3. M. Dy6eney MODERN ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY Theory and Practice Mocks * Frocco-Ipecc 2002Ay6eneu Iapania Muxaitzo Tlexcnkosiorna cospememoro anrsitiicKoro s3bi- a: aeKivU H cemusapel. TocoGae 218 cryzeuToS FyMaNnTapubix ayzor. — M.: «P'nocea-TIpeco>, 2002. 192 «. B coorveretuiu ¢ yweOus iaiom, yroepaenta Mit ncrepereos o€pasonauia PO, xype paccsrran na 40 nex ons 20 cesaapoeis sUETH oxaTIzeT TaRHE ‘ev, RAK: GroRDOHpAIOBAINE, ENACHOIOFNS, pAre—10: rus, Samereosanig, apna aurmfeROO RAK, Hed Dornan i neKcnkorpas, JTexcieieckne enim Ae antanina ekzoaior a oenoRioM neoTOrHaN, 0 Pact Der axrnan woKaOyagp crynetTon w passe Wx Ast ‘EEPAABHAS TIPOrPAMMA, KHMFOU3AHHa POCCHH. Penaxtop A 7 1Opaaesa Beperra 8. Konaxerosnt azrence secs WO cap 20012 Tham et 20202 tora Four Bryan oat 123557, Moana. Tpsince na 16 108 Teouhoce Dv 2H Regn ceca, Tek Se ISBN 5-7651-0083- ©9..M, AlyGeneu, 2002, © Frocea-npece, 2002 This course of lexicology which forms a part of the curriculum for the English sections of lin- guistic departments of teacher-training colleges is intended for students of the second and third years of the day department. It includes lec tures and plans of seminars which cover the ‘main themes of Modern English lexicology: language units, wordbuilding, semantic changes, phraseology, borrowings, semasiolo- gy, neology, lexicography. The material for ‘seminars includes topics to be discussed and lexical units to be analyzed. Lexical units for the analysis were chosen mainly among neolo- -gisms. There is also a brief list of recommended literature. The aim of the course is to teach students to be word-conscious, to be able to guess the meaning of words they come across from the meanings of morphemes, to be able to recognize the origin of this or that lexical unit.LEXICOLOGY The term lexicology is of Greek origin (from lexis — word and logos — science). Lexicology is the part of linguistics which deals with the vocabulary and characteristic features of words and word-groups. The term vocabulary is used to denote the system of words and word-groups that the language possesses. The term word denotes the main lexical unit ofa language resulting from the association of a group of sounds with a meaning, This unit is used in grammatical functions characteristic of it. It is the smallest unit of a language which can stand alone as a complete utterance. The term word-group denotes a group of words which exists in the language as ready- made unit, has the unity of meaning, the unity of syntactical function, e.g. the word-group as loose as a goose means clumsy and is used in a sentence as a predicative (He is as loose as a goose). . Lexicology can study the development of the vocabulary, the origin of words and word- groups, their semantic relations and the deve- lopment of their sound form and meaning. In this case itis called historical lexicology. Another branch of lexicology is called descriptive and studies the vocabulary at a definite stage of its development. 4 LANGUAGE UNITS The main unit of the lexical system of a lan- ‘guage resulting from the association of a group of sounds with a meaning is a word. This unit is used in grammatical functions characteristic of it. It is the smallest language unit which can stand alone as a complete utterance, ‘A word, however, can be divided into small- er sense units— morphemes. The morpheme is the smallest meaningful language unit. The morpheme consists of a class of variants, allo- morphs, which are either phonologically or morphologically conditioned, e.g. please, pleasant, pleasure. Morphemes are divided into two large groups: lexical morphemes and grammatical (Functional) morphemes. Both lexical and grammatical morphemes can be free and bound. Free lexical morphemes are roots of words which express the lexical meaning of the word, they coincide with the stem of sim- ple words. Free grammatical morphemes are function words: articles, conjunctions and prepositions (the, with, and). Bound lexical morphemes are affixes: pre- fixes (dis-), suffixes (-ish), completives (com- bining forms) (poly-clinic) and also blocked 5(unique) root morphemes (e.g. Fri-day, cran- berry). Bound grammatical morphemes are inflexions (endings), e.g. -$ for the Plural of nouns, -ed for the Past Indefinite of regular verbs, -ing for the Present Participle, -er for the Comparative degree of adjectives. A suffix isa morpheme following the stem and form- ing a