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MODULE 4: COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

“Every time we teach children something, we keep them from inventing it themselves. On the other hand, that
which we allow them to discover for themselves will remain with them visible for the rest of their lives. - Jean
Piaget

OVERVIEW

The term cognitive learning derives its meaning from the word cognition, defined by an electronic
dictionary. as "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought,
experience, and the senses." Thus, learners are viewed to learn by using their brains. In the process, they are
actively engaged in mental activities involving perception, thinking, and relying on their memory as they
process new experiences. Through the connections of these old and new experiences, the acquisition of
knowledge and understanding results exist (Bulusan et al).
After studying this module, it is a must that you should be able to:
 differentiate the cognitive learning theories by citing their key features;
 describe the empirical proofs of the cognitive learning theories;
 explain the teaching implications of the cognitive learning theories.

LESSON 1: PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Jean Piaget argued that children's cognitive

development is influenced by biological maturation
and their interaction with the environment. Children
undergo similar order or stages of development.
Owing to varied circumstances the children are
exposed to, the rates at which children go through
the stages differ. Some children may even miss the
later stages of cognitive development.

PIAGET’S BASIC COGNITIVE CONCEPTS

Schema The cognitive structure by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment.
Assimilation The process of fitting new experience into an existing created schema.
Accommodation The process of creating a new schema.
Equilibration It is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.

PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Stage 1: - Children think through what they see, hear, move, touch and taste.
Sensori-motor - Two major accomplishments in this stage are object permanence and goal-
Stage directed actions.
(0-2 year)  Object permanence- the ability to see things even when out of sight.
 Goal- directed actions- As children grow, they begin to think about
what they need to accomplish, how to do it then act on it.
Stage 2: - The child can now make mental representations and is able to pretend, the child
Preoperational is now ever closer to the symbols.
Stage - This stage is highlighted by the following:
(2-7 years)  symbolic function- the ability to represent objects and events;
 egocentrism- the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and
to assume that everyone also has his same point of view;
 centration- the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of the
thing or event and exclude other aspects;
 irreversibility- the inability to reverse their thinking. They can
understand that 2+3 is 5, but cannot understand that 5-3 is 2;
 animism- This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or
characteristics to inanimate objects;
 Transductive reasoning- child’s type of reasoning that is neither

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inductive nor deductive;

Stage 3: - This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in
Concrete- terms of concrete objects.
Operational Stage - The concrete operational stage is marked by the following:
(7-11 years)  decentering- the ability of the child to perceive the different features of
objects and situations;
 reversibility- the child can now follow that certain operations can be
done in reverse;
 conservation- the ability to know that certain properties of objects like
number, mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change
in appearance;
 seriation- the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one
dimension such as weight, volume, or size.
Stage 4: - Covering ages between 12- 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They can
Formal now solve abstract problems and can hypothesize.
Operational Stage - Three types of reasoning are developed:
(12 years up)  hypothetical reasoning- the ability to come up with different hypothesis
about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final
decision or judgment;
 analogical reasoning- the ability to perceive the relationship in one
instance and then use the relationship to narrow down possible answers
in another similar situation or problem;
 deductive reasoning- the ability to think logically by applying a general
rule to a particular instance or situation.

Teaching Implications of Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

Berk (2013) provided a summary of teaching implications derived from Piaget's theory of cognitive
development. These considerations are listed below.

1. A focus on the process of children's thinking, not just its products. Instead of simply checking for a
correct answer, teachers should emphasize the students' understanding and the process they used to
get the answer.
2. Recognition of the crucial role of children's self-initiative, active involvement in learning activities. In a
Piagetian classroom, children are encouraged to discover themselves through spontaneous interaction
with the environment, rather than the presentation of ready-made knowledge.
3. A de-emphasis on practices aimed at making children adult-like in their thinking. It refers to what Piaget
referred to as the American question, which is "How can we speed up development? He believes that
trying to speed up and accelerate children's process through the stages could be worse than no
teaching at all.
4. Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress. Piaget's theory asserts that children go
through all the same developmental stages. However, they do so at different rates. Because of this
variation, teachers must exert a special effort to arrange classroom activities for individuals and groups
of children rather than for the whole class.

In addition, Webb (1980) recommended some considerations for teachers to ponder upon in their
teaching practices. These are written below.

