K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

Grade: 12 Semester: 1
Specialized Subject Title: Biology No. of Hours: 80 hours

CELL CYCLE  At the end of this phase, after DNA replication,

the chromosomes are double, each consisting
Cell cycle represents all phases in the life of a cell
of two sister chromatids
Cell cycle is the series of events that cells go
c. G2 phase
through as they grow and divide.  Many of the organelles and molecules
required for cell division is produced
Cell division is a process by which a cell divides
 The DNA is checked by enzymes for
mistakes and repaired

CELL CYCLE CONTROL SYSTEM

 Is a cyclically operating set of proteins in
the cell that both triggers and coordinates major
events in the life cycle
 Checkpoint is a critical control point in
the cell cycle where ‘stop’ and ‘go-ahead’
signals can regulate the cell cycle.

INTERPHASE
• Most of the cell cycle is spent in the interphase
• Cell’s metabolic activity is very high
• The cell does most of its growing
• Interphase last for 90% of the total time required
for the cell cycle

Two Landmarks
1. The G1 Checkpoint— the Restriction Point
1. S phase (DNA replication) must precede mitosis so
• The G1 checkpoint ensures that the cell is
that all daughter cells receive the same complement of
large enough to divide and that enough
chromosomes as the parent cell
nutrients are available to support the resulting
2. Mitotic phase in which cell splits into daughter cell daughter cells.
• If a cell receives a ‘go-ahead’ signal at the G1
Subphases of Interphase checkpoint, it will usually continue with the
Cell Cycle.
a. G1 phase
• If the cell does not receive the ‘go-ahead’
 The cell grows larger signal, it will exit the Cell Cycle and switch to a
 Cell increases its supply of proteins non-dividing state called G0.
 Increase the numbers of many of its organelles • Most cells in the human body are in the G0
phase.
b. S phase
2. The G2 Checkpoint
 Chromosomes are replicated
 Synthesis/ replication of DNA molecules ensures that DNA replication in S phase has been
successfully completed.

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 K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
Grade: 12 Semester: 1
Specialized Subject Title: Biology No. of Hours: 80 hours

3. The Metaphase Checkpoint • Is initiated by the separation of sister

 ensures that all of the chromosomes are attached to
the mitotic spindle by a kinetochore.
MITOSIS
 a type of cell division that results in two daughter
cells each having the same number and kind of
chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of
ordinary tissue growth.
chromatids at their junction point at the
centromere. The daughter chromosomes then
move toward the poles.
TELOPHASE
• Is when daughter chromosomes
complete their migration to the poles. The two
sets of progeny chromosomes are assembled
into two-groups at opposite ends of the cell.
The chromosomes uncoil and assume their
extended form during interphase. A nuclear
membrane then forms around each
chromosome group and the spindle
microtubules disappear. Soon, the nucleolus
reforms.

CYTOKINESIS

• The cytoplasm pinches in half . Each

daughter cell has an identical set of duplicate
chromosomes

Chromosome and chromatid number during

mitosis in humans

Phase # of # of
(Mitosis) Chromosomes chromatids
PROPHASE
Prophase 46 92
 Centrioles move towards opposite sides of the nucleus Metaphase 46 92
 The initially indistinct chromosomes begin to condense Anaphase 92 92
into visible threads. Telophase 92 92
Cytokinesis 46 46
METAPHASE

 Is when chromosomes become arranged so that their

centromeres become aligned in one place, halfway
between the two spindle poles. The long axes of the
chromosomes are 90 degrees to the spindle axis. The
plane of alignment is called the metaphase plate

