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Pest Management Knowledge and Practices of Mango Farmers in Southeastern

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DOI: 10.1093/jipm/pmx008

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 Journal of Integrated Pest Management (2017) 8 (1): 13; 1–7
doi: 10.1093/jipm/pmx008
Surveys and Needs Assessments

Pest Management Knowledge and Practices of Mango

Farmers in Southeastern Ghana
Clement Akotsen-Mensah,1,2 Isaac N. Ativor,3,4 Roger S. Anderson,1
Kwame Afreh-Nuamah,1,2 Collison F. Brentu,2 Dorcas Osei-Safo,5
Alfred Asuming Boakye,2 and Victor Avah6
1
African Regional Postgraduate Program in Insect Science, P.M.B L59, University of Ghana, Legon (cakotsen-mensah@ug.edu.gh;
sigiandy@hotmail.com; knuamah@ug.edu.gh), 2Forest and Horticultural Crops Research Center, School of Agriculture, College of
Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Kade, Ghana (brentu64@yahoo.com; aasumingboakye@gmail.com), 3Council
for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)-Oil Palm Research Institute, Coconut Research Program, P. O. Box 245, Sekondi,
Ghana (newcoffie.ativor@gmail.com), 4Corresponding author, e-mail: cakotsen-mensah@ug.edu.gh, 5Department of Chemistry,
College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana (dosafo@ug.edu.gh), and 6Department of Agriculture,
Shai Osudoku District Assembly, Dodowa, Ghana (victoravah@hotmail.com)
The authors do not have any potential conflict of interest in this work. Mentioning of a product in this article does not mean an
endorsement by the authors. This is purely an information for the reader and that anyone who intends to use any product men-
tioned in this article should seek further information.

Subject Editor: Erin Hodgson

Received 24 January 2017; Editorial decision 11 April 2017

Abstract
Mango farmers in Ghana are confronted with many pest problems like fruit flies, Sternochetus mangiferae (F.),
and mealy bugs. Different pest management options are available to mango farmers; however, the extent to
which they apply the available pest management options is not well known. A survey was conducted among 60
farmers in southeastern Ghana, from October–December 2015 mango season, to find out the level of knowl-
edge and practice of insect pest management used by mango farmers. The results showed that most farmers
use conventional insecticides to control insect pests in mango. Majority of the farmers (30%) use a composite
insecticide (Cydim super; 36 g cypermethrin þ 400 g dimethoate per liter), whereas 3.3% use Pyrinex (chlorpyri-
fos 480 g/liter). Majority of insecticides used belong to WHO category II. Ninety percent (90%) of the farmers use
cultural practices and pheromone traps. Pheromone traps are, however, used for fruit flies but not for S. mangi-
ferae. Over 80% of the respondents who used pesticides to control pests have also adopted GLOBALGAP stan-
dards for certification. The results are discussed based on the importance of adoption of IPM strategies in
mango production and the possible reduction of fruit rejection during mango export in Ghana.

Key words: Sternochetus mangiferae, integrated pest management (IPM), organophosphate

Mango, Mangifera indica L., is one of the important commercial
fruit tree crops in the world. It is grown in the tropical and subtropi-
cal climates, making it second to citrus in terms of production. India
is the world’s leading producer of mango with estimated production
of 15 million metric tons followed by China with 4.3 million metric
tons (Food and Agricultural Organization of United Nations [FAO]
2010). In the West Africa subregion, mango production and export
to the European market was estimated to have increased from
15,000 to over 22,000 tons, indicating a rise of 45% in 2012
(ECOWAS-TEN Newsletter 2012). However, mangoes exported to
some European countries were intercepted, confiscated, and de-
stroyed because of the presence of insects considered as quarantine
pests, thus leading to huge economic losses to the exporters and the
whole horticultural sector of most of the exporting countries includ-
ing Ghana (ACP-EU, Newsletter 2013). For instance, there were
over 90 interceptions of mango from the subregion, the highest was
from Cote d’lvoire, which led with 34 interceptions followed by 28
interceptions from Ghana. The cost of this was valued at US$3.67
million at a rate of US$39,348 per interception in 2012 (ECOWAS-
TEN Newsletter 2012). In light of the numerous fruit interceptions
to the major markets, especially the European Union, there have
been several attempts to understand whether the levels of intercep-
tion are due to the presence of insect pests or their damage.
Like most perennial fruit crops, mango production in Ghana and
other countries is plagued with many insect pests. The most
common ones are fruit flies (Ceratitis spp., Bactrocera spp.,

