Losses in Transformers:

An ideal transformer is very efficient, they don’t have energy losses. It means

power supplied to the transformer’s input terminal must be equivalent to the
power supplied to the transformer’s output one.

So, the input power and output power in an ideal transformer are equal
including zero energy losses. In reality, both the input and output powers of the
transformer will not equal because of electrical losses within the transformer.
The following power losses may occur in a practical transformer −
 Iron Loss or Core Loss
 Copper Loss or I2R Loss
 Stray Loss
 Dielectric Loss
Iron Loss or Core Loss:
 Iron loss occurs in the magnetic core of the transformer due to flow of
alternating magnetic flux through it. For this reason, the iron loss is also
called core loss.
 Iron loss (Pi) = hysteresis loss (Ph) + eddy current loss (Pe).
 Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend on the magnetic properties of
the material used for the construction of the core. So, these losses are also
known as core losses or iron losses.
 Hysteresis loss in transformer: The reason is the reversal of magnetization
in the transformer core. This loss depends on the volume and grade of the
iron, frequency of magnetic reversals and value of flux density . Ph=khfBxm

Eddy Current Loss:

 When an alternating magnetic field is applied to a magnetic material, an
emf is induced in the material itself according to Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic induction. Since the magnetic material is a conducting
material, these EMFs circulate current within the body of the material.
 These circulating currents are called Eddy Currents. They will occur when
the conductor experiences a changing magnetic field.

 As these currents are not responsible for doing any useful work, and it
produces a loss in the magnetic material known as an Eddy Current Loss.
Eddy current loss increases the temperature of the magnetic material.
Pe=keB2mf2t2
Copper Loss or I2R Loss:
 Power loss in a transformer that occurs in both the primary and secondary
windings due to their Ohmic resistance is called copper loss or I2R loss. 
 The total copper loss in a transformer is the sum of power loss in the
primary winding and power loss in the secondary winding.

Stray Loss:
 In practical transformer, a fraction of the total flux follows a path through
air and this flux is called leakage flux.
 This leakage flux produces eddy currents in the conducting or metallic
parts like tank of the transformer.
 These eddy currents cause power loss, which is known as stray loss.
Dielectric Loss:
 The power loss occurs in insulating materials like oil, solid insulation of the
transformer, etc. is known as dielectric loss.
 The dielectric loss is significant only in transformers working on high
voltages.
  In practice, the stray loss and dielectric loss are very small, constant and
may be neglected.

Auto Transformer:
 An autotransformer is a one winding transformer in which a part of the
winding is common to both primary and secondary windings.
 An autotransformer has a single continuous winding with a tap point
between the primary and secondary windings.
 The number of turns of the primary and secondary windings can be varied
using the switch contact.
 Since the output voltage of the transformer can be varied by changing the
number of turns, it is also known as VARIAC (Variable AC) or voltage
regulator.
 In an Autotransformer the windings are connected both electrically &
magnetically through self-induction.

Fig: Schematic diagram

Working: The winding AB of total turns N1 is considered as primary winding.

This winding is tapped from point ′C′ and the portion BC is considered as
secondary. Let’s assume the number of turns in between points ′B′ and ′C′ is N2.
f V1 voltage is applied across the winding i.e. in between ′A′ and ′C′.

Hence, the voltage across the portion BC of the winding, will be,
When load is connected between secondary terminals i.e .between ′B′ and ′C′, load
current I2 starts flowing. The current in the secondary winding or common
winding is the difference of I2 and I1.

Copper Savings in Auto Transformer:

Now we will discuss the savings of copper in auto transformer compared to
conventional two winding transformer. We know that weight of copper of any
winding depends upon its length and cross-sectional area. Again, length of
conductor in winding is proportional to its number of turns and cross-sectional
area varies with rated current. So, weight of copper in winding is directly
proportional to product of number of turns and rated current of the winding.
Therefore, weight of copper in the section AC proportional to,

and similarly, weight of copper in the section BC proportional to,

Hence, total weight of copper in the winding of auto transformer (Wa) proportional

to,
In similar way it can be proved, the weight of copper in two winding transformer is

proportional to,
Let’s assume, Wa and Wtw are weight of copper in auto transformer and two
winding transformers respectively,
Three Phase Transformer:
The transformer used to supply or transfer large amounts of power to three-phase
connections is called a three-phase transformer. In power systems, it is used in
different stages for stepping up or stepping down higher voltages. There are
numerous advantages of a three-phase transformer, when compared to a single-
phase transformer.

Construction:
There are two methods to construct a three-phase transformer, as explained
below:
1. Using a bank of three single-phase transformers: In this method, three
single-phase transformers are connected such that the primary windings of each
transformer are connected to each other. Similarly, the secondary windings of
each transformer are connected to each other. The phase angle between these
three single phases is 120°. In this method, if a fault occurs in any one of the
single-phase transformers, the continuity of the supply is maintained by the other
two single-phase transformers.
2. Using a single three-phase transformer: Here, the three-phase transformer
has a single core, where all the three windings get wounded. This method of
constructing a three-phase transformer is preferable since it is economical and
more convenient. In this method, if a fault occurs, there will be discontinuity in
the supply.

