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CAMBODIA'S EDUCATION SYSTEM FROM 1998-2018: CHALLENGES AND

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CAMBODIA'S EDUCATION SYSTEM FROM 1998-2018:
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

Vichana SAR, 2018

Master of Education, Royal University of Phnom Penh
Royal Academy of Cambodia
 INTRODUCTION
Overview of Cambodia's education system
Cambodia's education system has undergone significant changes since the end of the
Khmer Rouge regime in 1979. The country has made progress in expanding access to education,
improving the quality of education, and promoting equity and inclusiveness. However,
challenges still exist in these areas.
The Cambodian education system consists of three levels: primary, secondary, and
tertiary education. Primary education covers grades 1-6 and is compulsory for all children.
Secondary education covers grades 7-12 and is divided into two cycles: lower secondary (grades
7-9) and upper secondary (grades 10-12). Tertiary education includes universities, technical
schools, and vocational schools.
Access to education has improved significantly in Cambodia in recent years. According
to the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport, net enrollment in primary education increased
from 87.7% in 1998 to 98.3% in 2017, and net enrollment in lower secondary education
increased from 15.4% in 1998 to 55.4% in 2017. However, access to upper secondary and
tertiary education remains limited, with only 21.6% of students enrolled in upper secondary
education in 2017 and 3.3% of young adults (ages 18-24) enrolled in tertiary education in 2016
(UNESCO, 2019).
The quality of education in Cambodia still needs improvement. One of the main
challenges is the low quality of teaching, which is often attributed to inadequate training and
professional development for teachers. The curriculum is also criticized for being too focused on
rote memorization rather than critical thinking and problem-solving skills (World Bank, 2019).
Additionally, many schools lack basic facilities, such as classrooms, desks, and textbooks, which
can hinder students' learning.
Equity and inclusiveness are also challenges in Cambodia's education system. Gender
disparities exist, with girls having lower enrollment rates and higher dropout rates than boys,
particularly in rural areas (UNESCO, 2019). Ethnic and linguistic minorities also face challenges
in accessing education, with lower enrollment rates and higher dropout rates compared to the
national average (World Bank, 2019). The rural-urban divide is also significant, with students in
rural areas having lower access to education and lower quality of education than those in urban
areas (UNESCO, 2019).
Importance of education in Cambodia
Education is considered critical for Cambodia's economic and social development.
Education provides individuals with the skills and knowledge necessary to participate in the
labor market, contribute to economic growth, and improve their standard of living. Education
also plays an essential role in promoting social cohesion, reducing poverty, and improving health
outcomes.
 The Cambodian government has recognized the importance of education and has made
efforts to increase investment in the education sector. The government has also implemented
policies aimed at expanding access to education, improving the quality of education, and
promoting equity and inclusiveness.
In a report by the World Bank (2019), education is identified as a key factor in
Cambodia's economic development. The report notes that improving education outcomes,
particularly in terms of quality, can contribute to economic growth by increasing the productivity
of the labor force and promoting innovation and technological progress.
Education is also seen as crucial for reducing poverty and promoting social inclusion.
According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), education is a key factor in
reducing poverty and promoting sustainable development. Education can provide individuals
with the skills and knowledge necessary to participate in the labor market, increase their income,
and improve their standard of living (UNDP, 2021).
In addition, education can have a significant impact on health outcomes. According to the
World Health Organization (WHO), education is linked to better health outcomes, including
lower mortality rates, lower rates of infectious diseases, and better nutrition (WHO, 2019).
Purpose and scope of the report
The purpose of this report is to provide an overview of Cambodia's education system,
including the challenges and opportunities it faces between 1998-2018. The report aims to
provide an analysis of the achievements, progress, and limitations of the education system during
this period. The report also aims to highlight the importance of education in Cambodia's
economic and social development.
The scope of this report covers the primary, secondary, and tertiary education systems in
Cambodia from 1998 to 2018. It includes an overview of the education system's structure,
access, quality, equity, and inclusiveness. The report draws on data and information from various
sources, including government reports, international organizations, and academic studies.
 CHALLENGES IN CAMBODIA'S EDUCATION SYSTEM
Access to education
Access to education is a significant challenge in Cambodia, particularly for marginalized
communities. According to the Cambodian Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport (2017),
approximately 10% of primary school-aged children in Cambodia are out of school. The report
notes that poverty, geographical location, and gender are some of the main factors that limit
access to education in Cambodia.
Efforts to improve access to education have been implemented by the Cambodian
government and NGOs. The government has launched initiatives such as the School Enrollment
Expansion Program, which aims to increase access to education for children living in remote
areas (Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport, 2017). The government has also implemented
policies to promote gender equality in education and increase access to education for girls
(UNESCO, 2017).
NGOs such as Room to Read have implemented programs to increase access to education
for marginalized communities. Room to Read's Girls' Education Program focuses on providing
scholarships, life skills training, and mentorship to girls in primary and secondary schools across
Cambodia (Room to Read, n.d.). The organization also works with schools to promote literacy
and provide learning materials to students.
