MODULE 1 HAZARD

BASIC CONCEPTS OF A hazard is any source of potential

DISASTER AND DISASTER damage, harm or adverse health
RISKS effects on something or someone.
Basically, a hazard is the potential for
According to the World
harm or an adverse effect (for
Meteorological Organization,
example, to people as health effects,
approximately 90% of all the natural
to organizations as property or
disasters are extreme meteorological
equipment losses, or to the
hazards such as typhoons, hurricanes,
environment).
and tropical cyclones triggered
disasters in areas of the Pacific, Classification Schemes of Natural
Atlantic, Indian Oceans, Caribbean, Hazards
and Gulf of Mexico. But what is a
- Geotectonic Hazards
natural disaster? Is it different from
- Hydrometeorological Hazards
natural hazard?
Pacific Ring of Fire
NATURAL HAZARDS
Philippines is an archipelago
Natural disasters are the outcome of
consisting of 7,641 islands as of 2020.
this process, and natural hazards are
It is located along the Western
the triggering elements of these
Pacific Basin and lies between two
disasters (U. Ranke (2016).
tectonic plates whose interactions
NATURAL DISASTERS give rise to geologic processes like
earthquakes, volcanism, landslides,
This include all types of severe
etc. it is also part of the circum-
weather, which have the potential to
Pacific Seismic belt and is within the
pose a significant threat to human
subduction zones called the Ring of
health and safety, property, critical
Fire.
infrastructure, and homeland security.
Natural disasters occur both
seasonally and without warning,
subjecting the nation to frequent
periods of insecurity, disruption, and
economic loss.
Geologic Processes and Hazards
Geologic processes and hazards are
natural events that occurs on land
and causes immense damage, loss of
property, and sometimes life.
Geologic hazards are typically
evaluated by geologists who are
educated and trained in interpretation
of landforms and earth process, earth-
structure interaction, and in geologic
hazard mitigation.
GEOLOGIC HAZARDS ARE;
- Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions
and landslides are geologic
hazards.
- Geologic events are distinctive
for their extremely rapid onset.
- The occurrence is sometimes
unpredictable except for
volcanic eruption which tends
to show some indications but
the actual eruption can never be
determined.
- Geologic hazards also tend to
have impacts on large areas
thus, zoning of the community
is implemented.
- In the Philippines, during
volcanic eruption, Philippine
Institute of Volcanology and
Seismology (PHILVOCS),
designate permanent danger
zone on the areas affected,
which may range up to several
kilometers of radius.
Geologic Hazards includes:
- Earthquakes
- Landslides
- Volcanic Eruption
EARTHQUAKES
The minimal to rapid shaking
of ground due to the movement
of rocks along fractures, known
as Faults on the Earth’s surface.
These faults are usually
associated with the parallel
movement of plates in a
transform fault. As the plates
move, rock deformation occurs
and energy starts to build up.
When the rocks break, energy
is released, resulting in an
earthquake.
MAGNITUDE
- Measures the energy released
at the source of the earthquake.
- Determined from
measurements on
seismographs.
INTENSITY
- Measures the strength of
shaking produced by the
earthquake at a certain location.
- Determined from effects on
people, human structures,
and the natural environment.
 Philippine Fault Zone
The Philippines is prone to
earthquakes because of the numerous
numbers of faults within the country.
Therefore, it is already given that the
Philippines would experience a lot of
geologic hazards. Magnitude and
Intensity measure different
characteristics of Earthquakes.
EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS ARE;
- Surface rupture and physical
damage is the most obvious
hazard of an earthquake.
Earthquakes. Earthquakes with
higher energy create a stronger
ground motion, which can
cause the ground to break and
buildings to collapse.
- Fires can break out during or
after an earthquake when
damages happen along electric
power lines, substations, and
power plants. It can also occur
when ground rupture creates
gas leaks.
- Tsunami or harbor wave is an
earthquake hazard that is
generated when earthquakes
occur on the seafloor.
- Landslide is another earthquake
that occurs when there is too
much shaking of the ground.
The movement loosens the soil,
facilitating its downward
movement.
LANDSLIDES
Landslides include a wide
range of phenomena involving
downslope ground movement,
such as rockfalls, deep slope
failure, shallow debris flows,
and avalanches. Gravity acting
on a slope is the primary cause
of landslides, but there are
other important and dynamic
factors that serve as triggers.
Landslide brought by
Landslide;