new derivative in a different part of speech or a different word class, c.f. -en, -y, -less in hearten, hearty, heartless. When both the underlying and resultant forms belong to the same part of speech, the suffix serves to differentiate between lexico-grammatical classes. For example, both -ify and -er are verb-forming suffixes, but the first forms causative verbs whereas the second forms frequentative verbs, e.g. horrify, purify and flicker, shimmer, twitter etc. A prefix is a derivational morpheme standing before a stem and modifying its meaning e.g. hearten ~ dishearten. It is only with verbs and statives that a prefix can distinguish one part of speech from another, e.g. earth is a noun, 10 unearth is a verb. It can also express the dif ference between a transitive and an intransi- tive verb, eg. t0 stay and to outstay: COMPLETIVES An affix should not be confused with a com- bining form (a completive). A combining 6 form is also a bound form but it can be distin- guished from an affix historically by the fact that it is always borrowed from another lan- ‘guage, namely, from Greek or Latin, in which it existed as a free form, i. as a separate word, or also as a combining form. They dif- fer from all other borrowings in that they occur in compounds and derivatives that did not exist in the original language but were formed only in modern times in English, Russian, French etc, €.g. polyelinic, stereo- Phonic, television etc. Combining forms are mostly international. A combining form dif- fers from an affix because it can occur as one constituent of a word whose only other con- stituent is an affix, e.g. graphic, cyelic, aerate, acrobatics etc. Also an affix is characterized by its position to the stem, either before the stem (prefix) or after the stem (suffix), where- as the same combining form may occur in both positions, cf. phonograph, microphone. The combining form allo from Greek allos ~ other is used in linguistic terminology to denote elements of a group whose members together constitute a structural unit of the lan- guage (allophones, allomorpks). Thus, for example, -ion/ -sion/ -tion/ -ation are the posi- tional variants of the same suffix. They do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound form depending on the 7final phoneme of the preceding stem. They are considered as variants of one and the same ‘morpheme and called its allomorphs. Combining forms (completives) are often used in modern English to form neo-classical compound words, either as one of the stems, or both of them. These words are usually referred to compound words of morphologi- cal type. Both components are completives in such words as: aerogram — axpoepayewa, aeronaut — remrw, aponasmm (Or rpeNeckoro aer~ air) astronaut — acmavonasm (Or rpesecKoro astro ~ star), biblioklept (ov rpeseckux biblio — book, kleptos ~ thief), claustrophobia ~ Goaan» sauKnymozo npocmpancmea (OT naTHXCKHX claustrum ~ closed space, phobia ~ fear), claustrophilia ~ 0¢t0BH0 .W0608% K saKpor ‘mony npocmpancmey (or saruneKoro philia love}, cosmopolis (ot rpexeckoro kosmas ~ universe), hypnopedia (ot rpeweckoro hypnos — sleep). megapolis (or rpeseckoro megas — great), megaversity — kpynneiit yruaepewmem, multiversity (multi or narusicKoro multus — many) — yhusepcumem ¢ Gonsuum Koa ecmaom dpaxyavmenios, omdexenit, Kypcos exit, neophilia (or rpeseckoro neos ~ new) = yarevenue aces nosein, videophone (oT sratunexoro video ~ I see). 8 ‘The first component is a completive and the second component is a free stem in such words as: aerospace — Kocmuwecxoe npocmpancmso, aerocapture — monsoscenue kocuwueckozo Kopa6, audiotape ~ enna saykosanucu, astrospace ~ mesesse2dH0e npocmpanemao, autocue ~ meaecydpiep, npucnoco6ienue 018 wesamemnozo “menua ‘mexema npu avicmynnenu no metesudenwo, autohypnosis ~ camosnywerue, biocomputer — Guoxosmoromop, 10 biodegrade — vxvowar oxpyacaiouyi cpedy, cardioversion ~ anexmpocimunyasmop cepdua, hydrospace ~ nodsodnoe npocmpancmso, macrocontract ~ Kpynuetit Konmpaxn, megabyte ~ mecabatim KoMneromopwoit nansmu, megacity ~ 20p00- eucanm, megajet ~ zuzanmenuii veaxmusretit camoxem, megatanker — cynepmankep, megadebter — xpynnesti donorcnus (0 cmpane), multimedia ~ cnekmakns-iexiuot ¢ ucnos30- Ganuent necKonKux epedems undbopmayue (xno, Mazkumodbon, caaidst), multipack atop npodykmos, zomoseit 3aKas, neurosur- geon — netipoxunvoe et. In some cases the second component of Greek or Latin origin is repeated in