C The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Entomological Society of America.
V 1
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 2 Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2017, Vol. 8, No. 1
Dacus spp. etc.) and Sternochetus mangiferae (F.). In many situations,
efforts of pest management are concentrated on these two insects in
Ghana. The S. mangiferae, for instance, is recognized as one of the key
international quarantine pest, and their presence in the mango produc-
tion system provides enough justification for rejection of fruits in the
export market (Arthur et al. 2009, Braimah and Van Emden 2010).
Their presence in mango fruit also requires that stringent management
practices be applied, which eventually increases cost of production.
The success of fruit flies and S. mangiferae as pests of mango has
been attributed to the fact that although they have natural enemies,
they are not capable of providing sufficient controls in both treated
and untreated orchard, and no effective natural enemy has been re-
corded particularly, for the S. mangiferae (Pena et al. 1998, Peng
and Christian 2007) in Ghana.
Several insect pest control options are available to mango farm-
ers in Ghana. Currently, methyl eugenol, a parapheromone mixed
with recommended insecticides, is recommended for mango farmers
to use for the control of fruit flies (Abdulahi et al. 2011). However,
there are no such pheromones and attractants available for other
equally important pests of mango and thus farmers resort to the use
of conventional insecticides to control these insects. In most cases,
the use of insecticides such as pyrethroids and organophosphates are
for the control of fruit flies (Abdulahi et al. 2011) but also provide
some protection against S. mangiferae and other insect pests.
Although farmers use insecticides as major control option, the prob-
lem of pest interception is still relatively high in mangoes meant es-
pecially for European markets.
The objective of this study was to investigate the level of pest
management practices of mango farmer in Ghana and also assess
farmers’ knowledge in the practice of pest management. The ulti-
mate goal of the work is to identify the weak links in the farmers
practice and suggest ways to enhance general pest management
practice for mango farmers in Ghana.
Materials and Methods
Study Site
The study was conducted in two districts in the Eastern Region,
namely, Yilo and Manya Krobo Districts and Greater Accra; Shai
Fig. 1. Map of study location in southeastern Ghana.
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Osudoku district. The district capital of Yilo Krobo is Somanya
(6 60 3600 N, 0 60 3600 W), Lower Manya Krobo is Odumase Krobo
(6 320 N, 0 490 W), and Shai Osudoku is Dodowa (5 520 6000 N,
0 70 000 W). Three communities in these districts, namely, Somanya
(Yilo Krobo), Kpong (Lower Manya Krobo), and Ayikuma (Shai
Osudoku) were selected for this study (Fig. 1).About 60% of the in-
habitants of these districts are involved in agriculture, mainly subsis-
tence agriculture. The other major crops grown in the study
locations, apart from mango, are maize, rice, and vegetables.
Subjects and Survey
Twenty (20) mango farmers from each district were interviewed in a
survey from October to December 2015. A semistructured question-
naire was administered to the respondents and they were allowed to
give their opinions freely and uninterrupted in areas where they de-
part from the questionnaire. Where necessary, respondents were
probed to give further information on some aspects of the questions
which were not addressed by the questionnaire. The purpose of the
study was explained to the respondents and their consent sought.
Translation of the questionnaires to the common local languages
(Twi and Ga Adangme) spoken in the area was done to assist farm-
ers who could not speak and understand the English language. In
such cases, a farmer who could speak the local language was so-
licited as an interpreter. The respondents were randomly selected by
the Agricultural Extension Agents (AEA) assigned to each commu-
nity by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MoFA) who were con-
sidered to have a good rapport with the respondents. This improved
the hospitality and cooperation of the respondents. No more than
five respondents were interviewed a day because of time constraint.
Information on farm characteristics and the general challenges in
mango production were asked. Farmers were asked to mention man-
agement tactics used against insect pests and diseases. If pesticides were
mentioned, farmers were asked to name the pesticides or show the con-
tainers to the interviewer. The source of the pesticides, how they were
used, and the motivation for the use of pesticides were asked.
Data Analysis
Data from the questionnaire were encoded, entered in Microsoft
Excel (2007) spread sheet, and checked for any data inconsistencies
 Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2017, Vol. 8, No. 1 3

