1.

Describe the features that define the different types of secretions involved in cell-to-cell
communication. (4 points)
Cells that are not touching each other, unlike with the gap junctions, communicate with
the use of secretions so they can send out signals to a similar cell (autocrine secretions),
signals being sent out to nearby cells (paracrine secretions), substances targeting distant cells
(endocrine secretions) and substances released through a synapse (neurotransmitters).

2. Describe the six different types of receptors and their unique functions in cellular
communication. (6) (Note that protein kinase receptors are a single type for this
question)

G Proteins coupled receptor -most common type on the surface of the cell
-binds to nucleotide GTP to regulate structure
and function
-signalling protein are G protein
-also called seven transmembrane spanning
receptors
Protein Kinase Receptors: Receptor tyrosine -composed of two subunits, quaternary
kinase (R T K), Serine/threonine kinase / structure
receptor (S/T K R -inactive receptors dissociate from one
another, binds, and activated when in contact
with proper ligand
-has cytoplasmic tails that contain protein
kinase domains
Ligand-gated ion channel -transmit signals by allowing ions to flow
through membranes
-ion channel receptors are not enzymes
Transmembrane scaffold (e.g. integrins, -clusters into large aggregates on cell
cadherins) surfaces
-have multiple binding sites on cytoplasmic
tailsfor different signalling proteins
-receptors control which sites are available by
changing their shape and number
Guanylyl cyclase -dimeric enzymes
-bind to atrial natriuretic peptide
-converts GTP to cGMP
Nuclear receptor -transcription factors
-membrane permeable signals adhere to
receptor proteins and move directly into the
nucleus once they are activated
-bind directly to nucleus
-bypassing plasma membrane signal
transduction pathway
 3. Compare and contrast the six different types of signalling proteins (6 points). Postulate
as to why we need so many (2 point). (8 points total)
Signalling proteins carries information from receptors to effectors. They catalyze
chemical reactions and thereby amplifying information. They are highly mobile thereby
facilitating rapid diffusion. In any communication relaying system, those two key features add
efficiency to the process.

1. Heterotrimeric G proteins -bind and stabilize GTP

2. Protein Kinases -attaches phosphate group to side chains of tyrosine, serine and theorine
amino acids. Bind and phosphorylate other signaling proteins activating proteins
3. Lipid Kinases – adds phosphate groups to lipids. Phosphorylate phospholipids changing the
shape of this head group and becomes modified phospholipid.
4. Calcium binding proteins -transmit signals by allowing ions to pass through membranes with
control of electrical potential. Calcium is the most common ion in signal transduction.
5. Adenylyl cyclase -conversion of ATP to cAMP -they bind to alpha subunit in heterotrimeric G
proteins. Target of competing regulatory pathways.
6. Monomeric G proteins -contains GTPase domain that cleaves terminal phosphate from bound
GTP which then makes GDP.

Monomeric G protein and heterotrimeric G protein uses the same GTP binding mechanism.
Difference is their poypeptide number, one is single and the other is three, consecutively.
Both protein and lipid kinases uses the process of phosphorylation as a way to activate proteins
and phospholipids.
Calcium is not an enzyme whereas adenylyl cyclase is.
4. What are second messengers and why are they important in signal transduction? (2
points)
Second messengers are non protein components of signal transduction. Which includes
Calcium ions, cAMP and cGMP molecules, lipids, hydrocarbons and nucleotides. Key features
are their small size which allows them to move rapidly diffusing easily in membranes and
cytosol. Signal amplification occurs as well as the proteins are released by the hundreds and
thousands when activated.

5. Pick one of the signal transduction pathways in the module and explain how it serves as
an example of signalling from an extracellular signal to end point effector. (4)
Heterotrimeric G-protein signalling cascade
Cascade starts with binding of the ligand to GPCR. GDP is replaced by GTP when
activated, this is also when heterotrimeric G-protein dissociates from the receptor. GTP binds
the signalling protein adenylyl cyclase to cAMP, a second messenger. cAMP binds to another
signalling protein, PKA, once activated, it will phosphorylate cell proteins. PKA catalytic domains
enters the nucleus and interacts with DNA and initiates transcription.
Popper, G., & Ivankovic, D. B. (2020). Principles of cell biology. Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC.
GPCRs respond to various stimuli such as hormones, lipids, amino acids, ions, prescribed drugs,
neurotransmitters and physical stimuli (light, taste, odorants). Depending on the ligand binding to a G-
protein receptor, the effects across the membrane and intracellular molecular reactions and travel
through signal pathway transduction are varied. Target effector will be activated and different kinds of
DNA influence and transcription will occur in response to specifc extracellular signals.