Types of Three Phase Transformers:

The three-phase transformer can be constructed using a common magnetic core
for both primary and secondary windings. Based on the type of construction of
primary and secondary windings, three-phase transformers are classified as:
1. Core-type three-phase transformer:
A core-type three-phase transformer is shown in Figure. In this type of
construction, there are three cores and two yokes. Each core has both primary
and secondary windings wounded spirally as shown in the figure. Each leg of the
core carries high voltage as well as low voltage windings. The core is laminated to
minimize eddy current losses on core and yoke. As it is easier to laminate low
voltage (LV) winding than the high voltage (HV) winding. The LV windings are
positioned near the core with appropriate insulation and oil ducts in between
them whereas, the HV windings are placed above the LV windings with
appropriate insulation and oil ducts between them.
2. Shell-type three-phase transformer: In this type, since each phase has an
individual magnetic circuit, the three phases are more independent. Here, the
construction is similar to the single-phase shell-type transformer and each phase
is placed on top of another, as shown in Figure. Here, the winding direction of the
units ‘a’ and ‘c’ are same when compare to unit ‘b’. The effect of unbalanced
condition is less and each laminated core surrounds its corresponding coil.

Winding Connection of Three Phase Transformers:

Windings of a three-phase transformer can be connected in various configurations
as
1. Star-star
2. Delta-delta
3. Star-delta
4. Delta-star
5. Open delta
6. Scott connection.
These configurations are explained below:
Star-Star (Y-Y) :
  Star-star connection is generally used for small, high-voltage transformers.
Because of star connection, number of required turns/phase is reduced (as
phase voltage in star connection is 1/√3 times of line voltage only).
 Thus, the amount of insulation required is also reduced.
 The ratio of line voltages on the primary side and the secondary side is
equal to the transformation ratio of the transformers.
 Line voltages on both sides are in phase with each other. This connection
can be used only if the connected load is balanced.
Delta-Delta (Δ-Δ) :
 This connection is generally used for large, low-voltage transformers.
Number of required phase/turns is relatively greater than that for star-star
connection.
 The ratio of line voltages on the primary and the secondary side is equal to
the transformation ratio of the transformers.
 This connection can be used even for unbalanced loading.
 Another advantage of this type of connection is that even if one transformer
is disabled, system can continue to operate in open delta connection but
with reduced available capacity.
Star-Delta OR Wye-Delta (Y-Δ) :

 The primary winding is star star (Y) connected with grounded neutral and
the secondary winding is delta connected.
 This connection is mainly used in step down transformer at the substation
end of the transmission line.
 The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is 1/√3 times the
transformation ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.
Delta-Star OR Delta-Wye (Δ-Y):
 The primary winding is connected in delta and the secondary winding is
connected in star with neutral grounded. Thus, it can be used to provide 3-
phase 4-wire service.
 This type of connection is mainly used in step-up transformer at the
beginning of transmission line.
 The ratio of secondary to primary line voltage is √3 times the transformation
ratio.
 There is 30° shift between the primary and secondary line voltages.
Open Delta (V-V) Connection:
Two transformers are used and primary and secondary connections are made as
shown in the figure below. Open delta connection can be used when one of the
transformers in Δ-Δ bank is disabled and the service is to be continued until the
faulty transformer is repaired or replaced. It can also be used for small three
phase loads where installation of full three transformer bank is un-necessary. The
total load carrying capacity of open delta connection is 57.7% than that would be
for delta-delta connection.
Scott (T-T) Connection:
Two transformers are used in this type of connection. One of the transformers has
center taps on both primary and secondary windings (which is called as main
transformer). The other transformer is called as teaser transformer. Scott
connection can also be used for three phases to two phase conversion.

Working of a Three Phase Transformer:

Consider that the primary windings of a three-phase transformer are connected in
star on the cores, which are displaced by 120°, as shown in Figure. By connecting
the empty leg of each core, it forms the centre leg.

 When the primary windings are excited using a three-phase supply,

currents IR, IY and IB flow through its respective windings, which produce
the magnetic fluxes, ФR, ФY and ФB in the respective cores.
 Since the centre leg is common for all the cores, the sum of all three fluxes
is carried by it.
 These fluxes induce an emf in the primary winding and based on the
principle of transformer, an emf is induced in its respective secondary
winding.
 The phase angle between the induced emf in primary and secondary
windings is based on the winding connections.
 The induced emf in the secondary winding drives the currents to the load
connected to it.
 Stepping up or stepping down of primary voltage can be achieved, based on
the winding connection and the number of turns in each winding.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Three Phase Transformer:

Advantages
1. Smaller and easier to install.
2. Requires less core material and hence it is more economical.
3. Provides higher efficiency.
4. Easier to transport, as its weight is relatively less.
5. Protective device installation is easier.
6. When compared to a bank of single-phase transformers, it requires less space
for the same rating.
Disadvantages
1. Repairing cost is more.
2. When it is self-cooled, its capacity reduces.