Primary education
Primary education is a fundamental aspect of education, and access to it is essential to
ensure children have the foundational knowledge and skills to pursue further education and
employment opportunities. In Cambodia, significant progress has been made in improving access
to primary education, but challenges remain.
Net Enrollment Rate:
According to the Cambodia Education Statistics and Indicators 2016-2017, the net
enrollment rate (NER) for primary education increased from 86.7% in 2005 to 98.2% in 2016.
The government has implemented various policies and programs to increase access to primary
education, such as the Education Strategic Plan 2014-2018, which aimed to reduce dropout rates
and increase enrollment rates.
Disparities:
Despite the significant progress made in expanding access to primary education,
disparities remain in certain areas. Access to education is still limited in remote and rural areas,
where the NER is only 93.2%, compared to 99.7% in urban areas. Additionally, children from
low-income households and ethnic minorities have lower access to education, with higher
dropout rates and lower enrollment rates.
Quality:
While access to primary education has improved, the quality of education remains a
challenge. A UNICEF report highlights that the quality of education is lower in rural areas,
where there is a shortage of qualified teachers and inadequate infrastructure. The government has
implemented various policies and programs to improve the quality of education, such as the
Teacher Policy 2016-2030, which aims to improve the quality of teacher education and training.
Secondary education
Secondary education is an important stage in education, and access to it is essential to
ensure students have the knowledge and skills to pursue higher education and employment
opportunities. In Cambodia, access to secondary education has improved significantly over the
past decade, but challenges remain.
Net Enrollment Rate:
According to the Cambodia Education Statistics and Indicators 2016-2017, the net
enrollment rate (NER) for secondary education increased from 23.5% in 2005 to 52.5% in 2016.
The government has implemented various policies and programs to increase access to secondary
education, such as the Education Strategic Plan 2014-2018, which aimed to reduce dropout rates
and increase enrollment rates.
Disparities:
Despite the progress made in expanding access to secondary education, disparities
remain. Access to education is still limited in remote and rural areas, where the NER is only
35.1%, compared to 65.6% in urban areas. Additionally, children from low-income households
and ethnic minorities have lower access to education, with higher dropout rates and lower
enrollment rates.
Quality:
The quality of secondary education is also a challenge, particularly in rural areas. A
UNICEF report highlights that the quality of education is lower in rural areas, where there is a
shortage of qualified teachers and inadequate infrastructure. The government has implemented
various policies and programs to improve the quality of education, such as the Teacher Policy
2016-2030, which aims to improve the quality of teacher education and training.
Tertiary and higher education
Tertiary and higher education are crucial for developing a skilled workforce and
promoting economic growth. In Cambodia, access to tertiary education has improved over the
years, but challenges remain.
Enrollment:
According to the Cambodia Education Statistics and Indicators 2016-2017, the gross
enrollment rate (GER) for tertiary education increased from 5.6% in 2005 to 10.1% in 2016. The
government has implemented various policies and programs to increase access to tertiary
education, such as the Higher Education Quality and Capacity Improvement Project, which aims
to improve the quality and relevance of tertiary education.
Disparities:
Despite the progress made in expanding access to tertiary education, disparities remain.
Access to tertiary education is still limited in remote and rural areas, where there are fewer
opportunities for higher education. Additionally, there are disparities based on income and
gender, with students from wealthy families and males having better access to higher education.
Quality:
The quality of higher education is also a challenge. The World Bank notes that the quality
of education at the tertiary level is limited by inadequate infrastructure, limited resources, and a
shortage of qualified teachers. The government has implemented various policies and programs
to improve the quality of higher education, such as the Higher Education Quality Assurance
Framework, which aims to ensure that higher education institutions meet certain standards.

Quality of education
Curriculum and teaching quality
Improving the quality of the curriculum and teaching is essential to ensure that students
receive a high-quality education in Cambodia. According to a report by the Cambodian Ministry
of Education, Youth, and Sport (2018), there is a need to revise the curriculum and develop
teaching materials that are more relevant to students' needs and aligned with international
standards. The report also notes that there is a need to improve teaching quality by providing
more training and support for teachers.
Efforts to improve the curriculum and teaching quality have been implemented by the
Cambodian government and NGOs. The Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport has developed
a new curriculum framework that focuses on promoting critical thinking, problem-solving, and
communication skills among students (Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport, 2018). The
framework also emphasizes the importance of teaching students about Cambodia's history,
culture, and values.
NGOs such as the Ponlok Chomnes: Data for Development have also implemented
programs to improve the quality of education in Cambodia. The organization's Education Quality
Improvement Program focuses on providing training and support for teachers to improve their
teaching skills and classroom management (Ponlok Chomnes: Data for Development, n.d.).
Curriculum:
The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport has revised the national curriculum to make
it more relevant to the needs of the students and the country. The new curriculum includes more
practical skills, such as computer skills and critical thinking, and emphasizes the importance of
lifelong learning. Additionally, the government has implemented programs to improve the
quality of textbooks and instructional materials.