several words acting as a kind of semi-suffix, e.g. ‘mania (or rpesecKoro mania ~ madness), in such words as discomania ~ varcvenue oucxawu, duccomexoi, Beatlesmania —venevenue epynnoit Bums; legalomania ~ HeyKociumetnoe ucnonkenue sakoKos; naut (or rpeveckoro nauros ~ sailor) in such words as cosmonaut, noncosmonaut ~ uccaedoaames na Gopmy Kocmuveckozo Kopabis, chimponaut ~ ofexsana na Gopmy Kocmuvecko20 Kopadis, hydronaut ~ ucenedosames» nodeod020 Mupa, and many others. In most cases this element forms nouns denoting investigators, but in the word rele- naut it forms a noun denoting a mechanism for investigation, its meaning is ~ nodeodusiii ucenedosamensekuit annapam ¢ menesusuon- Hott Kamepon, The completives phile, philia, phobe, phobia are used to form such words as: pianophile — snobumen opmensanwoi uyseixu, acrophobe enoaek, Gosnyuitcs svicomst, agoraphobia ~ Goxske ——ompoimerx ——-npocmpaxeme, AIDSophobia ~ cmpax neped CHHflom, homophobia ~ spamcdeBnocms K 2omo- cexcyamucmam, technophobia ~ cmpax neped mexnuveckumu Hosossedexuamu, and many others. SPLINTERS In the second half of the 20th century the English wordbuilding system was enriched by creating so called splinters which scientists include in the affixation stock of the Modern 10 English wordbuilding system. Splinters are the result of clipping the end or the beginning, of a word and producing a number of new words on the analogy with the primary word- group. For example, there are many words formed with the help of the splinter mini- (apocope produced by clipping the word ‘miniature), such as miniplane, minijet, minicy- cle, minicar, miniradio and many others. All of these words denote objects of smaller than normal dimensions. On the analogy with mini- there appeared the splinter maxi- (apocope produced by clip- ping the word maximum), such words as maxi- series, maxi-sculpture, maxi-taxi and many others appeared in the language. The word agriculture was a borrowing from Middle French, ultimately from Latin agricul- tura, in which agri- was a combining form of the Latin word (Latin ager ~ field). In Modern English the form agri is used in the meaning of the whole word agriculture and has become a splinter to form such words as agribusiness. From the word biology the splinter bio- has developed in such words as biorobor which is a machine used in biological experiments. In the word biology ‘bio’ is a completive, in the word biorobor itis a splinter. In the word biol- ogy it means life, in the word biorobor it meansbiology or biological, so they can be treated as homonyms Docu- has taken on the sense of documen- tary in such words as documusical — a pro- gramme with songs and dramatic recreations, docu-soap opera — a docudrama in the manner of a soap opera ete, Eco- has taken on the sense of ecology, eco- logical in such words as: ecoawareness ~ feel- ing the influence of ecology, ecomenu — a selec- tion of simple, healthful foods that make mini- ‘mal demands on the environment, econote ~ a short article on ecology. Another splinter which is used rather often in Modern English is Euro — a clipping of the word European. With the help of this splinter many words were coined, such as: Euratom, Eurocard, Euromarket, Europlug, Eurotunnel and many others. Execu- in exect-crime means executive, white-collar crime. ‘There are also splinters which are formed by ‘means of apheresis, that is clipping the begin- ning of a word. The origin of such splinters can be variable, e.g. the splinter burger appeared in English as a result of clipping the German borrowing Hamburger where the morphological structure was the stem Hamburg and the suffix -er. However in English the beginning of the word Hamburger 12 was associated with the English word ham, and the end of the word burger got the mean- ing @ bun cut into two parts. On the analogy with the word hamburger quite a number of new words were coined, such as: baconburger, heefburger, cheeseburger, fishburger etc Another type of @ splinter connected with food is wich from the word sandwich, such as duckwich, turkeywich The splinter cade developed by clipping the beginning of the word cavalcade which is of Latin origin, In Latin the verb with the mean- ing to ride a horse is cabalicare and by means of the inflexion -ata the corresponding Participle is formed. So the element cade is & combination of the final leter of the stem and the inflexion. The splinter cade serves to form nouns with the