prior to analysis. The data were tabulated and analyzed using fre-
quency and percentages. Some farmers gave multiple responses to
some of the questions, so percentages did not add up to 100.
3. Results
Size and Age of Farms
The age of mango orchards in the area ranged from 7–10 yr, mean-
ing most of the farms in the study area were planted around 2005.
The average age of mango orchard in the studied area is 9 yr. This
period coincided with Government of Ghana’s policy to increase
production of mango and other horticultural fruits. The average size
of farms in Yilo Krobo (Somanya), Manya Krobo (Kpong), and Shai
Osudoku (Ayikuma) areas were 5.79, 7.69, and 6.48 ha, respec-
tively. The average size of mango orchards at all the three localities
was 6.76 ha based on the sampled individuals.
Common Varieties Grown in Study Area
The common varieties of mangoes grown in the studied area include
Keitt, Kent, Palmer, and Haden. The results showed that 46.7% of the
respondents planted a combination of Keitt and Kent, while 33.3%
planted Keitt only. Additionally, 10.0% planted a combination of
Keitt, Kent, and Palmer and 3.3% planted a mixture of Keitt, Kent,
Palmer, and Haden. About 3.3% of the farmers also planted Kent only
and 3.3% had a combination of Keitt, Kent, and Haden.
Common Insecticides Used by Mango Farmers
Twelve (12) different types of insecticides were found to be used by
mango farmers in the study area. Thirty percent (30%) of the re-
spondents used Cydim super, a composite insecticide made up of
dimethoate 400 g and cypermethrin 36 g, whereas 3.3% used
Pyrinex (chlorpyrifos 480 g/liter) as stand-alone. Also, 3.3% of the
respondents used chlorpyrifos only, Akate suro (diazinon) only,
cymethoate only, and Regent only for mango insect pest manage-
ment (Fig. 2). The results also showed that farmers combine differ-
ent insecticides for pest management. Combinations of Cydim
super, Plan D, and Deltafos (3.3%); Cydim super and Cymethoate
and K-optimal (3.3%); Rimon, Acestar, and Cydim super (3.3%);
and Cydim super and Fernitrothion (3.3%).
Table 1 shows the classification of some of the insecticides used
by farmers. In recent times, pyrethroids, neonicotinoids, and organ-
ophosphates (OPs) were the classes of insecticides mostly used in the
management of insect pests, and the insecticides fall under WHO
Hazard Category II (moderately hazardous in WHO characteriza-
tion). The pyrethroids identified in the study to be in use were delta-
methrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, and bifenthrin (WHO 2009).
Level of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Practiced
by Farmers
The data showed that majority of the respondents (86.7%) experi-
enced the Level 1 of IPM practice which asked farmer whether they

Regent
Cydim super, Fernithothion
Cydim super, Plan D, Deltafos
Cymethoate
Cydim super, Cymethoate, K-optimal
Rimon, Acestar, Cydim super
Cydim super
Akate suro
Chlorpyrifos
Pyrinex

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
% Respondents

Fig. 2. Percentage of mango farmers using single and combinations of insecticide products in southeastern Ghana. Farmers who used different products do not
tank mix but alternate the products.

Table 1. WHO classification of insecticides used by mango farmers in southeastern Ghana

Insecticide trade name Active ingredient (a.i.) Chemical group WHO class Ghana EPA Recommendation

Acestar Acephate Organophosphate II Broad spectrum

Akate suro Diazinon Organophosphate II Cocoa mirids, BP
Chlorpyriphos Chlorpyriphos Organophosphate II Broad spectrum
Cymethoate Dimethoate Organophosphate II Broad spectrum
Fenitrothion Fenitrothion Organophosphate II Broad spectrum
Deltafos/Deltapaz Deltamethrin Pyrethroid II Broad spectrum
Plan D Deltamethrin Pyrethroid II Broad spectrum
Pyrinex Chlorpyriphos Organophosphate II Broad spectrum
Cydim super (composite) Dimethoate þ Cypermethrin Organophosphate þ Pyrethroid II Broad spectrum
Rimon Star 65 EC Novaluron þ Bifenthrin Benzoylureas þ Pyrethroid II Broad spectrum
Regent Fipronil Phenylpyrazole II Broad spectrum
K-optimal Lambda cyhalothrin þ Acetamiprid Pyrethroid þ Neonicotinoid II Broad spectrum