Teaching Quality:
The quality of teaching is also essential to ensure that students receive a high-quality
education. The government has implemented various policies and programs to improve the
quality of teaching, such as the Teacher Policy 2016-2030, which aims to improve the quality of
teacher education and training. The government has also implemented programs to provide
professional development opportunities for teachers, such as training on the use of technology in
the classroom.
Learning materials and facilities
Access to learning materials and facilities is a critical component of ensuring quality
education in Cambodia. According to a report by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (2019), the
lack of infrastructure and resources in schools is a significant barrier to education in Cambodia.
The report notes that many schools in Cambodia lack basic facilities such as libraries, computer
labs, and internet access, which can limit students' ability to learn and succeed.
Efforts have been made to improve access to learning materials and facilities in
Cambodia. The Cambodian government has implemented various initiatives to improve
infrastructure and provide learning materials to schools. For example, the government has
launched a program to provide textbooks to students in primary and secondary schools (Ministry
of Education, Youth, and Sport, 2017). In addition, the government has collaborated with NGOs
and international organizations to build schools and provide learning materials to underserved
communities (World Bank, 2017).
NGOs such as Room to Read have also implemented programs to improve access to
learning materials in Cambodia. Room to Read's Literacy Program focuses on providing books,
library rooms, and literacy training to students and teachers in primary schools across Cambodia
(Room to Read, n.d.).
Learning Materials:
The government has implemented various programs to improve the quality of textbooks
and instructional materials. For example, the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport has
developed a textbook review process to ensure that textbooks meet certain standards. The
government has also implemented programs to improve the availability of learning materials,
such as the School Library Development Program.
Facilities:
The availability of facilities is also essential to ensure that students receive a high-quality
education. The government has implemented various programs to improve the quality of school
infrastructure, such as the School Infrastructure Development Program. The program aims to
improve school facilities, such as classrooms, toilets, and water supply systems. Additionally, the
government has implemented programs to improve the availability of technology in schools,
such as the Computer Literacy Program.

Teacher training and development

Teacher training and development is crucial for improving the quality of education in
Cambodia. According to a report by the World Bank (2014), there is a need for better teacher
training and support in Cambodia, particularly in rural areas where teachers may have limited
qualifications and training. The report notes that many teachers in Cambodia have not received
formal training in teaching methods, and there is a lack of opportunities for professional
development.
Efforts to improve teacher training and development have been implemented by the
Cambodian government and NGOs. The Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport has developed
a Teacher Policy Framework to guide the development and training of teachers in Cambodia
(Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport, 2014). The framework includes measures to improve
teacher qualifications and provide ongoing professional development opportunities.
NGOs such as VSO Cambodia have also implemented programs to support teacher
training and development in Cambodia. VSO Cambodia's program focuses on providing training
and support for teachers in rural areas, where there is a higher need for qualified teachers (VSO
Cambodia, n.d.).
Teacher Education:
The government has implemented various policies and programs to improve the quality
of teacher education, such as the Teacher Policy 2016-2030. The policy aims to improve the
quality of teacher education and training, as well as attract and retain high-quality teachers.
Additionally, the government has implemented programs to improve the availability of teacher
education programs, such as the Teacher Training and Professional Development Program.
Teacher Training and Development:
The government has also implemented programs to provide professional development
opportunities for teachers, such as training on the use of technology in the classroom. For
example, the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport has implemented the ICT in Education
Program, which provides training on the use of technology in the classroom.

Equity and inclusiveness

Gender disparities
Gender disparities in education remain a challenge in Cambodia, particularly in terms of
access to education, retention rates, and completion rates. However, efforts have been made to
promote equity and inclusiveness in education. Girls are less likely to attend school than boys in
Cambodia, particularly in rural areas. According to a report by UNESCO, the net enrolment rate
for girls in primary education was 90% in 2017, compared to 92% for boys. In secondary
education, the net enrolment rate for girls was 31% in 2017, compared to 36% for boys.
According to a report by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) (2018), girls in
Cambodia are less likely to enroll and complete their education compared to boys. The report
notes that while there has been progress in recent years, with more girls enrolling in school,
gender disparities still persist. In 2016, for example, the net enrollment rate for girls in primary
school was 92%, compared to 97% for boys. This gap widens as students’ progress through the
education system, with only 14% of women in Cambodia completing tertiary education
compared to 24% of men (UIS, 2018).
Gender disparities in education are often linked to cultural and societal norms that
prioritize boys' education over girls. For example, girls may be expected to help with household
chores or get married at a young age, which can prevent them from attending school (Save the
Children, 2019). Additionally, there may be a lack of female teachers and role models, which can
discourage girls from pursuing education (UNESCO, 2019).