meaning conected with the procession of vehicles denoted by the first com- ponent, eg. aircade — a group of airplanes accompanying the plane of a VIP, autocade ~ a group of automobiles escorting the automobile ofa VIP, musicade ~ an orchestra participating ina procession. In the seventies of the 20th century there was a political scandal in the hotel Watergate where the Democratic Party of the USA had its pre-election headquarters. Republicans managed to install bugs there and when they were discovered there was a scandal and the 13ruling American government had to resign. ‘The name Watergate acquired the meaning a political scandal, corruption. On the analogy with this word quite a number of other words were formed by using the splinter gare (apheresis of the word Watergate), such as: Trangate, Westlandgate, shuttlegate, million- gate. In connection with the scandal connect ed with the love affair of Clinton and Monica there appeared such words as: Clintongate, Monicagate, zippergate; in connection with the scandal connected with the Bank of New York the word Russiangate appeared. The splinter gate is added mainly to proper nouns: names of people with whom the scandal is connected or geographical names denoting the place where the scandal occurred. This splinter has become international, for exam- ple in Russian there appeared the word Kvwuaceim which was connected with the scandal in the Ukraine. The splinter mobile was formed by clipping the beginning of the word automobile and is used to denote special types of automobiles, such as: artmobile, bookmobile, snowmobile, tourmobile etc ‘The splinter napper was formed by clipping the beginning of the word kidnapper and is used to denote different types of crimesters, such as: busnapper, babynapper, dognapper 4 etc. From such nouns the corresponding verbs are formed by means of backformation (disaf- fixation), e.g. 10 busnap, to babynap, to dog- nap. The splinter omat was formed by clipping the beginning of the word automat (a cafe in which meals are provided in slot-mackines) ‘The meaning self-service is used in such words ‘as laundromat, cashomat etc. Another splinter eferia with the meaning self-service was formed by clipping the begin- ning of the word cafeteria. By means of the solinter eteria the following words were formed: groceteria, booketeria, booteteria and many others The splinter quake is used to form new words with the meaning of shaking, agitation. This splinter was formed by clipping the beginning of the word earthguake. The fol- lowing words were formed with the help of this splinter: Marsquake — ceiicmuveckue wsnenux na ~~ Mapce, Moonquake ~ ceucmuveckue aenenua na JTyne, youthquake ~ soanenua cpedu mox0dedrcu etc. The splinter rama(ama) is a clipping of the word panorama of Greek origin where pan means all and horama means view. In Modern English the meaning view was lost and the splinter rama is used in advertisements to denote objects of supreme quality, e.g. autora- 15‘ma means exhibition-sale of expensive cars, trouserama means sale of trousers of supreme quality, futurerama means exhibition of invene tions et. The splinter scape is a clipping of the word landscape and itis used to form words denot- ing different types of landscapes, such as: moonscape, streetscape, townscape, seascape etc Another case of splinters is te! which is the result of clipping the beginning of the word hotel, It serves to form words denoting differ- ent types of hotels, such as: motel (motor-car hotel), boatel (boat hotel), floatel (a hotel on water, floating hotel), airtel (airport hotel) etc. The splinter theque is the result of clipping the beginning of the word aporheque of Greek origin which means in Greek a store house. In Russian words Guésuomeka, kapmomera, dhuiomomexa the element mexa corresponding to the English cheque preserves the meaning of storing something which is expressed by the first component of the word. The splinter theque is also used to denote a place for danc~ ing, eg. discotheque, jazzotheque. The splinter thon (athon) is the result of clipping the beginning of the word marathon, ‘Marathon primarily was the name of a battle- field in Greece, forty miles from Athens, where there was a battle between the Greek 16 and the Persian. When the Greek won a vieto- ry a Greek runner was sent to Athens to tell people about the victory. Later on the word ‘marathon was used to denote long-distance competitions in running. The