- Saturation of slopes by
precipitation (rain or snowmelt)
weakens soil and rock by
reducing cohesion and
increasing the pressure in pore
spaces, pushing grains away
from each other.
- Erosion and undercutting of
slopes by streams, rivers,
glaciers, or waves increase
slope angles and decrease slope
stability.
- Earthquakes create stresses that
weaken slopes and physically
cause slope movement.
- Perhaps most significant from a
management perspective, the
over weighting, and/or under
cutting of slopes for facilities,
roads, trails, mines, and other
man-made structures change
the natural slope equilibrium
and cause slopes to fail.
 VOLCANIC ERUPTION
Earthquakes are sometimes used in
predicting volcanic eruptions. An
earthquake alerts the authorities to
observe a nearby volcano. When a
volcano shows signs of eruption,
evacuation of the nearby villages
should be immediately
implemented.
SUBDUCTION ZONE
Subduction zones are plate tectonic
boundaries where two plates
converge, and one plate is thrust
beneath the other. This process
results in geohazards, such as
earthquakes and volcanoes.
The Pacific Ring of Fire is a region
in the Pacific where most active
volcanoes are located.
VOLCANIC ERUPTION
HAZARDS ARE;
- The pyroclastic flows often
render people unable to run
since they become
overwhelmed with what they
are seeing.
- Too much pyroclastic materials
may bury people and severely
damage the agricultural land
and livestock.
- Poisonous gases are also
released by volcanoes. These
gases can be lethal to people,
animals, and plants.
- Just like earthquakes, violent
volcanic eruptions may also
happen underwater, which can
trigger a tsunami.
Hydrometeorological hazards
Hydrometeorological hazards
are the results of natural
process or phenomena of
atmospheric, hydrologic or
oceanographic nature. Multiple
hazards often concur in one
extreme meteorological event.
Hydrometeorological hazards
includes:
- Tropical Cyclones
- Thunderstorms
- Hailstorms
- Tornadoes
- Blizzards
- Heavy snow fall
- Avalanches
- Coastal storm surges
- Flash floods
- Drought
- Heatwaves
- Cold Spells
 Hydrometeorological hazards
in the Philippines includes:
- Tropical Cyclones
- Typhoon
- Flood/Flash Floods
- Coastal Storm Surges
- Lightning Storms /
Thunderstorms
- El Niño
- La Niña
Different Perspectives
Affected by Disasters
Learning about these disasters
and hazards will help us
prepare for the risks they bring
to our lives. These risks affect
us in many aspects: physical,
psychological, socio-cultural,
economic, political, and
biological. These are discussed
in the following pages.
Different Perspectives
Affected by Disasters
- Physical Perspective
- Psychological Perspective
- Socio-cultural Perspective
- Economic Perspective
- Political Perspective
- Biological Perspective
ASSESSMENTS ANSWERS:
1. A Perspective that stressed
on the significance of culture in
developing a disaster resilient
personality among the
inhabitants in a certain
community is called SOCIO-
CULTURAL.
2. A situation such as an
incident that causes significant
damage to the public is
DISASTER.
3. One of the examples of
Physical effects of a disaster.
INJURIES
4. A perspective of a disaster
that shows how the government
assess, manage, and mitigate
the effects of a disaster is
POLITICAL.
5. One of the examples of
psychological effect of a
disaster . ANXIETY
6. The spread of disease
throughout a country or the
whole world is called
PANDEMIC.
7. The perspective of disasters
that is normally left untreated is
the PSYCHOLOGICAL.
8. The best description of a
disaster is
UNPREDICTABLE.
9. An incidence of a
communicable disease in a
community at a particular time
is known as EPEDEMIC.
 10. A process or phenomenon
of atmospheric, hydrological,
or oceanographic.
HYDROMETEORO
LOGICAL
MODULE 2
EXPOSURE AND
VULNERABILITY
THREE ELEMENTS OF
DISASTER RISK
Hazard
- It is the specific physical
phenomenon that is potentially
destructive.
Exposure
- It refers to the location, stock
of property, and value of assets
that has socioeconomic
importance that could be
affected by a hazard.
Vulnerability
- It is the susceptibility or
likelihood that the assets or
property will be damaged or
affected by a hazard.
Vulnerability to Natural Hazards
- The severity of the damage a
disaster brings depends on both
the physical nature of the
disaster and social nature of the
community affected by the
disaster. The disaster severity
can be influenced by human
factors listed below:
1. WEALTH
- The impact of natural
disasters can be magnified for
low-income and vulnerable
populations who often have
fewer resources to prepare for,
withstand, and recover from
such events. Natural disasters
can disrupt supply chains and
cause temporary or permanent
loss of income. Recovery and
rebuilding costs can be
substantial, further strain the
financial resources of affected