Efforts to promote gender equity and inclusiveness in education have been implemented
by the Cambodian government and NGOs. The Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport, for
example, has developed a Gender Mainstreaming Strategy to promote gender equity in education
(UNESCO, 2019). NGOs such as Save the Children and Plan International have also
implemented programs to support girls' education and promote gender equality in Cambodia
(Save the Children, 2019; Plan International, n.d.).
Retention and Completion Rates:
Girls are also less likely to complete their education than boys. According to the Ministry
of Education, Youth and Sport, the completion rate for girls in primary education was 69% in
2017, compared to 73% for boys. In secondary education, the completion rate for girls was 22%
in 2017, compared to 26% for boys.
Efforts to promote equity and inclusiveness in education:
The Cambodian government, in partnership with international organizations, has
implemented various initiatives to promote equity and inclusiveness in education. For example,
the government has implemented a policy to provide free textbooks to all primary and lower
secondary students, which helps to reduce the financial burden on families and improve access to
education. The government has also implemented programs to improve the quality of education
in rural areas, such as the School Improvement Grant program.
Additionally, NGOs such as Plan International Cambodia and CARE International have
implemented programs to promote girls' education and reduce gender disparities. These
programs focus on providing girls with educational opportunities, promoting gender-sensitive
teaching practices, and addressing social norms that may limit girls' access to education.
Ethnic and linguistic minorities
Cambodia is home to a number of ethnic and linguistic minority groups, including the
Cham, the Chinese, the Khmer Loeu (highland people), and the Vietnamese. These minority
groups face a number of challenges in accessing education, particularly in terms of language
barriers, discrimination, and poverty.
According to Chuon and Seng (2019), ethnic and linguistic minorities in Cambodia face
significant challenges in accessing education due to language barriers, discrimination, and
poverty. The authors note that many minority groups speak languages other than Khmer, the
official language of Cambodia, which can make it difficult for them to access education,
particularly in areas where schools may not have teachers who speak their language. This is
further exacerbated by discrimination and prejudice towards minority groups, which can limit
their access to education. Additionally, many minority groups in Cambodia live in poverty,
which can prevent children from attending school due to the associated costs of education, such
as school fees, uniforms, and supplies.
Efforts to promote education for ethnic and linguistic minorities in Cambodia have been
implemented by the Cambodian government and NGOs. The Multilingual Education Program,
for example, has been established by the government to provide bilingual education for children
in Khmer Loeu communities (Chuon & Seng, 2019). NGOs such as Oxfam have also
implemented programs to support education for marginalized communities, including ethnic
minority groups (Oxfam, 2019).
In a report by the United Nations Development Programme (2019), it was found that
ethnic minority children in Cambodia face significant disadvantages in terms of education. The
report notes that children from ethnic minority groups are less likely to attend school, have lower
levels of literacy and numeracy, and are more likely to drop out of school than children from the
majority Khmer population. The report also highlights the importance of bilingual education in
promoting access to education for ethnic minority children.
Language Barriers:
Many minority groups in Cambodia speak languages other than Khmer, the official
language of Cambodia. This can make it difficult for them to access education, particularly in
areas where schools may not have teachers who speak their language. The government has made
efforts to address this issue by providing bilingual education in some areas, particularly for the
Khmer Loeu communities.
Discrimination:
Minority groups in Cambodia may also face discrimination and prejudice, which can
limit their access to education. For example, some Cham and Vietnamese children have been
denied admission to schools due to their ethnicity or religion.
Poverty:
Many minority groups in Cambodia live in poverty, which can make it difficult for them
to afford the costs associated with education, such as school fees, uniforms, and supplies. In
some cases, children from these communities may be forced to work to support their families,
which can prevent them from attending school.
Efforts to promote education for minority groups:
The Cambodian government and NGOs have implemented various initiatives to promote
education for minority groups. For example, the government has implemented the Multilingual
Education Program, which provides bilingual education for children in Khmer Loeu
communities. NGOs such as Oxfam have implemented programs to support education for
marginalized communities, including ethnic minority groups.

Rural-urban divide
The rural-urban divide is a significant challenge in ensuring equitable access to education
in Cambodia. According to a report by the Cambodian Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sport
(2017), children living in rural areas are less likely to attend school and more likely to drop out
of school early compared to their urban counterparts. The report notes that factors such as
poverty, distance to schools, and poor quality of education in rural areas contribute to this
disparity.
Efforts to address the rural-urban divide in education have been implemented by the
Cambodian government and NGOs. The government has launched initiatives such as the School
Enrollment Expansion Program and the School Construction Program, which aim to increase
access to education and improve the quality of education in rural areas (Ministry of Education,
Youth, and Sport, 2017).
NGOs such as the Cambodian Children's Fund have implemented programs to address
the rural-urban divide in education. The organization's Education Program focuses on providing
access to education for children living in poverty in rural and urban areas (Cambodian Children's
Fund, n.d.). The program provides scholarships, learning materials, and support for children to
complete their education.