 Consider the stage characteristics of the student's thought processes in planning learning activities.
 Use a wide variety of experiences rather than drill on specific tasks to maximize cognitive development.
Do not assume that reaching adolescence of adulthood guarantees the ability to perform formal
operations.
 Remember that each person structures each learning situation in terms of his schemata; therefore, no
two persons will derive the same meaning or benefit from a given experience.
 Individualize learning experiences so that each student is working at a level that is high enough to be
challenging and realistic enough to prevent excessive frustration.
 Provide experience necessary for the development of concepts before the use of these concepts in
language.
 Consider learning an active restructuring of thought rather than an increase in content.
 Make full use of wrong answers by helping the student analyzes his or her thinking to retain the correct
elements and revise the miscomprehensions.

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 Evaluate each student in terms of improving his or her performance.

 Avoid overuse of materials that are so highly structured that creative thought is discouraged.
 Use social interaction in learning experiences to promote 1ncrease in both interest and comprehension.

LESSON 2: VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE

DEVELOPMENT

“What the child can do in cooperation today, tomorrow she/he will be able to do alone”.
- Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky, a Russian

psychologist formulated the Socio
cultural theory of development. He
argued that social interaction
mediated through language, is a
key factor in the child’s
development.

Social Cognitive
Interactions Language
Development

The Role of Social Interaction

Vygotsky emphasized the significance of social interaction in one's thinking. Children learn
from the more knowledgeable others (MKOs), which include parents, teachers, adults, and more
advanced peers. An MKO is anyone who has a higher skill level than the learner in terms of the
specific task to perform. For instance, a child who is guided by verbal clues by the mother learns how
to tear off the plastic covering of the cookies. In other case, children playing "Chinese garter abide by
the rules that they agree with. This is called a co-constructed process as the children negotiated to
create an acceptable rule on how to play the game (Bulusan et. al)

The Role of Language

Vygotsky's theory emphasizes that language plays a central role in the theory of human
cognitive development. Language plays multiple roles, including culturally shaping the overt behavior
of individual as well as influencing their covert behavior, such as thinking (Burkholder & Pelaez,
2000). Through language, human cognitive development and higher mental functions are initiated

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from social communications. As people engage in social activities, they are involved in mental and
communicative functions (Vygotsky, 1986).

Inner Speech
- Speech internalized
- Speech guides thinking and behavior

Egocentric Speech (3-7 years old)

- Thinking out loud
- Talking to one's self

Social or External Speech (0-3 yrs old)

- Thinking not related to speech
- Thinking in the form of images, emotions

Zone of Proximal Development

Zone of Actual Development refers in which the child may perform at a certain level of competency
and she/he may not immediately proficient at it.

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Scaffolding refers to the support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he/she cannot
accomplish independently. It is not about doing the task for the child while he/she watches. It is not
about doing short cuts for the child. It should involve the judicious assistance given by the adult or
peer so that the child can move from the sound of proximal development.

Zone of Proximal Development refers to the difference between what the child accomplish alone
and what he/she can accomplish with guidance of another.

Teaching Implications of Vygotsky's Theory

The sociocultural learning theory has greatly influenced practices in facilitating learning.
Vygotsky's theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning. It
requires that the teacher and student are collaborators in the learning process, with the teacher as
facilitator or guide in learner's construction of knowledge and development of skills. The process
makes learning a reciprocal experience for both the teacher and learners. (Bulusan et. al).

Citing research findings (e.g., John-Steiner & Mann, 2003; Webb. 2008; Slavin, 2014), Slavin
(2018) proposed the following teaching practices for consideration by the facilitator of learning. In the
use of ZPD, teachers can organize classroom activities in the following ways:
1. Instruction can be planned to provide practice within the ZPD for individual children or
groups of children. For example, hints and prompts that helped children during a pre
assessment could form the basis of instructional activities.
2. Scaffolding provides hints and prompts at different levels. In scaffolding, the adult does
not simplify the task, but the role of the learner is simplified through the graduated intervention
of the teacher."
3. Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children at different levels
who can help each other to learn.

Moreover, Karpov and Haywood (1998) recognized that for the curriculum to be
developmentally appropriate, the teacher must plan activities that encompass not only what children
are capable of doing on their own but what they can learn with the help of others.

LESSON 3: INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

Nature of Information

Information Processing Theory (IPT) was developed by George A. Miller, an American

Psychologist. According to him, IPT of cognitive development refers to the study and analysis of what
occurs in a person’s mind as he/ she collects a bit of information.
Other theorists enhanced Miller's theory, although the different theories that followed share
common assumptions (Schunk, 2012).
First, information processing occurs in stages that intervene between receiving a stimulus and
producing a response. The form of information or how it is represented mentally differs depending on
the stage. The stages are qualitatively different from one another (Bulusan et. al).
Second, information processing is analogous to computer processing. The mind receives and
represents/encodes the stimulus from the environment, processes the information, stores it,
locates/retrieves it, and gives a response to it. Learning is á change/revision in the knowledge that
has been stored by the memory (Bulusan et. al).
Analyzing the way persons learn something new is important as there is a fixed pattern of
events that take place in learning something new (Miller, 1956). In explaining the concept of chunking,
Miller argued that a person could only store five to nine meaningful units in the short-term memory
(Bulusan et. al).

