Electric flux density

Unit flux is defined as emanating from a

positive charge of 1 coulomb.
= Thus The insulating medium separating
electric flux W is measured in coulombs, charged surfaces is called a dielectric.
and for a charge of Q coulombs, the flux Compared with conductors, dielectric
W Q coulombs. Electric flux density D materials have very high resistivities.
is the amount of flux pass- ing through They are therefore used to separate
a defined area A that is perpendicular to conductors at different potentials, such
the as capacitor plates or electric power
direction of the flux: lines.
Problem 4. Two parallel rectangular plates measur-
Q ing 20 cm by 40 cm carry an electric charge of 0.2 µC.
electric flux density, D =coulombs/metre2 Calculate the electric flux density. If the plates are
A spaced 5 mm apart and the voltage between them is
0.25 kV determine the electric field strength.

Electric flux density is also called

charge density, σ
Charge Q = 0.2 µC = 0.2 × 10−6 C;
Area A = 20 cm × 40 cm = 800 cm2 = 800 × 10−4
m2
6.5 Permittivity = = Q = 0.2 × 10−6 0.2 × 104
Electric flux density D

At any point in an electric field, the A 800 × 10−4 800 × 106

electric field strength E maintains the
= 2000×
electric flux and produces a particular 10−6= 2.5 µC/m2
value of electric flux density D at that 800
point. For a field established in vacuum
(or for practical purposes in air), the Voltage V = 0.25 kV = 250 V; Plate spacing, d = 5
ratio D/E is a constant ε0, i.e. mm =
D
E = ε0
5 × 10−3 m
V 250

where ε0 is called the permittivity of

free space or the free space constant. D
× E = ε0εr
The value of ε0 is 8.85 10−12
F/m. When an insulating medium, such
as mica, paper, plas- tic or ceramic, is
introduced into the region of an electric
field the ratio of D/E is modified:
Electric field strength E = =
d 5×
= 50 kV/m
10−3

Problem 5. The flux density between two plates sep-

arated by mica of relative permittivity 5 is 2 µC/m2.
Flux density D = 2 µC/m2 = 2 × 10−6 Find the voltage gradient between the plates.
C/m2;

ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m; εr = 5.

D 3. A charge of 1.5 µC is carried on two parallel rect-
= ε0εr, angular plates each measuring 60 mm by 80 mm. PART
E Calculate the electric flux density. If the plates are 1
spaced 10 mm apart and the voltage between them
D is 0.5 kV determine the electric field strength.
hence voltage gradient E = [312.5 µC/m2, 50 kV/m]
ε0εr
4. The electric flux density between two plates sep-
arated by polystyrene of relative permittivity 2.5
is 5 µC/m2. Find the voltage gradient between the
plates. [226 kV/m]
2 × 10−6
5. Two parallel plates having a p.d. of 250 V between
= V/m
8.85 × 10−12 × 5 them are spaced 1 mm apart. Determine the electric
field strength. Find also the electric flux density
= 45.2 kV/m when the dielectric between the plates is (a) air
and
(b) mica of relative permittivity 5.
[250 kV/m (a) 2.213 µC/m2 (b) 11.063 µC/m2]
Problem 6. Two parallel plates having a p.d. of 200 V
between them are spaced 0.8 mm apart. What is the
electric field strength? Find also the flux density
when the dielectric between the plates is (a) air, and
(b) polythene of relative permittivity 2.3.

Electric field 20
strength E 0
= 250 kV/m
V

= = 6.6 The parallel plate capacitor

D 0.8 ×
(a) For air: εr =
1 10−3
For a parallel plate capacitor, as shown
D in Figure 6.5(a), experiments show that
= ε0 εr . capacitance C is proportional to the area
E
A of a plate, inversely proportional to the
Hence
plate spacing d (i.e. the dielectric
thickness) and depends on the
electric flux density D = Eε0εr (b) For polythene, εr = 2.3

= (250 × 103 × 8.85 × 10−12 × 1) Electric flux density D = Eε0εr

C/m2
= (250 × 103 × 8.85 × 10−12 × 2.3) C/m2
= 2.213 µC/m2
 = 5.089 µC/m2 nature of the dielectric:

Now try the following exercise. ε0εrA

Capacitance, C = farads
Exercise 15 Further problems on electric field d
strength, electric flux density and permittivity
(Where appropriate take ε0 as 8.85 × 10−12 F/m)
1. A capacitor uses a dielectric 0.04 mm thick and
operates at 30 V. What is the electric field strength
across the dielectric at this voltage? [750 kV/m]
2. A two-plate capacitor has a charge of 25 C. If the
effective area of each plate is 5 cm2 find the
electric flux density of the electric field. [50
kC/m2]