 OPPORTUNITIES IN CAMBODIA'S EDUCATION SYSTEM
Government initiatives and policies
The government of Cambodia has implemented various initiatives and policies to
improve access to education and the quality of education in the country. One of the major
initiatives launched by the government is the Education Strategic Plan 2019-2023. The plan
focuses on improving access to education, increasing the quality of education, and ensuring
equitable access to education for all children in Cambodia (Ministry of Education, Youth and
Sport, 2019).
The government has also implemented the School Construction Program to increase the
number of schools in rural areas and improve the quality of existing schools. The program aims
to provide more children in rural areas with access to education (Ministry of Education, Youth
and Sport, 2017).
The government has also launched the Basic Education Equivalency Program, which
provides opportunities for out-of-school children to complete their primary and lower secondary
education. The program aims to improve literacy rates and increase access to education for
vulnerable children in Cambodia (UNICEF Cambodia, 2017).
In addition, the government has implemented policies to improve the quality of
education, such as the Curriculum Reform Program. The program aims to update the curriculum
to align with international standards and provide students with a more relevant and practical
education (Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport, 2014).
Increased investment in education
The government of Cambodia has increased its investment in education in recent years,
recognizing the importance of education for the development of the country. According to the
Education Strategic Plan 2019-2023, the government aims to increase its annual education
budget from 18% to 20% of the national budget (Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport, 2019).
In addition, the government has received support from international organizations to
increase investment in education. For example, the Global Partnership for Education (GPE) has
provided funding to support the Education Strategic Plan 2014-2018 and 2019-2023, with a
focus on improving access to education, increasing the quality of education, and ensuring equity
in education (Global Partnership for Education, n.d.).
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has also provided funding for education projects in
Cambodia, such as the Secondary Education Improvement Project and the Higher Education and
Science Technology Project. These projects aim to improve the quality of education in Cambodia
and increase access to higher education (Asian Development Bank, n.d.).
Increased investment in education has also led to improvements in infrastructure and
resources in schools. For example, the School Construction Program, funded by the government,
has led to the construction of new schools and the renovation of existing schools, providing
better facilities for students (Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport, 2017).
Advancements in technology
Advancements in technology have the potential to transform education in Cambodia,
particularly in terms of increasing access to education and improving the quality of education.
The government has recognized the importance of technology in education and has implemented
various initiatives to promote the use of technology in schools.
One such initiative is the One Laptop per Child (OLPC) project, which aims to provide
every primary school student in Cambodia with a laptop. The project is supported by the
government and various international organizations, and aims to improve students' access to
educational resources and increase their digital literacy (One Laptop per Child, n.d.).
In addition, the government has implemented the "Smart Schools" program, which aims
to equip schools with digital resources such as computers, projectors, and interactive
whiteboards. The program also provides training for teachers to effectively integrate technology
into their teaching (Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport, 2018).
Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the adoption of technology in
education in Cambodia, as schools were forced to close and students had to learn remotely. The
government implemented the "Learning with Technology" program, which provided online
learning resources for students, and also distributed radios and television sets to students in rural
areas without internet access (Cambodian Education Forum, 2020).
Overall, the advancements in technology have the potential to greatly benefit education in
Cambodia, by increasing access to educational resources, improving the quality of education,
and preparing students for a digital future.
 CHANGES IN CAMBODIA'S EDUCATION SYSTEM FROM 1998-2018
Primary education
Cambodia's primary education system has undergone significant changes from 1998 to
2018. Some of the major changes include:
• Increased enrollment: Between 1998 and 2018, primary school enrollment in Cambodia
increased from around 70% to over 95%, thanks to various government initiatives aimed
at increasing access to education (UNESCO, 2020).
• Lengthened primary education cycle: In 2000, Cambodia extended its primary education
cycle from five to six years, in line with the global standard. This was done to ensure that
students receive a more comprehensive education and are better prepared for secondary
education (Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport, 2008).
• Improved infrastructure: The Cambodian government has invested heavily in improving
primary school infrastructure, including the construction of new schools and the
renovation of existing ones. In 2018, around 84% of primary schools in Cambodia had
access to clean water, compared to just 40% in 2000 (Ministry of Education, Youth and
Sport, 2018).
• Increased teacher training: The government has implemented various initiatives aimed at
improving the quality of primary education, including teacher training programs.
Between 1998 and 2018, the percentage of primary school teachers with at least a
secondary education increased from around 30% to over 80% (UNESCO, 2020).
• Introduction of new curriculum: In 2000, Cambodia introduced a new primary education
curriculum aimed at improving the quality of education and ensuring that students are
better prepared for secondary education. The new curriculum emphasized critical
thinking, problem-solving, and practical skills (Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport,
2008).
From 1998 to 2018, Cambodia's primary education system underwent significant changes
and improvements, with a focus on expanding access, improving quality, and reducing
disparities. Furthermore, one major change was the expansion of the primary education system,
with the number of primary schools increasing from 7,767 in 1998 to 11,265 in 2017 (MoEYS,
2018). This expansion was accompanied by a significant increase in enrollment, with the net
enrollment rate in primary education increasing from 84.2% in 1998 to 98.4% in 2018
(UNESCO, 2021).