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 4 Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2017, Vol. 8, No. 1
currently use conventional pest management and are still willing
and interested in learning about other pest management practices
for insects, weeds, and diseases (Fig. 3). Thirty percent (30%) of the
respondents practiced Level 2, which states that “I have initiated
some other pest management practices such as monitoring and
scouting on a pilot basis, but I am at an early stage of implementa-
tion and could use if more training is provided.” Additionally,
13.3% of the farmers practiced Level 3 of the pest management
transition (I utilize management practices such as scouting, pest
identification, and knowledge of pest life cycles and monitoring of
weather conditions to determine when and what tools to utilize in
managing pests). And finally, 3.3% each of the respondents utilized
Level 4, 5, and 0 in the management of pest (Level 4: I am fully im-
plementing integrated pest management practices with primary reli-
ance on bio-controls such as beneficial insects to manage pest
populations when present at economically damaging levels. I utilize
cultural practices to manage pest populations. I serve as a mentor to
others interested in moving toward a whole systems approach; and
Level 5: I have adopted a whole systems approach, such as
Integrated Crop Management [ICM] that integrates pest, soil, water,
and crop management practices; incorporates conservation plan-
ning; and focuses on sustainable agriculture). Level 0 of the pest
management transition relied almost entirely on preventive methods
of insect pest management (including weed and disease management
as well as insects) applications with little effort to monitor pest pop-
ulations through scouting or forecasting. Also, mango growers do
not have a strong desire to change the current management practices
(Fig. 3).
IPM Methods Employed by Mango Farmers
The level of IPM practice varied among the farmers in the studied
area. More than 80% of the farmers used pheromone traps, picking
of dropped fruits, scouting, and other lures. The most common lures
used by the farmers were methyl eugenol (ME)- and terpinyl acetate
(TA)-baited traps for the management of Bactrocera species and
Ceratitis species, respectively. About 66.7% respondent used con-
ventional insecticides in the management of pest in their mango or-
chard. The use of natural products and insect growth regulators was
very low (6.7% and 20%, respectively), among the farmers. Also,
on-farm weather monitoring by the farmers was low (16.7%).
Fig. 3. Level of pest management practices used by farmers in the study area.
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The farmers in the studied area never practiced biological control
and microbial pesticide methods of pest management in their mango
orchards. About 80% of the farmers indicated they have subscribed
to the GLOBALGAP standards (Fig. 4). The GLOBALGAP standard
is a partnership between agricultural producers and retailers to es-
tablish a set of widely accepted certification standards and proce-
dures for good agricultural practices (GAP). Its scope currently
covers fresh fruit and vegetables, propagation material, integrated
farm assurance (livestock, dairy, pigs, poultry, combinable crops
and grains), flowers and ornamentals, tea, coffee, and aquaculture
(www.globalgap.org). The GLOBALG.A.P. Fruit & Vegetables
Standard covers all stages of production, from preharvest activities
such as soil management and plant protection product application
to postharvest produce handling, packing, and storing (www.global
gap.org).
Frequency of Insecticide Application
About 23.5% of the farmers applied synthetic insecticides on
monthly basis and 23.3% applied as and when necessary.
Additionally, 20% of the respondents (farmers) applied the insecti-
cides eight times in a year (Fig. 5). While 16.6% of the farmers ap-
plied the chemical six times in a year, 10% and 6.6% of them
applied the insecticides seven times per year and four times per year,
respectively (Fig. 5).
Discussion
Data from the study showed varied levels of IPM knowledge and
practices among mango farmers in southeastern Ghana. The re-
search was built around six levels of IPM practice of mango growers
in southern Ghana. The IPM transitional levels were based on farm-
ers’ knowledge of available tools used to control mango weevils.
Our results show that “Keitt” is the most common mango cultivar
(80% or 24,000 tons), followed by Kent (10% or about 3,000
tons; Okorley et al. 2014) and the other cultivars (Palmer, Tommy
Atkins, Zill, etc.), which have low volumes in terms of total produc-
tion (Zakari 2012, Anonymous 2016). The reason for farmer’s
choice for Keitt may be due to its good characteristics such as good
disease resistance, and typically ripens from August to December,
 Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2017, Vol. 8, No. 1 5