Figure 6.5
where ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m (constant)
A = 800 cm2 = 800 × 10−4 m2 = 0.08 m2;
εr = relative permittivity
C = 4425 pF = 4425 × 10−12 F;
A = area of one of the plates, in
m2, and ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m; εr = 2.5
d = thickness of dielectric in m
ε ε A ε ε A
Since C = 0 r then d = 0 r
Another method used to increase
the capacitance
is to interleave several plates as shown in Fig- d C
ure 6.5(b). Ten plates are shown, forming nine capac-
itors with a capacitance nine times that 8.85 × 10−12
Hence, d
of one pair of plates.
× 2.5 × 0.08
If such an arrangement has n plates 0 0004 m
= = .
then capacitance 4425 ×
C ∝ (n − 1). 10−12
ε εrA(n − 1)
Thus capacitance
C=
0
d
farads Hence the thickness of the paper is 0.4 mm

Problem 9. A parallel plate capacitor has nineteen

interleaved plates each 75 mm by 75 mm separated
by mica sheets 0.2 mm thick. Assuming the relative
Problem 7. (a) A ceramic capacitor has an effective permittivity of the mica is 5, calculate the
plate area of 4 cm2 separated by 0.1 mm of ceramic capacitance of the capacitor.
of relative permittivity 100. Calculate the
capacitance of the capacitor in picofarads. (b) If the
capacitor in part
(a) is given a charge of 1.2 µC what will be the p.d.
between the plates?
n = 19; n − 1 = 18;

(a) Area A = 4 cm2 = 4 × A = 75 × 75 = 5625 mm2 = 5625 × 10−6 m2;

10−4 m2; εr = 5; ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m;
d = 0.1 mm = 0.1 × 10−3
m; d = 0.2 mm = 0.2 × 10−3 m
ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m;
εr = 100

Capacitanc ε ε A(n − 1)
eC= ε0 εr A Capacitance C 0 r
=
farads d
d 8.85 × 10−12 × 5 × 5625 × 10−6
=
 × 8

1
F
8.85 × 10−12 × 100 × 4 × 0.2 ×
10−4
F 10−3
=
0.1 × 10−3 = 0.0224 µF or
22.4 nF
8.85 × 4 8.85 × 4 ×
= F=
1012
pF

1010 1010 Now try the following exercise.

Exercise 16 Further problems on parallel plate

= 3540 pF capacitors (Where appropriate take ε0 as 8.85 ×
10−12 F/m)
Q 1.2 ×
A capacitor consists of two parallel plates each of
10−6 area 0.01 m2, spaced 0.1 mm in air. Calculate the
capacitance in picofarads.[885 pF]
A waxed paper capacitor has two parallel plates, each
of effective area 0.2 m2. If the capacitance is 4000 pF
(b) Q = CV thus V = = V = 339 Vthe effective thickness of the paper if its
C 3540 × 10−12 determine
relative permittivity is 2. [0.885 mm]

Problem 8. A waxed paper capacitor has two par-

allel plates, each of effective area 800 cm 2. If the
capacitance of the capacitor is 4425 pF determine
the effective thickness of the paper if its relative
permittivity is 2.5.
Calculate the capacitance of a parallel plate capaci- When the charging current I reaches
PART
tor having 5 plates, each 30 mm by 20 mm and point A it divides, some flowing
= × into C1,
separated by a dielectric 0.75 mm thick having a 1
relative permittivity of 2.3.[65.14 pF]
some flowing into C2 and some into C3.
How many plates has a parallel plate capacitor hav-
Hence the total charge QT ( I t) is
ing a capacitance of 5 nF, if each plate is 40 mm by divided between the three capacitors.
40 mm and each dielectric is 0.102 mm thick with a The capacitors each store a charge and
relative permittivity of 6.[7]
these are shown as Q1, Q2 and Q3
A parallel plate capacitor is made from 25 plates,
each 70 mm by 120 mm interleaved with mica of respectively. Hence
relative permittivity 5. If the capacitance of the
capacitor is 3000 pF determine the thickness of the
mica sheet.[2.97 mm]
QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is 1000
pF. It has 19 plates, each 50 mm by 30 mm But Q=T CV , Q =1 = C1V , Q2 = C2V and Q3 C3V
separated by a dielectric of thickness 0.40 mm. Therefore = CV + C1V+ C2V C3V where C
Determine the relative permittivity of the dielectric.
[1.67] is the total equivalent circuit
A capacitor is to be constructed so that its capaci- capacitance,
tance is 4250 pF and to operate at a p.d. of 100 V
(εr its
across = 2.3) which, The
terminals. afterdielectric
allowingisa to
safety factor,
be polythene
ahas
dielectric strength of 20 MV/m. Find (a) the i.e. C = C1 + C2 + C3
thick- ness of the polythene needed, and (b) the
plate.[(a)
area of a 0.005 mm (b) 10.44 cm ]
2
It follows that for n parallel-connected capacitors,