splinter thon (athon) denotes something continuing for a long time, competition in endurance, e.g. dancethon, telethon, speakathon, readathon, walkathon, moviethon, swimathon, talkathon, swearthon etc. Splinters can be the result of clipping adjec- tives or substantivized adjectives. The splinter aholic (holic) was formed by clipping the beginning of the word alcoholic of Arabian origin where a/ denoted the, koh’! - powder for Painting lids The splinter (a)holic means infatuated by the object expressed by the stem, e.g. booka- holic, computerholic, coffeeholic, cheesaholic workaholic and many others. The splinter genic formed by clipping the beginning of the word photogenic denotes the notion suitable for something denoted by the stem, eg. allergenic, cardiogenic, mediagenic, telegenic, phonogenic, radiogenic ete. Photogenic originally meant produced by light, by the 1920s it got the meaning good as a sub- ject for photography and in-that meaning bbecaine a source of the new words mentioned above. 7‘As far as verbs are concerned it is not typi- cal of them to be clipped, that is why there is, only one splinter to be used for forming new verbs in this way. It is the splinter cast formed by clipping the beginning of the verb broad- cast. This splinter was used to form the verbs telecast, abroadeast, newscast, narrowcast. From these verbs compound nouns are formed with the help of suffixes such as sportscaster, beercasting and others. Splinters can be called pseudomorphemes because they are neither roots nor affixes, they are more of less artificial. In English there are words which consist of two splinters, eg. telethon, (television marathon ~ a very long television programme) therefore it is more log- ical to call words with splinters in their stru ture compound-shortened words consisting of two clippings of words, Splinters have only one function in English: they serve to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech, whereas prefixes and suf- fixes can also change the part-of-speech meaning, e.g. the prefix en- and its allomorph em- can form verbs ftom native stems (embody, enable, endanger), be- can form verbs from noun and adjective stems (beclowd, benumb), post- and pre- can form adjectives from noun stems (pre-election campaign, post- war events). The main function of suffixes is to 18 form one part of speech from another part of speech, e.g. -er, -ing, -ment form nouns from verbal stems teacher, dancing, movement), = ness, -ity are used to form nouns from adjec- tive stems (clannishness, marginality) STRUCTURAL TYPES OF WORDS According to the nature and the number of ‘morphemes constituting a word there are dif- ferent structural types of words in English: simple, affixed, compound, compound- affixed. Simple words consist of one root morpheme and an inflexion (in many cases the inflexion is zero), e.g. seldom, chairs, longer, asked, Aflixed words consist of one root mor- heme, one or several affixes and an inflexion, eg. derestricted, unemployed. ‘Compound words consist of two or more root morphemes and an inflexion, e.g. baby- ‘moons, wait-and-see (policy). Compound-affixed words consist of two or more root morphemes, one or more affixes and an inflexion, eg. middle-of-the-roaders, Job-hopper, autotimer, hydraskimmer. When speaking about the structure of words stems also should be mentioned. The stem is the part of the word which remains unchanged throughout the paradigm of the word, e.g. the stem hop can be found in the 19words: hop, hops, hopped, hopping. The stem hippie can be found in the words: hippie, hip- pies, hippie’s, hippies’. The stem job-hop can be found in the words: job-hop, jobshops, job- ‘hopped, job-hopping. So stems, the same as words, can be simple, affixed, compound and compound-allixed. Stems have not only the lexical meaning but also grammatical (part-of-speech) meaning, they can be noun stems (gir! in the adjective girlish), adjective stems (girlish in the noun girlishness), verb stems (expel in the noun expellee) etc. They differ from words by the absence of inflexions in their structure, they can be used only in the structure of words. Sometimes it is rather difficult to distin- guish between simple and affixed words, espe- cially in the cases of phonetic borrowings and of native words with blocked (unique) root e.g. absence, cranberry, perestroi- As far as words with splinters are concerned it is difficult to distinguish between affixed words and