GLOBAGAP Certified

On-farm weather monitoring

Use of Natural products

Conventional insecticides

Insect growth regulators

Microbial Pesticides

Biological Control

Use of Pheromone Traps

Use of Traps and Lures

Picking of dropped fruits

Scouting

0 20 40 60 80 100
Yes No
% Respondents

Fig. 4. IPM methods used by farmers in the study area.

As and when necessary

Application Frequency

7 times/year

8 times/year

6 times/year

4 times/year

Monthly

0 5 10 15 20 25
% Respondents

Fig. 5. Frequency of insecticide applications made by farmers in a year in the study area.

which is when mangoes are in high demand in Ghana and other im-
porting countries.
In the current studies, 12 different trade names of insecticides be-
longing to five different chemical groups were found to be com-
monly used by mango farmers. About 30% of the farmers used
Cydim Super, a composite organophosphate insecticide and broad
spectrum, as the most common insecticide in the management of
mango pests especially fruit flies. Among the groups, OPs were the
most extensively used insecticides. The present survey confirmed an
earlier study which found organophosphate as the most commonly
used insecticide by mango farmers in India (Srivastava et al. 2014).
Ansaa (2012) also concluded that mango farmers in the Dangme
West District of Ghana used several insecticides, and residues
detected in mango fruits from the area were all below the recom-
mended European Union Maximum Residue Levels (EU MRLs).
The results that most farmers use insecticides to control pests are
in agreement with reports of the growing dependence on synthetic
insecticides for the control of crop pests (Orr and Ritchie 2004,
Obopile et al. 2008, Grzywacz et al. 2010). For example, Orr and
Ritchie (2004) reported up to 19 applications on tomato and 14 ap-
plications on cabbage per year in the wetlands of Southern Malawi.
Most of the pesticides applied are potent toxins and their intensive
use poses potential hazards to humans, livestock, and the environ-
ment (Chambers et al. 2001, Ngowi et al. 2007). The frequency of
insecticide application in mango agroecosystem is in tandem with
global standards where over 20% of the farmers applied insecticides