C = C1 + C2 + C3 · ·· + Cn

i.e. the equivalent capacitance of a

group of parallel- connected capacitors
is the sum of the capacitances of the
individual capacitors. (Note that this
formula is similar to that used for
resistors connected in series)

6.7 Capacitors connected in parallel and series

(a) Capacitors connected in parallel

Figure 6.6 shows three capacitors, C1, C2 and C3,
con- nected in parallel with a supply (b) Capacitors connected in series
voltage V applied across the
arrangement. Figure 6.7 shows three capacitors, C1,
C2 and C3, con- nected in series
across a supply voltage V . Let the
p.d. across the individual capacitors be V1, V2 and
V3
respectively as shown.

Figure 6.6
Figure 6.7

Let the charge on plate ‘a’ of

+
− capacitor C1 be Q coulombs. This
induces an equal but opposite charge of
+
Q coulombs on plate ‘b’. The
conductor between − plates ‘b’ and ‘c’ is
electrically isolated from the rest of the
circuit so that an equal but opposite
charge of
Q coulombs must appear on plate ‘c’,
which, in turn, induces an equal and
opposite charge of Q coulombs on plate
‘d’,
and so on.
Hence when capacitors are connected 11 1
in series the charge on each is the For two capacitors in series
= +
same. C C1 C2
In a series circuit: V = V1 + 1 1 1 C1 −
V2 + V3 Hence
= − = C
C2 C C1
QQ= Q + Q + CC1
CC 12 ×
Q
Since V =then 30

C C C1 C2
C3 and C2 = 1 =

where C is the total equivalent C1 − 30 − 12

circuit capacitance, C
360
1 1 1 1 = = 20 µF
18
i. = + +
C C1 C2 C3 Problem 12. Capacitances of 1 µF, 3 µF, 5 µF and
e. 6 µF are connected in parallel to a direct voltage
supply of 100 V. Determine (a) the equivalent circuit
It follows that for n series-connected capacitors:
capaci- tance, (b) the total charge and (c) the charge
on each capacitor.
C1111
= C1 + C2 + C3 + ... + Cn 1

i.e. for series-connected capacitors, the

(a) The equivalent capacitance C for
reciprocal of the equivalent capacitance
four capacitors in parallel is given by:
is equal to the sum of the recipro- cals of
the individual capacitances. (Note that this C = C1 + C2 + C3 + C4
formula is similar to that used for i.e. C = 1 + 3 + 5 + 6 = 15µF
resistors connected in parallel.)
For the special case of two capacitors
in series:
1 1 1 C2 + (b) Total charge QT = CV where C is the
C1 equivalent

CC
= C+= C1 +1 C22 = Hence
C C1 C 2
C1C2 m circuit capacitance
i.e. QT = 15 × 10−6 × 100 = 1.5 × 10−3C = 1.5 mC
i.e. (c) The charge on the 1 µF capacitor
pr
od Q1 = C1V = 1 × 10−6 × 100
uct = 0.1 mC
s The charge on the 3 µF capacitor
u equivalent capacitance of
Problem 10. Calculate the
two capacitors of 6 µF and 4 µF connected (a) in Q2 = C2V = 3 × 10−6 × 100
parallel and (b) in series.
(a) In parallel, equivalent capacitance = 0.3 mC
C=C + =

6 µF + 4 µF = 1 The charge on the 5 µF capacitor

10 µF
C2
(b) In series, equivalent capacitance C is Q3 = C3V = 5 × 10−6 × 100
given by:
= 0.5 mC
= C1C2
C The charge on the 6 µF
C1 + C2 capacitor

This formula is used for the special Q4 = C4V = 6 × 10−6 × 100

case of two
capacitors in series.
6×4 = 0.6 mC

24

Thus C = = [Check: In a parallel circuit

6+4 10
=2.4 µF QT = Q1 + Q2 +
Q3 + Q4 Q 1 + Q 2 + Q 3 + Q 4 =
0.1 + 0.3 + 0.5 + 0.6
= 1.5 mC = QT ]
Problem 11. What capacitance must be connected
in series with a 30 µF capacitor for the equivalent Problem 13. Capacitances of 3 µF, 6 µF and 12 µF
capacitance to be 12 µF? are connected in series across a 350 V supply. Calculate
(a) the equivalent circuit capacitance, (b) the charge on
each capacitor and (c) the p.d. across each capacitor.
Let C= 12 µF (the equivalent =
capacitance), C1 30
µF and C2 be the unknown capacitance.
The circuit diagram is shown in Figure (i.e. 200 V) which means that if all the
6.8. capacitors have an identical construction
they must all be rated at the highest
voltage.