compound-shortened words. If a splinter is treated as an affix or a semi-affix the word can be called affixed, e.g. telescreen, ‘maxi-taxi, shutilegate, cheeseburger. But if a splinter is treated as a lexical shortening of ‘one of the stems the word can be called com- pound-shortened formed from a word combi- 20 nation where one of the components was shortened, e.g. busnapper was formed from bus kidnapper, minijet from miniature jet. IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENTS A synchronic morphological analysis is most effectively accomplished by the analysis. into immediate constituents. It was first sug- gested by L. Bloomfield. Immediate con- stituents are any of the two meaningful parts, forming a larger linguistic unity. The main constituents are an affix and a stem. For example, L. Bloomfield analyzed the word ungentlemanly. The listenet can recognize the morpheme un- as a negative prefix because ‘one has often come across words built on the pattern un- + adjective stem: uncertain, uncon- scious etc. And the adjective gentlemanly exists in the language. There are many adjec~ tives with the pattern: noun stem tly, eg. womanly, masterly etc. with the same semantic relationship having the quality of the person denoted by the stem, there is also the noun gen- tleman in English. In the first two stages of the analysis we separated a free and a bound forms: un- + gentlemanly and gentleman + ly. The third subdivision has its peculiarities, the cut is gentle + man. A similar pattern can be found in the word nobleman. The element man may be classified as a semi-bound affix or as a 2variant of the free form man. To sum up: as we break the word we obtain at any level only two immediate constituents (IC), one of whi isa stem. All the time the analysis is based on the patterns characteristic of the English vocabulary. As a result we get the following formula > un-+ (gentle + man)+ ly Sometimes it is rather difficult to distin- guish between simple and affixed words, espe- cially in the cases of phonetic borrowings from other languages and of native words with blocked (unique) root morphemes, e.2. perestroika, cranberry, absence etc. ‘As far as words with splinters are concerned it is difficult to distinguish between affixed words and compound-shortened words. If a splinter is treated as an affix (or a semi-affix) the word can be called affixed, e.g. telescreen, maxi-taxi, shuttlegate, if itis treated as a lexi- cal shortening of one of the stems, the word can be called compound-shortened word formed from a word combination where one of the components was shortened, e.g. busmap- per was formed from bus kidnapper. BLOCK COMPOUNDS AND NOMINATIVE BINOMIALS ish language of the second half of the twentieth century there developed so called block compounds, that is compound 22 words which have a uniting stress but a split, spelling, such as chat show (a TV programme showing a talk with a VIP), penguin suit (a suit for cosmonauts) etc. Such compound words can be easily mixed up with word-groups of the type stone wall, so called nominative bino- mials. Such linguistic units serve to denote a notion which is more specific than the notion expressed by the second component and con- jst of two nouns, the first of which is an attribute to the second one. If we compare a ‘nominative binomial with a compound noun with the structure N+N we shall see that a nominative binomial not always has a uniting stress. The change of the order of its compo- nents will change its lexical meaning, e.g. vid- Kid is a kid who is a video fan while kid vid means a video-film for kids, lamp oil means oil for lamps and oil lamp means a lamp which uses oil for burning. Among language units we can also point out word combinations of different structural types of idiomatic and non-idiomatic charac- ter, such as the first fiddle, old salt and round table, high road. There are also. sentences which are studied by grammarians. Thus, we can draw the conclusion that in Modern English the following language units 23can be mentioned: morphemes, combining forms (completives), splinters, words, block compounds, nominative binomials, non- idiomatic and idiomatic word-combinations, sentences. TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION Morphemes: bound and free morphemes, lexical and grammatical morphemes, allo- morphs. Functions of roots, suffixes, prefixes, inflex- ions. Combining forms (completives) and their