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 6 Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 2017, Vol. 8, No. 1
on monthly and as and when needed. This confirmed earlier litera-
ture from India where farmers are advised to use calendar and spot
spray program for control of mango pests (Anonymous 2012).
The high usage of organophosphates in mango pest management
might be due to its low persistence and high bio-efficiency (Sharma
et al. 2010, Srivastava et al. 2014). The intensive use of nonselective
insecticides to deal with pest outbreaks may have direct conse-
quences for pest control through the occurrence of insecticide resis-
tant strains, pest resurgence, and secondary pest outbreaks
(McKinney and Schoch 2003, Tiwari et al. 2011).
The insecticides recommended by the Plant Protection and
Regulatory Services Directorate (PPRSD) of the Ministry of Food
and Agriculture for use against mango weevil include Fastrack 10
SC, Fendona 5 SC (alpha cypermethrin: pyrethroid), Golan 20 SP
(acetamiprid: neonicotinoid), and Hockli Combi 40 EC (fenitro-
thion þ fenvalerate: organophosphate þ pyrethroid; Aboagye et al.
2014). This shows that the farmers in the studied area were using in-
secticides whose active ingredients and chemical classes are similar
to those recommended by PPRSD/MoFA.
In the light of mango farmer’s knowledge and level of IPM prac-
tice in southeastern Ghana, majority of the farmers (86.7%)
adopted Level 1 of pest management transition. This high level of
farmers responding in the affirmative to this question corroborate
earlier findings by Nagenthirarajah and Thiruchelvam (2008),
which revealed that most farmers depend on chemical pesticides for
the management of insect pests and diseases and that farmers use
moderately toxic pesticides but at a very high frequency and dosage.
Additionally, very few of the respondents (3.3%) practiced levels 0,
4, and 5 of the IPM transition gradient in their orchards. This shows
that these farmers had no experience and knowledge for instance
about biological and nonchemical methods to control pests espe-
cially weevils, for sustainable mango production. It is also in agree-
ment with earlier work by Karamidehkordi and Hashemi (2010),
Singh et al. (2014), and Materu et al. (2016) that farmers hardly
used nonchemical pest control methods (e.g. mechanical and biolog-
ical techniques) in pest management and their awareness of using
these methods is very low.
In evaluating farmers’ knowledge and awareness of IPM in
Uganda, Erbaugh et al. (2001, 2007) argued that there is the need to
develop a discovery and experiential learning-based IPM training
module to reach the broader audience. Heh (2014) also concluded
in his research on knowledge levels of farmers and use of integrated
pest management practices in Hohoe municipality of Ghana that
training in IPM has significant influence on its use by farmers for
sustainable pest management.
The farmers in the studied area adopted different IPM methods
and had knowledge on insecticide use. This shows that insecticides
were used to manage other insects including the S. mangiferae.
Thus, the use of pesticides (insecticides) as the main pest manage-
ment strategy to guarantee the world’s food supply cannot be over-
emphasized (Pasiani et al. 2012, Ghimire and Kafle 2014). Less than
20% of the farmers also used natural products, insect growth regu-
lators and on-farm weather monitoring in the management of
mango pests. Nyirenda et al. (2011) advocated for the use of natural
products in pest management for sustainable environmental protec-
tion. It is on this basis that Dent (1995) argued that increasing
farmer participation in the development and implementation of IPM
programs has emerged as a strategy for increasing the application of
IPM, particularly among small-scale farmers. GLOBALGAP, a pri-
vate standard set by major European retail chains, is the minimum
requirement for mango growers and exporters in supplying large re-
tail chains to Europe, and eighty percent (80%) of the farmers in the
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studied area have subscribed to the GLOBALGAP standards. This
confirms reports that fruits from Ghana in the recent years have fol-
lowed the GLOBALGAP standards (Zakari 2012, Anonymous
2016, GlobalGAP 2016). The sustainable and profitable production
of mangoes in Ghana depends on the ability of farmers to meet strin-
gent consumer demands of unblemished quality fruit with no pesti-
cide residues or quarantine pests. Even the local consumers are
increasingly aware of the health and environmental risks associated
with using pesticides in food crop production (Diedhiou et al. 2007,
Braimah and Van Emden 2010).
In conclusion, this study revealed that there were varied levels of
knowledge and pest management practice among mango farmers es-
pecially against the S. mangiferae. Mango IPM practice could gener-
ate substantial economic benefits when adopted successfully because
it can help reduce the magnitude of fruit rejection, cost of insecti-
cides, and net income from mango production. It is also evident that
most of the farmers adopted GLOBALGAP standards for certifica-
tion which provides a sustained production process, thereby generat-
ing enormous economic benefits to the farmers in the studied
regions. Majority of the respondents (86.7%) experienced the
Level 1 of IPM practice; the implication is that there is still room for
mango farmers to improve on their management practice. Although
relating the farmers practice and knowledge in IPM to fruit rejec-
tions during export was beyond the scope of this study, it is plausible
to suggest that farmers’ knowledge in IPM could translate to fewer
rejections since mango weevil and insect pests could be properly
managed. This, however, requires further studies. Because most
farmers were willing to learn and adopt new management strategies,
there’s the need to introduce newer integrated production and pest
management (IPPM) strategies via appropriate extension methods
such as Farmer’s Field School. On the basis of this study, IPM tech-
nique for mango weevil should be encouraged among the farmers
practicing IPM levels 0, 1, 2, and 3 to cover the entire mango-grow-
ing areas in Ghana. In this regard, there is the need for IPM to be
better integrated into national programs for mango production.
Future research needs to be carried out to correlate the economic
benefit of the various IPM levels and mango fruit rejection.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the mango farmers and the agricultural extension officers
in the areas visited for assisting in sampling and the provision of information
for the study. We thank the staff of the Entomology Department of Forest
and Horticultural Crops Research Centre, Kade, School of Agriculture,
College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, for logistical sup-
port. Fund for this research was provided by University of Ghana Office of
Research, Innovation and Development (ORID) grant URF/7/ILG-036/2013-
2014 given to C.A.M.
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