Basic Components of the IPT Model

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The IPT has three (3) main components with particular functions. These include; sensory
memory, short- term memory, and long- term memory.

Forgotten Forgotten
Episodic Memory

Semantic Memory

SMELL Interference
7 Basic
TOUCH Capacities Procedural Memory
HEAR REHEARSAL
TASTE Sensory
SEE Register ATTENTION
Short- term
Memory RETRIEVAL
Long- term
Memory

OUTPUT

The Information Processing Model (lifted from tcd. i.e)

Sensory memory
 It is the stage where initial processing is done (hearing, seeing, touching, smelling, tasting) to
transform these incoming stimuli into information so we can make sense of them.
 Selective attention is the person’s capability to select and process information while ignoring
the other stimuli or information.

Several Factors that Influence Attention

1. The meaning is given by the individual to the task or information.
2. The similarity between competing task or source of information.
3. The difficulty or complexity of the task as influenced by prior knowledge.
4. The ability to control and sustain attention.
 It can hold the information for only three seconds, unattended stimuli will be forgotten. The
information that was given attention will be transferred to short- term memory.

Short- term memory

 It serves as a temporary storage of the while the information is further processed before it is
transferred to long- term memory. It just usually means storage- the immediate memory for
new information that can be held for 15-20 seconds.
 It involves two strategies; rehearsal and encoding or elaboration.

Rehearsal
 Maintenance Rehearsal is done by repeating the information in our mind.
 Elaborative Rehearsal is about connecting the information you are trying to remember
with something you already know, with knowledge from long-term memory.
 Organization- this refers to classifying and grouping bits of information into
organized chunks.
 Arranging information into hierarchies
 Mnemonic devices- it is elaborating information in different ways.

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 Imagery- it is a strategy that involves the memory taking what is to be learned

and creating meaningful visual, auditory, or kinesthetic images of the information
(Schunk, 2012).
 If information will not be rehearsed and maintained in the short- term memory is forgotten.

Long- term memory

 It is the storeroom of information transported from short- term memory with unlimited space.

Stored Content
 Semantic memory. It refers to the memory of facts, concepts, names, and other
general knowledge information.
 Episodic Memory. It contains memory of events that happened in a person’s life,
connected to a specific time and place.
 Procedural memory. Accounts for the knowledge about how to do the things.
 Imagery. It refers to mental images of what is known.

Retrieving Information from the Long- term Memory

 Retrieving information from long- term memory involves locating the information and
transferring it to the short term- memory to be used for a purpose (Branford & Johnson, 1972).
One may do either free call or cued recall.
 Free recall is relying on the previously learned information purely by memory.
 Cued recall implicates the use of cues and clues to remember the information.

Recognition is another way of regaining information by providing the student’s with

incitements as choices in making decisions or judgments.

 Based on the primacy and recency effect principle, the information presented close to the start
of the experience, and those that are close to the end are most remembered by learners
(Bulusan et. al).

Forgetting
 It is the loss of information, either in the sensory memory, short- term memory, or long- term
memory.

 Interference is the process that occurs when remembering certain information hampered by
the presence of other information (Woolfolk, 2016).
 Retroactive interference refers to the blocking of the new information with the previous
one.
 Proactive interference is when the old information interferes with recalling the new
information.
 Decay is the loss of stored information from long- term memory because of not using it for a
very long period of time. It is related to the tip- of- the tongue phenomenon, the failure of
regaining the information even if the person is certain that it is already known.

Teaching Implications of the Information Processing Theory (IPT)

Following the concepts and principles associated with the IPT, below were recommended by
Woolfolk (2016), Slavin (2018), and Schunk (2012) to be used in helping learners to understand and
recall what they have learned
1. Make sure you have the students’ attention. Develop a signal that tells students to stop what
they are doing and focus on you. Make sure that students respond to the signal. Practice using
the signal.
2. Move around the room, use gestures, and avoid speaking in a monotone.
3. Begin a lesson by asking a question that stimulates interest in the topic.