functions. Splinters and their formation in English, The difference between affixes and splinters. Structural types of words in Modern English The stem of a word and the difference between a simple word, a stem and a root. The difference between block compounds and nominative binomials, The difference and similarity between a word and a phraseological unit. Immediate constituents of words. Analyze the following lexical units accord- ing to their structure. Point out the functions of morphemes. Speak about bound mor- phemes and free morphemes. Point out allo- 4 morphs. Define completives and splinters and explain their characteristic features. Explain the difference between idiomatic and non- idiomatic word combinations. accompany unsvstematic forget-me-not computerize expressionless reservation de-restrict, moisture sunerorivilesed lengthen clannish pleasure beautify workaholic reconstruction beflower inwardlv superstructure specialize monevwise counterculture round table Green Berets to sandwich in biolock television stereophonicWORDBUILDING Word-building is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. There are four main ways of word-building in Modern English: affixation, composition, conversion, abbrevi- ation. There are also secondary ways of word- building: sound interchange, stress inter- change, sound imitation, blends, back forma- tion (disaffixation). AFFIXATION Affixation has been one of the most pro- ductive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and pre- fixation, SUFFIXATION The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech, (eg educate isa verb, educatee is a noun, and ‘music is & noun, musicdom is also a noun). There are different classifications of suffixes: 26 1, Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of speech are given here: a) noun-forming suffixes, such as: -er (criticizer), ~dom (officialdom), -ism (ageism): b) adjective-forming suffixes, such as: -able (breathable), less (symptomless), -ous (prestigious): ©) verb-forming suffixes, such as: -ize (computerize), -ify (micrify), -en (shorten); 4) adverb-forming suffixes, such as: -ly (singly), -ward (tableward), -wise (jet- wise); ©) numeral-forming suffixes, such as: teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy), -fold (twofold). 2, Semantic classification. Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the stem can be subdi vided into groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes can denote: a) the agent of the action, e.g, -er (experi- ‘menter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student): b) nationality, e.g, -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English): ©) collectivity, e.g. -dom (moviedom), -ry (peasantry), -ship (readership), ~ati (literati): 2@) diminutiveness, e.g. -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), ling (gooseling), -ette (kitchenette), -y — (hanky), + -ock (hillock } ©) quality, e.g. -ness (copelessness), -ity (answerability): {feminine gender, e.g. -ess (actress), -ine (heroine), -ette (cosmonetie); g) abstract notion, e.g. -hood (childhood), -ness (politeness), -encelance (toler ance): h) derogatory meaning, e.g. -ard (drunk ard), -ster (gangster) -ling (underling) 3. Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added to certain groups of stems are subdivided into: a) suffixes added to verbal stems, such as ser (commuter), -ing (suffering), -able (flyable), -ment (involvement), ~ation (computerization): b) suffixes added to noun stems, such as: -less (smogless), -ful (roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster (pollster), -nik (filmnik}, -ish (childish): ©) suffixes added to adjective stems, such as: -en (weaken), -ly (pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness} 4. Origin of suffixes. Here we can point out the following groups: ‘a)native (Germanic), such as -er (teacher), -ful ( careful), -less (pain- less), -ly’ (swifily), -dom (kingdom), -ed (talented), -en (soften), -hood (childhood), -ing (building ), -ish (child- ish), -ness (kindness), -ship (friend- ship), -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy), -ward (homeward): b)Romanic, such as: -tion (attention), -ment (development), -ablefible (terri- ble, moveable) -eer (mountaineer), -anifent (student, pleasant ), -age (car- riage), -ard (drunkard) -ance/ence (attendance, absence }, ~ate ( dictate), -sy (flimsy) ©) Greek, such as : -ist (taxis), -ism (capitalism), -ize (organize) 4) Russian, such as -nik (filmnik) The term borrowed affixes is not very exact as alfixes are never borrowed as such, but only as parts of borrowed words. To enter the ‘morphological system of the English language a borrowed affix has to satisfy certain condi- tions. The borrowing of an affix is possible only if the number of words containing this affix is considerable, if its meaning and func- tion are definite and clear enough, and also if its structural pattern corresponds to the struc- tural patterns already existing in the language. 