Another significant change was the introduction of a new primary education curriculum
in 2000, which aimed to provide students with a more relevant and practical education, with a
focus on literacy, numeracy, and life skills (MoEYS, 2013). The new curriculum also introduced
new subjects such as health education, environmental education, and social studies.
In addition, the quality of primary education in Cambodia has improved in recent years,
with improvements in teacher training and development, learning materials and facilities, and the
introduction of new teaching methods and technologies (MoEYS, 2018). The government has
also made efforts to reduce disparities in access to primary education, particularly for girls, rural
students, and disadvantaged groups, through the provision of scholarships, transportation, and
other forms of support (MoEYS, 2018).
Overall, the changes in Cambodia's primary education system from 1998 to 2018 have
contributed to increased access, improved quality, and reduced disparities, although challenges
remain, particularly in ensuring equitable access to quality education for all students, regardless
of their socio-economic background or geographic location.

Secondary education
Cambodia's secondary education system has undergone significant changes from 1998-
2018. One of the most notable changes is the increase in the number of students enrolled in
secondary education. According to UNESCO, the gross enrollment ratio for secondary education
increased from 15.8% in 1998 to 49.7% in 2018 (UNESCO, 2020).
Another significant change is the expansion of the secondary education system. The
number of lower secondary schools increased from 1,232 in 1998 to 1,542 in 2018, while the
number of upper secondary schools increased from 194 to 623 during the same period (Ministry
of Education, Youth and Sport, 2018).
The quality of education in secondary schools has also improved over the years. The
government has introduced various initiatives to improve the quality of education, such as
teacher training programs and the implementation of a new curriculum that focuses on critical
thinking and problem-solving skills (Asian Development Bank, 2019).
Moreover, the government has also invested in improving the infrastructure and facilities
in secondary schools, especially in rural areas. This has resulted in an increase in the number of
schools with access to basic facilities such as clean water and sanitation (World Bank, 2016).
However, challenges still remain in the secondary education system. Dropout rates in
secondary education are still high, especially among disadvantaged groups such as girls and
children from poor families. Moreover, the quality of education in rural areas is still below par,
with a shortage of qualified teachers and inadequate infrastructure (World Bank, 2016).
Overall, Cambodia's secondary education system has made significant progress in the
past two decades, but there is still a long way to go to ensure equitable access to quality
education for all Cambodian youth.

Tertiary education
Cambodia's tertiary and higher education system underwent significant changes from
1998 to 2018. This period was marked by the implementation of various policies and reforms
aimed at improving access, quality, and relevance of education at the tertiary level.
 In 1998, the Royal Government of Cambodia launched its "Rectangular Strategy" to
promote economic and social development. The strategy identified education as a key priority
area, and the government committed to increasing public investment in education to 20% of the
national budget. This policy shift was followed by the implementation of various reforms in the
education sector.
One of the significant changes in Cambodia's tertiary education system during this period
was the establishment of new universities and the expansion of existing ones. In 2003, the Royal
University of Phnom Penh (RUPP) was restructured and became the country's first autonomous
public university, with greater academic freedom and administrative autonomy. This move was
followed by the establishment of several new public and private universities, such as the
National University of Management, Pannasastra University, and Zaman University, among
others (Kith, 2018).
Another significant change was the implementation of a credit transfer system in 2008,
which allowed students to transfer credits earned at one institution to another. This policy aimed
to increase student mobility and facilitate the transition between different academic programs
and institutions (World Bank, 2013).
The government also launched various programs to improve the quality of tertiary
education. In 2004, the Higher Education Quality and Capacity Improvement Project (HEQCIP)
was launched with the support of the World Bank. The project aimed to improve the quality of
teaching, research, and management at selected universities through infrastructure development,
staff training, and curriculum reform (World Bank, 2004).
In addition to these changes, the government also launched various initiatives to improve
the relevance of tertiary education to the labor market. In 2008, the Technical and Vocational
Education and Training (TVET) Law was enacted to promote the development of vocational
education and training programs that respond to the needs of the labor market (ILO, 2019). The
government also launched the Cambodia Education Sector Support Project (CESSP) in 2014,
which aimed to improve the relevance of tertiary education by aligning academic programs with
the needs of priority sectors such as agriculture, tourism, and health (World Bank, 2014).
Another significant change in Cambodia's higher education system was the
implementation of the National Accreditation Committee (NAC) in 2003. The NAC was
established to ensure the quality of education in tertiary institutions, both public and private. The
NAC developed a set of standards and criteria for accreditation, which aimed to improve the
quality of teaching, research, and management in higher education institutions (UNESCO, 2010).
Furthermore, the period from 1998 to 2018 saw an increase in international cooperation
in higher education. The government signed various agreements and partnerships with
international organizations and universities to promote academic exchanges, research
collaborations, and capacity building. For instance, the government collaborated with the French
Development Agency to establish the Institute of Technology of Cambodia in 2002, which
offered engineering and technology programs (Kith, 2018).