PART
Now try the following exercise.
1
Figure 6.8

(a) The equivalent circuit capacitance C Exercise 17Further problems on capacitors in parallel
for three capaci- tors in series is and series
given by: Capacitors of 2 µF and 6 µF are connected (a)
in parallel and (b) in series. Determine the
1 1 1 1 equivalent capacitance in each case. [(a) 8
= + + µF (b) 1.5 µF]
C C1 C2 C3
Find the capacitance to be connected in
1 1 1 series with a 10 µF capacitor for the
i.e. 4+2+1 7 equivalent capacitance to be 6 µF.[15 µF]
C
=
3
+
6
+
12 = =
1
Two 6 µF capacitors are connected in series
12 12 with one having a capacitance of 12 µF. Find
Hencethe equivalent circuit capacitance
the total equivalent circuit capacitance.
12 5 What capacitance must be added in series
1 µF to obtain a capacitance of 1.2 µF?[2.4 µF,
C= 2.4 µF]
7 7
= Determine the equivalent capacitance when
(b) Total charge QT = CV , the fol- lowing capacitors are connected (a)
in parallel and
hence in series:
12 2 µF, 4 µF and 8 µF
0.02 µF, 0.05 µF and 0.10 µF
QT × 10−6 × 350 = 600 µC or 0.6 mC 50 pF and 450 pF
7
= 0.01 µF and 200 pF
[(a) (i) 14 µF (ii) 0.17 µF (iii) 500 pF (iv)
0.0102 µF (b) (i) 1.143 µF (ii) 0.0125 µF
Since the capacitors are connected (iii) 45 pF (iv) 196.1 pF]
in series 0.6 mC is the charge on For the arrangement shown in Figure 6.9
find (a) the equivalent circuit capacitance
each of them. and (b) the voltage across a 4.5 µF
(c) The voltage across the 3 µF capacitor, capacitor. [(a) 1.2 µF (b) 100 V]

0.6 × 10−3
=1 Q
V
C1
= 3×10−6
Figure 6.9

= 200 V
The voltage across the 6 µF capacitor,
Three 12 µF capacitors are connected in
series across a 750 V supply. Calculate (a)
the equivalent capacitance, (b) the charge
on each capacitor and
(c) the p.d. across each capacitor.
[(a) 4 µF (b) 3 mC (c) 250 V]

V2 =
0.6 × 10−3
Q C2
=

6×10−6
= 100 V
The voltage across the 12 µF capacitor,

V3 =
0.6 × 10−3
Q C3
=

12×10−6
= 50 V
[Check: In a series circuit
V = V1 + V2 + V3
V1 + V2 + V3 = 200 + 100 + 50 = 350 V
= supply voltage.]
In practice, capacitors are rarely
connected in series unless they are of
the same capacitance. The reason for
this can be seen from the above
problem where the lowest valued
capacitor (i.e. 3 µF) has the highest p.d.
across it
If two capacitors having capacitances of 3 µF and
5 µF respectively are connected in series
across a 240 V supply, determine (a) the
p.d. across each capacitor and (b) the
charge on each capacitor.
[(a) 150 V, 90 V (b) 0.45 mC on each]
In Figure 6.10 capacitors P, Q and R are
identical and the total equivalent
capacitance of the circuit is 3 µF.
Determine the values of P, Q and R.
[4.2 µF each]
Problem 14. A capacitor is to be constructed so that
its capacitance is 0.2 µF and to take a p.d. of 1.25 kV
across its terminals. The dielectric is to be mica which,
after allowing a safety factor of 2, has a dielectric
strength of 50 MV/m. Find (a) the thickness of the
mica needed, and (b) the area of a plate assuming a
two-plate construction. (Assume εr for mica to be 6)
V V
(a) Dielectric strength, E = , i.e. d =
d E

= 1.25 × 103
m
50 × 106

ε0εr A = 0.025 mm
(b) Capacitance, C
=
Figure 6.10
d

9. For the circuit shown in Figure 6.11, determine (a) hence area A =Cd
the total circuit capacitance, (b) the total energy in
the circuit, and (c) the charges in the capacitors
ε0ε
shown as C1 and C2. r
[(a) 0.857 µF (b) 1.071 mJ (c) 42.85 µC
on each]

2 µF2 µF

2 µF

C1 2 µF22µF
µF
C2

2 µF2 µF
50 V

Figure 6.11
= 0.2 × 10−6 × 0.025 × 10−3
m2
8.85 × 10−12 × 6
= 0.09416 m2 = 941.6
cm2