ANAPHASE

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Grade: 12
Specialized Subject Title: Biology
Difference Between an Animal Cell Mitosis
and Plant Cell Mitosis
Animal Cell Mitosis
An animal cell
becomes rounded
before cell division
Centrosome is
essential in animal cell,
with centrioles and
aster formation
Spindle degenerates at
the time of cytokinesis
A mid body may be
formed during
cytokinesis
Cytokinesis occurs
through cleavage
A furrow is formed
between two daughter
cells
Mitosis occurs in
tissues throughout the
body
THE PROKARYOTIC CHROMOSOME
• Prokaryotic chromosome contains DNA and
associated proteins, but much less protein
than eukaryotic chromosomes.
K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
Semester: 1
No. of Hours: 80 hours
BINARY FISSION
Plant Cell Mitosis
A plant cell does not
change shape before
cell division
Plant cells have
centrosomes and
spindle,there are no
centrioles and asters
do not form
A major part of
spindle persists as
phragmoplast at the MEIOSIS
time of cytokinesis
Somatic Cells are “body” cells and contain the
A mid body is absent normal number of chromosomes called the diploid
number (the symbol is 2n)
Gametes are the “sex” cells and contain only ½ the
normal number of chromosomes called the haploid
Cytokinesis occurs
number (the symbol is n)
commonly by cell
plate method
The male gamete is the sperm and is produced in
the male gonad the testes.
A solid middle
lamella develops in
The female gamete is the ovum and is produced in
between daughter
cells for permanent the female gonad the ovaries.
adhesion
FERTILIZATION
It is found in the
The fusion of a sperm and egg to form a zygote.
meristems
MEIOSIS
The form of cell division by which gametes, with
half the number of chromosomes are produced.
Meiosis is sexual reproduction. Two divisions
(MEIOSIS I and MEIOSIS II).
DIPLOID (2n)  HAPLOID (n)
Sex cells divide to produce GAMETES (sperm or egg).
Gametes have HALF the number of chromosomes. It occurs
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 K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
Grade: 12 Semester: 1
Specialized Subject Title: Biology No. of Hours: 80 hours

only in GONADS (testes or ovaries).Meiosis in male is called

spermatogenesis which produced sperm. Meiosis in female
Chiasma
is called oogenesis which produced egg or ova.
Is the point of contact, the physical link, between
two (non-sister) chromatids belonging to
homologous chromosomes.

a. INTERPHASE I

 Similar to mitosis interphase.

Chomosomes (DNA) replicate in the S phase
Each duplicated chromosome consist of two
identical sister chromatids attached at their
centromere.
 Centriole pairs also replicate.

MEIOSIS I

 Cell division that reduces the chromosome

number by one-half.
Four phases:
a. Prophase I
b. Metaphase I
c. Anaphase I
d. Telophase I

Terms to Remember
Homologous chromosomes
 Two chromosomes, one of paternal origin, the other
of maternal origin that are identical in appearance
Synapsis
 Synapsis (also called syndesis) is the pairing of two
homologous chromosomes that occurs during meiosis
Tetrad
 Two homologous chromosomes that have each
already replicated into a pair of sister chromatids.
Crossing over
 The exchange of genetic material between
homologous chromosomes that occurs during meiosis
and contributes to genetic variability.
Prophase I
 Longest and most complex phase (90%).
 Chromosomes condense.
 Synapsis occurs - Homologous chromosomes
come together
to form a tetrad.
 Tetrad is two chromosomes
or four chromatids (sister and non-sister
chromatids).
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
 Pair of chromosomes (maternal and
paternal) that are similar in shape and size.
 Homologous pairs (tetrads) carry GENES
controlling the SAME inherited traits.
 Each locus (position of a gene) is in the same
position on homologues.
 Humans have 23 pairs of homologous
chromosomes:

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 K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
Grade: 12 Semester: 1
Specialized Subject Title: Biology No. of Hours: 80 hours

a. First 22 pairs of autosomes

b. Last pair of sex chromosomes
c. Pachynema
Chromosomes become much shorter and
thicker. A form of physical exchange between
homologues takes place at specific regions. The
process of physical exchange of a chromosome
region is called crossing-over. Through the
mechanism of crossing-over, the parts of the
homologous chromosomes are recombined
(genetic recombination).

D. Diplonema

 The two pairs of sister chromatids begin to

separate from each other. It is at this point
where crossing-over is shown to have taken
place. The area of contact between two non-
sister chromatids, called chiasma, become
evident.
E. DIAKENESIS
 The two pairs of sister chromatids begin to
separate from each other. It is at this point
where crossing-over is shown to have taken
place. The area of contact between two non-
sister chromatids, called chiasma, become
evident.