 Despite these changes, Cambodia's higher education system still faces several challenges,
such as inadequate funding, limited infrastructure, and a shortage of qualified faculty. However,
the reforms and policies implemented during this period have set the foundation for further
improvements and developments in the higher education system.
In conclusion, from 1998 to 2018, Cambodia's tertiary and higher education system
underwent significant changes aimed at improving access, quality, and relevance. These changes
were implemented through various policies and reforms, such as the establishment of new
universities, the implementation of a credit transfer system, the launch of programs to improve
the quality and relevance of education, and the implementation of the National Accreditation
Committee. While the higher education system still faces challenges, the reforms and policies
implemented during this period have set the stage for further improvements and developments.
 CONCLUSION
Summary of findings
From 1998 to 2018, Cambodia's education system faced numerous challenges, including
inadequate funding, limited infrastructure, and a shortage of qualified teachers. The government
implemented various policies and reforms to address these issues, such as increasing access to
education, improving the quality and relevance of education, and implementing a credit transfer
system. However, these policies and reforms faced challenges such as inadequate funding,
uneven implementation, and a lack of sustainability.
One of the major challenges that Cambodia's education system faced from 1998 to 2018
was a lack of funding. Education spending in Cambodia remained low compared to other
countries in the region, and the government struggled to allocate sufficient resources to improve
education quality and expand access to education. This lack of funding also led to a shortage of
qualified teachers, with many teachers being underpaid and lacking the necessary training and
qualifications.
Another challenge was the limited infrastructure in many parts of the country,
particularly in rural areas. Many schools lacked basic facilities such as electricity, clean water,
and proper sanitation, which made it difficult to provide a safe and conducive learning
environment for students.
Despite these challenges, the government implemented various policies and reforms to
improve the education system. One of the notable reforms was the implementation of a credit
transfer system, which allowed students to transfer credits between different institutions and
programs. This system aimed to improve the mobility of students and increase access to higher
education.
Additionally, the government launched several programs to improve the quality and
relevance of education, including curriculum reform, teacher training, and the development of
vocational education and training programs. These programs aimed to provide students with the
skills and knowledge necessary to succeed in the workforce and contribute to the country's
economic development.
While these policies and reforms have shown some progress, challenges remain.
Implementation has been uneven, and sustainability remains a concern. The government needs to
continue to prioritize education spending, address the shortage of qualified teachers, and improve
infrastructure to ensure that all students have access to quality education.
In conclusion, Cambodia's education system faced significant challenges from 1998 to
2018, including inadequate funding and limited infrastructure. However, the government
implemented various policies and reforms to address these issues, including the implementation
of a credit transfer system and programs to improve the quality and relevance of education.
While challenges remain, the reforms and policies implemented during this period have set the
foundation for further improvements and developments in Cambodia's education system.
Recommendations for improvement
Based on the challenges and opportunities identified in Cambodia's education system
from 1998-2018, here are some recommendations for further improvement:
• Increase funding: The government should increase education spending to ensure that
there are sufficient resources to improve the quality and access to education. This could
include increasing salaries for teachers, investing in infrastructure, and expanding access
to education for marginalized communities.
• Improve teacher training and qualifications: Addressing the shortage of qualified teachers
is critical to improving the quality of education. The government should invest in teacher
training programs and provide incentives for teachers to obtain higher qualifications and
certifications.
• Strengthen implementation and monitoring: To ensure that policies and reforms are
effectively implemented, the government should establish clear implementation plans and
monitoring mechanisms. This could include regular evaluations and feedback
mechanisms to ensure that policies are achieving their intended outcomes.
• Enhance collaboration and partnerships: International cooperation in education has
played a significant role in improving education in Cambodia. The government should
continue to strengthen partnerships with international organizations and institutions to
share knowledge and resources and implement effective programs and reforms.
• Embrace innovation and technology: The development of new technologies and
innovations offers new opportunities for improving education in Cambodia. The
government should invest in technology infrastructure and explore innovative approaches
to teaching and learning, such as online learning platforms and blended learning models.
• Address disparities: The government should address the disparities in access to education
between urban and rural areas, as well as between different socioeconomic groups. This
could involve investing in infrastructure in rural areas, providing incentives for teachers
to work in rural areas, and expanding access to education for marginalized communities.
• Improve vocational education and training: The government should continue to develop
and expand vocational education and training programs to provide students with the skills
and knowledge necessary to succeed in the workforce. This could involve strengthening
partnerships with industry and employers to ensure that the programs are relevant and
responsive to the needs of the job market.
• Enhance the role of parents and communities: Parents and communities play a critical
role in supporting education. The government should encourage and empower parents
and communities to be more involved in their children's education by providing
information and resources, and by creating opportunities for engagement and
collaboration.
• Increase research and development: Research and development can play a significant role
in improving education by providing evidence-based solutions and informing policy and
practice. The government should invest in research and development in education to
support innovation and improvement.