individuals and communities.
2. EDUCATION
- The World Health
Organization (WHO) warns
that school buildings and
infrastructure can be damaged
or destroyed during natural
disasters such as floods and
earthquakes.
3. GOVERNANCE
- Lack of planning and
preparation: If governments fail
to plan for and prepare for
natural hazards, they may not
be equipped to respond
effectively when these events
occur.
4. TECHNOLOGY
- Power interruption: Natural
Hazards can also disrupt power
grids, making it difficult to
charge and operate technology
devices.
5. AGE MODULE 3
- Older individuals may have VOLCANO AND IT’S
physical and mental difficulties HAZARD
that make it more difficult for
them to evacuate or take other The Nature of Volcanoes
safety measures during a Volcanoes are formed from
natural hazard event. magma, the molten material
6. DISABILITIES found inside the earth’s crust.
- Individuals with disabilities Magma is so hot that its
are often more vulnerable to particles are less dense because
natural hazards such as they are moving quickly and far
hurricanes and earthquakes. from each other; just try to look
They may have difficulty at boiling water. Now, this hot
evacuating or accessing magma tries to go up the earth’s
emergency shelters, and may crust. When it is spewed by a
require specialized equipment volcano, it is now called lava.
and assistance. Physical and
social barriers in the built The Structure of Volcano
environment can make it harder
for individuals with disabilities
to access aid and support.
7. Vulnerabilities associated
with social norms and
discrimination
- Social norms and
discrimination can result in
unequal access to resources,
such as housing, healthcare,
and education. This can lead
to marginalized communities
being more susceptible to the
impacts of natural disasters like
flooding or hurricanes.
 Types of Volcano
When magma erupts at the
surface as lava, it can form
different types of volcano
depending on:
- the viscosity, or stickiness, of
the magma
- the amount of gas in the magma
- the composition of the magma
- the way in which the magma
reached the surface
Strictly speaking there are two
broad types of volcano, a
stratovolcano and a shield
volcano, although there are lots
of different volcanic features
that can form from erupted
magma (such as cinder cones or
lava domes) as well processes
that shape volcanoes. In this
discussion you can find out the
difference between
stratovolcanoes and shield
volcanoes, as well as lava
domes and cinder cones.
Why are there different types
of volcano?
Viscosity is important in
volcanology. An eruption of
highly viscous (very sticky)
magma tends to produce steep-
sided volcanoes with slopes
that are about 30–35°.
- Viscous volcanic material
doesn’t flow that far from
where it is erupted, so it builds
up in layers forming a cone-
shaped volcano known as a
stratovolcano.
- Shield volcanoes, on the other
hand, have gentle slopes that
are less than 10° and erupt
more fluid lavas called basalt.
When a shield volcano erupts,
the basalt can flow great
distances away from the vent to
produce broad, gentle slopes.
Shield Volcano
Where a volcano produces low
viscosity, runny lava, it spreads
far from the source and forms a
volcano with gentle slopes: a
shield volcano. Most shield
volcanoes are formed from
fluid, basaltic lava flows.
Stratovolcano
Also known as Composite
Volcano have relatively steep
sides and are more cone-shaped
than shield volcanoes. They are
formed from viscous, sticky
lava that does not flow easily.
The lava therefore builds up
around the vent forming a
volcano with steep sides.
Stratovolcanoes are more likely
to produce explosive eruptions
due to gas building up in the
viscous magma.
Lava Dome
Lava domes form during
volcanic eruptions in which
highly viscous magma
accumulates in the near-vent
region. During this activity, gas
pressure build up in the lava
dome or shallow conduit region
can destabilize the structure and
trigger transitions to explosive
eruptions or lava dome
collapse.
 Volcanic hazards
Cinder Cones
Cinder cones, also known as
pyroclastic cones, are the
smallest and the simplest type
of volcano. They are the
world's most common volcanic
landform. As the name "cinder
cone" suggests, they are cone-
shaped hills made up of ejected
igneous rocks known as
"cinders".
These small volcanoes Volcanic eruptions are one of
Earth's most dramatic and
usually have a circular
violent agents of change. Not
footprint, and their flanks only can powerful explosive
usually slope at an angle of eruptions drastically alter land
about 30 to 40 degrees. Most and water for tens of kilometers
cinder cones have a bowl- around a volcano, but tiny
shaped crater at the top. liquid droplets of sulfuric acid
erupted into the stratosphere
can change our planet's climate
temporarily.