METAPHASE I

Subdivisions of Prophase I
a. Leptonema
 Replicated chromosomes have coiled and are already
visible. The number of chromosomes present is the
same as the number in the diploid cell.
b. Zygonema
 Homologue chromosomes begin to pair and twist
around each other in a highly specific manner. The
pairing is called synapsis. And because the pair consists
of four chromatids it is referred to as bivalent tetrad.
 Shortest phase
 Tetrads align on the equator.
 Independent assortment occurs –
chromosomes separate randomly causing
GENETIC RECOMBINATION
 The spindle apparatus is completely formed
and the microtubules are attached to the
centromere regions of the homologues. The
synapsed tetrads are found aligned at the
metaphase plate (the equatorial plane of the
cell) instead of only replicated chromosomes
ANAPHASE I
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 K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
Grade: 12 Semester: 1
Specialized Subject Title: Biology No. of Hours: 80 hours

 Homologous chromosomes separate and

move towards the poles.
 Sister chromatids remain attached at their
centromeres MITOSIS MEIOSIS
TELOPHASE I Takes place in the Takes place in the
somatic cells of the body germ cells
 Each pole now has haploid (1n) set of
chromosomes. The cell divide only once There a two cell
 Cytokinesis occurs and two haploid divisions the first and
daughter cells are formed. second meiotic
division
MEIOSIS II
Used for asexual Used only in sexual
 No Interphase II or very short reproduction and growth reproduction
 No DNA Replication
Produce two daughter Produce four daughter
PROPHASE II nuclei nuclei

 Same as Prophase in mitosis Preserves chromosomes Halves the

 Nucleus & nucleolus disappear number chromosome
 Chromosomes condense number
 Spindle forms
Chromosomes do not Chromosomes synapse
METAPHASE II synapse nor cross over and cross over

 The centromeres are directed to the The cell divides only once There are two cell
equatorial plate and then divide. and the chromosomes division but the
divide only once chromosomes divide
ANAPHASE II only once

 The sister chromatids (monads) move away Each chromosomes Two homologous
from each other and migrate to the opposite poles of consists of two chromatids chromosomes form
the spindle fiber. united by centromere bivalents or tetrad

TELOPHASE II Takes part healing and Takes part in the

repair formation of gametes
 Nuclei and Nucleoli reform, spindle
disappears. Cytokinesis occurs. Four haploid daughter DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
cells are produced.

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 K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
Grade: 12 Semester: 1
Specialized Subject Title: Biology No. of Hours: 80 hours

DISORDERS AND DISEASES RESULTED FROM

MALFUNCTION DURING CELL CYCLE
 Excessive growth can result in an
abnormal mass of cells called tumor
 Cancer is the disease of the cell cycle
 Carcinoma- cancers that originate in the
external or internal coverings of the body
 Sarcoma- tissues that supports the body
such as bones and muscles

 Disorders in Meiosis usually result from non

dysjunction

 ANEUPLOIDY

 is the gain or loss of whole

chromosomes. It is the most common
chromosome abnormality

 Loss of a single chromosome (2n-1), in

which the daughter cell(s) with the defect will
have one chromosome missing from one of its
pairs, is referred to as a monosomy.

 Gaining a single chromosome, in which

the daughter cell(s) with the defect will have
one chromosome in addition to its pairs is
referred to as a trisomy.

1. Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)

 Characteristics of child with down

syndrome are short stature, an eyelid fold, a flat
face, round head, frontal bossing, low set of
ears.
 Additional abnormality includes mental
retardation, heart disease, hypothyroidism

2. Edwards’ Syndrome (Trisomy 18)

 Babies are often born small and have heart

defects. Other features include a small head,
small jaw, clenched fists with overlapping
fingers, and severe intellectual disability

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 K to 12 BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM
SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
Grade: 12 Semester: 1
Specialized Subject Title: Biology No. of Hours: 80 hours

3. Patau Syndrome (Trisomy 13)

 Symptoms includes cleft lip or palate,

clenched hands,c lose-set eyes or eyes may
actually fuse together into one,decreased
muscle tone,extra fingers or toes
(polydactyly),hernias: umbilical hernia,
inguinal hernia,lLow-set ears, severe
intellectual disability, small head
(microcephaly), small lower jaw
(micrognathia), undescended testicle
(cryptorchidism)

Abnormal Number of Sex Chromosomes

1. Turner Syndrome has only one sex

chromosome an X. Turner syndrome (XO) is a
female

 Features of Turner syndrome may include a

short neck with a webbed appearance, low
hairline at the back of the neck, low-set ears,
hands and feet that are swollen or puffy at
birth, and soft nails that turn upward.
 In most girls with Turner syndrome, the ovaries
are missing or do not function properly.
Without the estrogen made by their ovaries,
girls with Turner syndrome will not develop
breasts. More than 95% of women with Turner
syndrome cannot become pregnant without
assistive technology.

2. Klinefelter Syndrome

•A male that has two or more X chromosomes in

addition to a Y chromosome