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4. Regain the attention of students by walking closer to them, using their names, or asking them a
question.
5. Help students to separate essential from nonessential details and focus on the most important
information. Summarize instructional objectives to indicate what students should be learning.
Relate the material you are presenting to the objectives as you teach.
6. When you make an important point, pause, repeat, asks student to paraphrase, note the
information on the board in colored chalk, or tell students to highlight the point in their notes or
readings. The use of mnemonic devices could assist learners' retention of the information
learned.
7. Help students to make connections between new information and what they already know.
Review prerequisites to help students bring to mind the information they will need to
understand new material.
8. Provide for repetition and review of information. Using graphic organizers for rehearsals can
help.
9. Present material in a clear and organized way. Make the purpose of the lesson very clear
Advance organizers can help.
10. Focus on meaning, not on memorization. For instance, in teaching new words, help students to
associate the new word to a related word they already understand.

LESSON 4: PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY

Problem solving refers to cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal for which the problem
solver does not initially know a solution method (Mayer, 2013).

Four Major Elements of the Definition According to Mayer, 1992; Mayer & Wittrock, 2006

1. Cognitive. Problem solving occurs within the problem solver's cognitive system and can only
be inferred indirectly from the problem solver's behavior (including biological changes,
introspections, and actions during problem solving.)
2. Process. Problem solving involves mental computations in which an operation is applied to a
mental representation, sometimes resulting in the creation of new mental representation.
3. Directed. Problem solving is aimed at achieving a goal.
4. Personal. Problem solving depends on the existing knowledge of the problem solver so that
what is a problem for one problem solver may not be a problem for someone who already
knows a solution method.

Types of Problems

Problems can be categorized into well-defined or ill-defined one.

 Well-defined problem is described a as one that "provides all the information required to
solve it Robertson (2015)." It is a problem requiring the application of a definite number of
concepts, rules, and principles being studied to a constrained problem situation
(Jonassen, 1997.)

 An ill-defined problem is one where the initial state of the problem is given but what the
goal state looks like is not provided (Robertson, 2015). It is typically situated in and
emergent from a specific context, where an aspect or aspects of the problem scenario

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are not well specified, the problem descriptions are not definite, or the information
needed to solve it is not expressed in the problem statement (Chi & Glaser, 1985).
Approaches to Problem Solving
Several approaches have been advanced to explain the problem-solving abilities of individuals
(Anderson, 1996).

 Behaviorist approach is about reproducing a previous behavior to solve a problem.

 Reproductive approach is the Gestaltist approach to problem solving- a productive process. It
states that as the individual ponders upon how to solve a problem, a flash of an idea comes to
mind, which eventually provides the best solution to the problem.

Problem-solving Cycle
Problem solving is a complex process. It is not a single skill, but rather an Overlapping of
some
thinking skills, as logical thinking, lateral thinking, synthesis, analysis, evaluation, sequencing,
decision-
making, research, and prediction are likely to be involved (Teare, 2006).

The IDEAL Model of the Problem Solving Process (Bransford & Stein, 1993)

Identify problems
and opportunities

Define
Look back
and Learn Goals

Anticipate Explore Possible

Outcomes and Targets
Act

 Step 1. Identify the problem and opportunities

 Step 2. Define goals
 Step 3. Explore Possible Targets
 Step 4. Anticipate Outcomes and Act
 Step 5. Look back and Learn

Creativity

Edward Paul Torrance- is the Father of Creativity.

There are many theories about creativity. Written below are examples of it.

 Development Theory. It promotes that creativity develops over time (from potential to
achievement). It is mediated by an interaction of person and environment. It emphasizes the
influence of the place and family structures- the role of play and support during the traditions
(Bulusan et. al).
 Cognitive Theory of Creativity states that ideational thought processes are foundational to
creative persons and accomplishment. The stage and componential process of creativity point
out that creative expression proceeds through a series of stages or components.
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One of the first models of creativity was advanced by Guilford (1967). He considered
creatıvity as
a divergent thinking act. According to him creativity is the result of several processes: fluency,
flexibility, originality, and elaboration.
 Fluency is defined as the ability to produce a great number of ideas or problem solutions in
a short period.
 Flexibility is the ability to simultaneously propose a variety of approaches to a specific
problem.
 Originality refers to the ability, to produce new, original ideas, as well as products.
 Elaboration is the ability to systematize and organize the details of an idea in one's head
and carry it out.