1. Pyroclastic Overflows
2. Air-fall Tephra
3. Lava
a. Pahoehoe Lava
b. Aa lava
4. Volcanic gases
5. Lahars

Pyroclastic Overflows
Pyroclastic are sometimes called
“glowing clouds”. These result
from the frothing (a synonym for
bubbling or foaming) of molten
magma in the vent or mouth of a
volcano. The gas bubbles eject a
turbulent mixture of hot gases and
materials considered as
pyroclastic: fragments of
volcanoes, ash, and glass shards,
among others.
Air-fall Tephra
When volcanoes erupt, its
fragments or wreckages are ejected
and subsequently falls to the
ground. These fragmented
materials have sizes ranging from
>32 mm in diameter so-called
“bombs” to small fine ash and dust
of about <4 mm in diameter.
Lava
When magma is ejected by the
volcano, it is called Lava. Its fluidity
depends on its chemical composition.
Lavas that are very fluid and flows
easier have silicon dioxide that forms
less than approximately half the total.
Lava can also be viscous or sticky,
thus does not flow easily. There are
two classifications of lava:
Pahoehoe lava which flows easier
and are the most liquid. It has a
relatively smooth but wrinkled
surface.

Aa lava which is blocky, spiny and

flows relatively slower with a rough,
irregular surface.

Volcanic gases
Toxic gases such as carbon monoxide,
hydrogen sulphide, Sulphur dioxide,
and Sulphur trioxide are also threat to
human health during volcanic
eruptions.
Volcanic Hazard Maps
Volcanic hazard maps are the
geospatial depictions of areas that
could be impacted during or after
volcanic eruptions.

Lahars
The violent type of mudflows
composed of fragments of volcanoes
and pyroclastic materials.
 Slowly moving tectonic plates
beneath the earth’s surface sometimes
collide causing friction to their edges.
The stress on the edge overcomes the
friction and releases energy that travel
as waves through the earth’s crust
causes the shaking that we feel.

MODULE 4
EARTHQUAKE AND IT’S TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES
HAZARD
The Nature of Earthquake

Tectonic
Earthquake
it occurs when the earth's crust breaks
due to geological forces on rocks and
adjoining plates that cause physical
and chemical changes.
energy released by the earthquake in
the form of seismic waves radiating
outward from the fault plane.
SEISMOGRAPHS

Volcanic Earthquake
it is the results from
tectonic forces which occur in
conjunction with volcanic activity

RICHTER SEISMOLOGICAL
Explosion
the result of the detonation
of a nuclear and/or chemical device.

Collapse Earthquake
it is a small earthquakes in
underground caverns and mines that
are caused by seismic waves produced
from the explosion of rock on the
surface.
SCALE

How do we measure earthquake?

