 𝑥 10−3×60

At Q = 6 L/min
28
 𝑸×𝟏𝟎^−𝟑 6 𝑥 10−3
VSM = = =0.051 m/s
𝑨×𝟔𝟎 1.963 𝑥 10−3×60

At Q = 8 L/min
𝑸×𝟏𝟎^−𝟑 8 𝑥 10−3
VSM = = = 0.068 m/s
𝑨×𝟔𝟎 1.963 𝑥 10−3×60

At Q = 10 L/min
𝑸×𝟏𝟎^−𝟑 10𝑥 10^−3
VSM = = = 0.085 m/s
𝑨×𝟔𝟎 1.963 𝑥 10−3×60

At Q = 12 L/min
𝑸×𝟏𝟎^−𝟑 12 𝑥 10−3
VSM = = = 0.102 m/s
𝑨×𝟔𝟎 1.963 𝑥 10−3×60

At Q = 14 L/min
𝑸×𝟏𝟎^−𝟑 14 𝑥 10−3
VSM = = = 0.119 m/s
𝑨×𝟔𝟎 1.963 𝑥 10−3×60

At Q = 16 L/min
𝑸×𝟏𝟎^−𝟑 16𝑥 10^−3
VSM = = = 0.136 m/s
𝑨×𝟔𝟎 1.963 𝑥 10−3×60

At Q = 18 L/min
𝑸×𝟏𝟎^−𝟑 18 𝑥 10−3
VSM = = = 0.153 m/s
𝑨×𝟔𝟎 1.963 𝑥 10−3×60

FIXED BED

Pressure drop;

𝑽𝑺𝑴𝝁𝑨𝒊𝒓(𝟏 − 𝜺)𝟐 𝟏. 𝟕𝟓𝑳𝑽𝑺𝑴𝟐 (𝟏 − 𝜺)

𝝀 = (𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑳 + ) × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎𝒎𝑯𝟐 𝑶
𝑫𝑷 𝟐 𝜺𝟐 𝝆𝑨𝒊𝒓 𝒈 𝟑
𝒈𝜺 𝑫𝑷

At Q = 2 L/min
0.017×1.844×10−5 (1−0.425)2 1.75𝑥0.315𝑥0.0172 (1−0.425)
𝜆 = (150 × 0.315 + )×
(0.000485 )2 ×0.4252 𝑥1.1845𝑥9.81 9.81𝑥0.4253 𝑥0.000485

103 𝑚𝑚𝐻2 𝑂

29
λ = 10.17 x103 mm H2O

At Q = 4 L/min
0.034×1.844×10−5 (1−0.425)2 1.75𝑥0.315𝑥0.0342 (1−0.425)
𝜆 = (150 × 0.315 + )×
(0.000485 )2 ×0.4252 𝑥1.1845𝑥9.81 9.81𝑥0.4253 𝑥0.000485

103 𝑚𝑚𝐻2 𝑂
λ = 20.84 x 103 mm H2O

FLUIDIZED BED

PREDICTED PRESSURE DROP AT FLUIDIZIED BED

𝑳(𝟏−𝛜)
λ= (𝛒p – 𝛒air) X 103 mm H2O
𝛒𝒂𝒊𝒓

At Q = 6 L/min, L= 0.319 m
0.319∗(1−0.425)
λ= (2960 – 1.184) X 103 mm H2O
1.184

λ = 458.37 x 103 mm H2O

At Q = 8 L/min, L=0.327 m
0.327∗(1−0.425)
λ= (2960 – 1.184) X 103 mm H2O
1.184

λ = 469.87 x 103 mm H2O

At Q = 10 L/min, L=0.340 m
0.340∗(1−0.425)
λ= (2960 – 1.184) X 103 mm H2O
1.184

λ = 488.55x 103 mm H2O

At Q = 12 L/min, L=0.345m

30
 0.345∗(1−0.425)
λ= (2960 – 1.184) X 103 mm H2O
1.184

λ = 495.74 x 103 mm H2O

At Q = 14 L/min, L=0.370 m
0.370∗(1−0.425)
λ= (2960 – 1.184) X 103 mm H2O
1.184

λ = 531.66 x 103 mm H2O

At Q = 16 L/min, L=0.410 m
0.410∗(1−0.425)
λ= (2960 – 1.184) X 103 mm H2O
1.184

λ = 589.14 x 103 mm H2O

At Q = 18 L/min, L=0.440 m
0.440∗(1−0.425)
λ= (2960 – 1.184) X 103 mm H2O
1.184

λ = 632.247x 103 mm H2O

CALCULATIONS

FIXED BED

AT FLOWRATE OF 3L/min

Bed height (L) = 310mm = 0.310m

Flowrate (Q) = 3 L/min

3
𝑄 60000
Superficial velocity (𝑉𝑠𝑚 )= = = 0.0255m/s
𝐴 1.963×10−3

PRESSURE DROP

150×1.844×10−5 (1−0.367)2 0.310

𝛥𝑃 = × 0.0255 = 1.88 ×10-4m
1.1845×9.81×0.2852 0.3673

31
 1.75×1.1845 (1−0.367)×0.310
= 0.02552 = 1.21 ×10-3m
0.285× 9.81 0.3673

𝛥𝑃= (1.88 ×10-4m +1.21 ×10-3m )×103 mmH2O

= 1.398 mmH2O.

AT FLOWRATE OF 4L/min

Bed height (L) = 310mm = 0.310m

Flowrate (Q) = 4 L/min

4
𝑄 60000
Superficial velocity (𝑉𝑠𝑚 )= = = 0.0340m/s
𝐴 1.963×10−3

PRESSURE DROP

150×1.844×10−5 (1−0.367)2 0.310

𝛥𝑃 = × 0.0340 = 2.50 ×10-4m
1.1845×9.81×0.2852 0.3673

1.75×1.1845 (1−0.367)×0.310
= 0.03402 = 2.15×10-3m
0.285× 9.81 0.3673

𝛥𝑃= (2.50 ×10-4 + 2.15×10-3m) ×103 mmH2O

= 2.40 mmH2O.

AT FLOWRATE OF 5L/min

Bed height (L) = 310mm = 0.310m

Flowrate (Q) = 5 L/min

32
 5
𝑄 60000
Superficial velocity (𝑉𝑠𝑚 )= = = 0.0425m/s
𝐴 1.963×10−3

PRESSURE DROP

150×1.844×10−5 (1−0.367)2 0.310

𝛥𝑃 = × 0.04250 = 3.13 ×10-4m
1.1845×9.81×0.2852 0.3673

1.75×1.1845 (1−0.367)×0.310
= 0.042502 = 3.37×10-3m
0.285× 9.81 0.3673

𝛥𝑃= (3.13 ×10-4 + 3.37×10-3m) ×103 mmH2O

= 3.683 mmH2O.
APPENDICES 2

Parameters mentioned in the theory:

Pressure drop (Nm)

L = height of bed (m)

Vsm = average superficial fluid velocity

Viscosity of water (Nsm-2)

Density of water (Kg/m)

Size of particle (m)

Particle sphericity

Bed voidage

Reynold’s number

Density of the fluid

Characteristic linear dimension

Dynamic viscosity of the fluid

33