 • Strengthen the National Accreditation Committee: The National Accreditation
Committee plays an important role in ensuring the quality of higher education in
Cambodia. The government should strengthen the committee's capacity and authority to
ensure that it can effectively regulate and monitor higher education institutions and
programs.
• Increase access to early childhood education: Early childhood education has been shown
to be critical for children's development and future success in education. The government
should invest in expanding access to early childhood education programs, particularly in
rural and marginalized communities.
• Improve assessment and evaluation: The government should strengthen assessment and
evaluation practices to ensure that they are aligned with the goals of the education system
and provide accurate and reliable data for decision-making. This could involve improving
the quality of assessments, developing new tools and approaches, and providing training
and support to teachers and administrators.
• Promote inclusivity and diversity: The education system should be inclusive and
celebrate diversity. The government should develop policies and programs that promote
inclusivity and celebrate diversity, and ensure that all students feel valued and respected.
• Expand international cooperation and exchange: International cooperation and exchange
can provide new opportunities for learning and collaboration. The government should
continue to expand international cooperation and exchange programs to enable students
and teachers to learn from other countries and cultures.
• Promote lifelong learning: Lifelong learning is critical for individuals to adapt to
changing circumstances and succeed in the workforce. The government should promote
and support lifelong learning opportunities for all citizens, including adult education and
training programs.
By implementing these additional recommendations, the government can continue to
improve Cambodia's education system and ensure that it is responsive to the needs of all
learners, regardless of their background or circumstances.

Future outlook for education in Cambodia.

The education system in Cambodia has made significant progress over the past few
decades, but there are still many challenges that need to be addressed. Despite these challenges,
there are several reasons to be optimistic about the future outlook for education in Cambodia:
• Continued government commitment: The government has demonstrated a commitment to
improving education in Cambodia, as evidenced by the increased funding and policy
reforms in recent years. This commitment is expected to continue, which bodes well for
the future of education in Cambodia.
• Increasing access to education: The government has made significant strides in increasing
access to education, particularly at the primary level. Continued efforts to expand access
 to education, particularly in rural and marginalized communities, will help to ensure that
more Cambodian children have the opportunity to receive a quality education.
• Strong partnerships and international cooperation: International cooperation and
partnerships have played a critical role in improving education in Cambodia, and this is
expected to continue in the future. Continued collaboration with international
organizations and institutions can help to bring new ideas, resources, and expertise to the
education system in Cambodia.
• Growing focus on vocational education and training: With the changing needs of the job
market, there is a growing focus on vocational education and training in Cambodia. The
government's efforts to expand vocational education and training programs can help to
provide students with the skills and knowledge necessary to succeed in the workforce.
• Embracing innovation and technology: The development of new technologies and
innovations offers new opportunities for improving education in Cambodia. By investing
in technology infrastructure and exploring innovative approaches to teaching and
learning, the education system in Cambodia can continue to evolve and improve.
• Overall, while there are still many challenges to be addressed, there is reason to be
optimistic about the future outlook for education in Cambodia. Continued government
commitment, increasing access to education, strong partnerships and international
cooperation, a growing focus on vocational education and training, and embracing
innovation and technology are all factors that are expected to contribute to further
improvements in the education system in Cambodia.
• Addressing quality and equity issues: Despite the progress made in expanding access to
education, quality and equity issues remain a challenge in Cambodia's education system.
Addressing these issues will require continued efforts to improve teacher quality, increase
resources and infrastructure in rural areas, and address the disparities in education access
between different socioeconomic groups.
• Supporting teacher development: High-quality teaching is essential for improving
education outcomes, but many teachers in Cambodia face challenges such as low salaries,
inadequate training, and limited resources. Continued efforts to support teacher
development, such as providing ongoing training and professional development
opportunities, can help to address these challenges and improve teaching quality.
• Meeting the needs of diverse learners: Cambodia's education system must be responsive
to the needs of diverse learners, including those with disabilities and those from ethnic
and linguistic minority backgrounds. This will require continued efforts to develop
inclusive policies and practices, as well as targeted interventions to support learners with
specific needs.
• Strengthening research and data systems: Reliable data and research are essential for
evidence-based decision-making in education. Strengthening research and data systems in
Cambodia can help to inform policy and practice, identify areas for improvement, and
ensure that resources are being used effectively.
 • Building a culture of lifelong learning: Cambodia's education system must prepare
learners not only for the workforce, but also for a lifetime of learning and personal
development. Building a culture of lifelong learning, which includes adult education and
training programs, can help to ensure that citizens are able to adapt to changing
circumstances and continue to grow and develop throughout their lives.
In conclusion, while there are challenges that need to be addressed in Cambodia's education
system, there are also many opportunities for improvement. By continuing to focus on expanding
access to education, addressing quality and equity issues, supporting teacher development,
meeting the needs of diverse learners, strengthening research and data systems, and building a
culture of lifelong learning, Cambodia can continue to make progress in improving its education
system and preparing its citizens for success in the future.
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