Measure the amplitude of the motion THE BIG ONE
of the ground during an earthquake. The “Big One” is a worst-case
The magnitude describes the total scenario of an earthquake from the
West Valley Fault, a 100-kilometer
fault that runs through six cities in
Metro Manila and nearby provinces.
A tsunami is also foreseen in the
scenario set by the Philippine Institute
of Volcanology and Seismology
(Phivolcs).
EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
ARE:
Surface rupture and physical
damage is the most obvious hazard of
an earthquake. Earthquakes with
higher energy create a stronger
ground motion, which can cause the
ground to break and buildings to
collapse.
Fires can break out during or after an
earthquake when damages happen
along electric power lines,
substations, and power plants. It can
also occur when ground rupture
creates gas leaks.
Tsunami or harbor wave is an
earthquake hazard that is generated
when earthquakes occur on the
seafloor.
A landslide is another earthquake that
occurs when there is too much
shaking of the ground. The movement
loosens the soil, facilitating its
downward movement.
Soil Liquefaction just think of soil
which is solid that turns into liquid
but not in a literal sense. Materials
that are water-saturated can
temporarily lose strength for it to
be compact due to shaking which
then gives it a fluid behavior.
Landslides, Rock and Snow
Avalanches due to the shaking of
the ground, the natural slopes of
lands, rocks, and snowy hills
weaken and fail resulting into
landslides and rocks or snow
avalanches. This happens mostly
in mountainous areas or areas that
are high.
Tsunamis the sudden movement
of the ocean surface during an
earthquake, landslide or volcanic
eruption underwater, and or large
meteorite strike causes a series of
large waves. People near the ocean
are more exposed to this hazard.
MITIGATION
Disaster aid funds are necessary
during and after a disaster. In
order to recover from damages
caused by earthquakes or volcanic
eruptions, aids from government
and non-government
organizations must be distributed
to local government units
depending on the severity of the
damage. Donations of clothes and
foods are also highly encouraged
during these times.
Insurance house insurance, car
insurance, and other property
insurance may also play a key role
in mitigation since it helps in the
recovery of assets or properties of
affected individuals.
Other mitigation measures can
be done:
1. Hazard mapping
2. Adoption and enforcement of land
use and zoning practices
3. Implementing and enforcing building
codes
4. Flood plain mapping
5. Reinforced tornado safe rooms
6. Burying of electrical cables to
prevent ice build-up
7. Raising of homes in flood-prone
areas
8. Disaster mitigation public awareness
programs
PLATE BOUNDARIES
Divergent boundaries -- where
new crust is generated as the plates
pull away from each other.
Convergent boundaries -- where
crust is destroyed as one plate
dives under another.
Transform boundaries -- where
crust is neither produced nor
destroyed as the plates slide
horizontally past each other.
MODULE 5
HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL
HAZARDS
How’s the weather, Mang Tani?
- Whenever we see a weather
forecaster, like Mang Tani of
GMA News TV, announcing the
possible threat of a typhoon, we
always remind ourselves to keep
alert and updated. We already
learned from our experience in the
previous typhoons that these
natural events should be given a
serios actions and a top priority in
considering saving lives.
Recognize signs of impending
hydrometeorological hazards
- In order for us to assess our
disaster preparedness, the first step
is to identify the hazards present in
the community. Aside to
familiarization of these hazards, it
is also important to know the
negative impact it might bring that
can affect the lives of people.
Definition of Terms
- Hydrometeorology is a branch of
meteorology and hydrology that
studies the transfer of water and
energy between the land surface and
the lower atmosphere.
- Hydrometeorological Phenomena
process or phenomenon of
atmospheric, hydrological or
oceanographic nature that may cause
loss of life, injury or other health
impacts, property damage, loss of
livelihoods and services, social and
economic disruption, or
environmental damage.
- Hydrometeorological hazard is a
process of atmospheric, hydrological
or oceanographic nature that may
cause loss of life. Ex. tropical
cyclones, thunderstorms, tornados,
storm surges, floods, and drought.
- Tropical Cyclone is an intense low-
pressure system with a minimum
sustained wind speed of 35 kilometers
per hour (kph).
Hydrometeorological hazards
- Hydrometeorological hazards are
the results of natural process or
phenomena of atmospheric,
hydrologic or oceanographic nature.
Multiple hazards often concur in one
extreme meteorological event.
Hydrometeorological hazards
includes:
- Tropical Cyclones
-Thunderstorms
-Hailstorms
-Tornadoes
-Blizzards
-Heavy snow fall
-Avalanches
-Coastal storm surges
-Flash floods
-Drought
-Heatwaves
-Cold Spells
TROPICAL
CYCLONES/TYPHOON
Commonly known as Typhoon. A
typhoon can be identified by
increased ocean swell, barometric
pressure drop, wind speed, and
heavier rainfall. It is a low-pressure
area rotating counterclockwise and
containing rising warm air that forms
over warm water in the Northwest
Pacific Ocean. Typhoons can damage
due to thunderstorms, violent winds,
floods, and large waves with storm
surges.
Hurricanes, typhoons and tropical
cyclones: What’s the difference?
They are in fact the same weather
phenomenon. Hurricanes, typhoons
and tropical cyclones are tropical
storms with wind speeds exceeding
74mph (119km/h). They are just
known by different terms depending
on where they occur.
Hurricanes North Atlantic Ocean and
Northeast Pacific
Typhoon Northwest Pacific Ocean
Tropical Cyclone South Pacific and
Indian Oceans
Hydrological Cycle
The water cycle shows the continuous
movement of water within the Earth
and atmosphere. It is a complex
system that includes many different
processes. Liquid water evaporates
into water vapor, condenses to form
clouds, and precipitates back to earth
in the form of rain and snow.
Cloud
A cloud is a visible aggregate of small
water droplets and/or ice particles in
the atmosphere above earth’s surface
and they form in the atmosphere as a
result of condensation of water vapor
rising from the surface. There are 10
general cloud types and they are
classified depending to their height
(Low, Mid and High), appearance
and their corresponding precipitation.
Low clouds
Low clouds: Clouds with height of
less than 2 km.