The creative process follows certain stages (Boden, 2002, Gabora, 2002; Sadler-Smith,
2015). It includes preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification.
 Preparation is the initial stage of the creative process. It involves becoming passionate
about an idea, which motivates you to gather materials (read, observe, compare).
 Incubation is the period where you unconsciously continue to work on the idea, but there is
no active attempt to solve the problem.
 Illumination happens when a sudden idea pops out in your mind.
 Verification is the final stage of the creative process, involves working with the idea into a
form that can be tested and, once proven, it could be communicated to others.

Transfer of Learning in Problem Solving and Creativity

A transfer of learning is the phenomenon that past experiences in solving problems are
carried over or used in solving problems.

Categories of the Transfer of Learning

1. Near transfer and far transfer(Johnson, 1995)

 Near transfer is when learners apply their knowledge and skills in situation and
contexts that are very close to those in which the learning occurred.
 Far transfer is when learners perform a skill in a context very much different
from the context it was learned.
2. Positive and negative transfer
 Positive transfer is when learners can use their prior knowledge or experience
in solving a new problem situation.
 Negative transfer is when the previous learning or skill obstructs the acquisition
of a new skill or the solving of a problem.
3. Vertical transfer and lateral transfer.
 Vertical transfer occurs when learners use their learning at a lower level to
perform a higher level of cognitive task.
 Lateral transfer happens when learners use the same skill to solve a related but
different problem of the comparable level of difficulty.
4. Neutral or zero transfer. This happens when past learning or prior experience does not
enhance or hinder the acquisition of a new skill or in the solution of a problem.

Classroom Applications of Cognitive Learning Theories (Woolfolk, 2017)

1. Ask students if they understand the problem. Let them separate relevant from irrelevant in
formation. Test their awareness of the assumptions. Encourage them to visualize the problem
by diagramming or drawing it, ask them to explain the problem to someone else.
2. Encourage attempts to see the problem from different angles. Suggest several different
possibilities yourself, and then ask students to offer some. Give students practice in taking and
defending different points of view on an issue.

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3. Let students think; do not just hand them solutions. Offer individual problems as well as group
problems, so that each student has the chance to practice. Give partial credit if students have
good reasons for "wrong" solutions to problems. If students are stuck, resist the temptation to
give too many clues. Let them think about the issue overnight.
4. Help students to develop systematic ways of considering alternatives. Tell them to think out
loud as they solve problems. Ask: "What would happen if?" Keep a list of suggestions.
5. Teach heuristics. Encourage them to use analogies to solve problems.

Strategies in Teaching Creativity, Woolfolk (2017)

1. Accept and encourage divergent thinking. Reinforce attempts at unusual solutions to problems,
even if the final product is not perfect. Offer choices in topics for projects or modes of
presentation (written, oral, visual or graphic, using technology).
2. Tolerate dissent. Ask students to support dissenting opinions. Make sure that nonconforming
students receive an equal share of classroom privileges and rewards.
3. Encourage students to trust their judgment. When students ask questions that you think they
can answer, rephrase or clarify the questions and direct them back to the students. Give
ungraded assignments from time to time.
4. Emphasize that everyone is capable of creativity in some form. Avoid describing the feats of
great artists or inventors as if they were superhuman accomplishments. Recognize creative
efforts in each student's work. Have a separate grade for originality on some assignments.
5. Provide time, space, and materials to support creative projects. Here are some examples:
collect "found" materials for collages and creations buttons, stones, shells, paper, fabric,
beads, seeds, drawing tools, clay and try flea markets and friends for donations. Have mirrors
and pictures for drawing faces. Make a well-lighted space available where children can work on
projects, leave them, and come back to finish them. Follow up on memorable occasions (field
trips, news events, and holidays) with opportunities to draw, write, or make music.
6. Be a stimulus for creative thinking. Use class brainstorming sessions whenever possible.
Model creative problem solving by suggesting unusual solutions for class problems. Encourage
students to delay judging a particular suggestion for solving a problem until all the possibilities
have been considered.
7. Capitalize on new technology. Ask the students to use free apps to create visual maps of ideas
and share their ideas with other

Teaching- learning suggestions to promote the transfer of learning, (Woolfolk, 2017)

1. Keep families informed about their child's curriculum so they can support their learning.
2. Give families ideas on how they might encourage their children to practice, extend, or apply
what they learn from school.
3. Show connections between learning in school and life outside of school.
4. Partner with families in practicing learning strategies.

REFERENCE

Lucas M.,Corpuz B., (2014). Facilitating Learning: A Metacognitive Process. Lorimar Publishing Inc.,
Quezon City, Metro Manila
Bulusan F., Raquepo M., Balmeo M., Gutierrez J., (2019). Facilitating Learner- Centered Teaching.
Sampalok Manila, RBSI

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