STRATOCUMULUS- Gray or
whitish sheet or layered clouds with
regularly arranged small clouds
elements.

CUMULUS- Individual dense clouds

with sharp outlines, often develop
vertically.

STRATUS- Gray cloud layer with a
uniform base which may (if thick
enough) produce drizzle.
CUMULONIMBUS- The
thunderstorm cloud. This is a heavy
and dense cloud in the form of a tall
tower. The base of the cloud is often
dark and produce precipitation. This
cloud type also produce hail and
tornado.
Mid clouds
Mid Clouds: Clouds with height in
between 2 km and 7 km.
ALTOCUMULUS- A sheet of ALTOSTRATUS- Gray cloud sheets
layered clouds composed of rounded of fibrous clouds that totally or
masses or rolls. partially covers the sky, but thin
enough to reveal the sun.

High clouds
NIMBOSTRATUS- A dark gray High Clouds: Clouds with height
cloud covering the sky with greater than 7 km.
continuous falling rain.
CIRRUS- Clouds in the form of
white, delicate filaments. They have
fibrous and or silky sheen appearance.

CIRROSTRATUS- Transparent,
whitish veil clouds with a fibrous
appearance.

Nimbus Clouds
Nimbus refers to rain producing
clouds, hence the two general types of
rain producing clouds have the word
nimbus in it, namely Cumulonimbus
(thunderstorm clouds) and
Nimbostratus (continuous rain
cloud).

CIRRUCUMULUS- Thin, white

sheet or layer of clouds without
shading.
 - Generally forms from frontal
systems
- Tail-end of the color front weather
system that affects northern and
eastern Luzon
- Overcast conditions with cool
temperature
CUMULONIMBUS - Continuous light to moderate rain
- Can lead to water-saturated surfaces
- Forms on hot and humid days
- Thunderstorm clouds usually
precipitates in the afternoon or
evening.
- Associated with lightning and
thunder.
- Brief but intense rain
- Gusty winds
- May form hail and or tornado
- Can trigger flooding

Understanding Typhoons
A Tropical Cyclone is an intense low-
pressure system with a minimum
sustained wind speed of 35 kilometers
per hour (kph). The winds it bring can
do the most damage to buildings,
residential houses, settlements, power
NIMBOSTRATUS lines and agricultural crops, among
others. Large amount of rainwater due Filipino resilience
to tropical cyclones can cause
flooding that can destroy agricultural
crops, houses and infrastructure,
affect transportation and mobility, and
negatively affect economic and social
activities. Following are the
Classification of Tropical Cyclone.
TROPICAL DEPRESSION (TD) -
a tropical cyclone with maximum
sustained winds of up to 61
kilometers per hour (kph) or less than
33 nautical miles per hour (knots).
TROPICAL STORM (TS) - a
tropical cyclone with maximum wind
speed of 62 to 88 kph or 34 - 47
knots.
SEVERE TROPICAL STORM
(STS) - a tropical cyclone with
maximum wind speed of 89 to 117
kph or 48 - 63 knots.
TYPHOON (TY) - a tropical cyclone
with maximum wind speed of 118 to
220 kph or 64 - 120 knots.
SUPER TYPHOON (STY) - a
tropical cyclone with maximum wind
speed exceeding 220 kph or more
than 120 knots.
Need to remember before, during,
and after flooding