295, Productivity. Here we can‘ point out the following groups: a) productive, such as: -er (dancer), -ize (specialize), -Iv (wetly), -ness (close- ness); b) semi-productive, such as: -eer (proft- tecer), -eite (kitchenette), -ward (sky- ward); ©) non-productive, such as: «ard (drunk- ard), -th (length). 6. Structure. Here we can point out: a) simple, such as -er (speaker), (taxist); b) compound, such as: -ical (ironical), -ation (formation), -manship (sports- ‘manship ), -ably/-ibly (terribly, reason- ably) Suffixes can be polysemantic, e.g. -er can form nouns with the following meanings: agent, doer of the action expressed by the stem (speaker), profession, occupation (teacher), a device, a tool (transmitter). There are also disputable cases whether we have a suffix or a root morpheme in the str ture of a word. In such cases we call such mor- phemes semi-suffixes, and words with such 30 suffixes can be classified either as affixed words or as compound words, e.g. -gate (rangate), -burger (cheeseburger), ~aholic (workaholic), -man (postman) etc. PREFIXATION ” Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs, Prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used: pre- fixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un- (unhappy). Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound mor- hemes because they are met in the language as words, e.g, over- (overhead); c.f. over the table. ‘The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. But the recent research showed that about twenty-five prefixes in Modern English form one part of speech from another (bebut- ton, interfamily, postcollege etc). The prefix ‘be- forms transitive verbs with adjective, verb and noun stems, e.g. belittle ~ to make little. benumb — to make numb, to befriend — to treat like a friend, to becloud ~ to cover with clouds. a1to bemadam ~ to call madam, to bejewel — to deck with jewels. Sometimes the meaning is Quite different, as in such a case as to behead which means to cut off the head. The prefix en-/em- is now used to form verbs from noun stems with the meaning to put an object into or on something, e.g. to engulf, 10 embed. It can also form verbs with adjective and noun stems with the meaning ro bring into some condition or state, &.8. to encase, 10 enable, to enslave. The prefix a: is the characteristic feature of words belonging to statives: asleep, awake. anew etc. The prefixes pre-, post-, non- anti- and some other very productive modern prefixes of Romanic and Greek origin are used to form adjectives with a very clear-cut lexical mean- ing of their own, eg. pre-war, post-war, anti- war, non-party, pro-life etc. Prefixes can be classified according to dif- ferent principles: 1. Semantic classification: a) prefixes of negative meaning, such as in- (invaluable), non- (nonformals), un- (unfree) etc. Non- used to be restricted to simple unemphatic negation, Beginning with the 1960s non- indi- cates not so much the opposite of 32 something but rather that something is, not real or worthy of the name, e.g. non-book is a book published 10 be bought rather than to be read; non-thing = something insignificant and meaning less; non-person ~ somebody unworthy of attention etc. Un- can denote simple negation, e.g. uneven, unkind, unhappy. and also reversative action when it shows an action contrary to that of a simple verb, e.g. unpack, unbind, b) prefixes denoting repetition or reversa- “tive actions, such as: de~ (decaloniz re- (revegetation), dis- (disconnect) and also un- mentioned above; ©) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as: inter (interplane- tary), hyper- (hypertension), ex- (ex student), pre> (pre-election), over (overdrugging) etc. 2. Origin of prefixes: a) native (Germanic), such as: un- (unhap- py), over- (overfeed), under- (under- nourish) etc; b) Romanic, such as: in- (inactive), de- (demobilize), ex- (ex-student), re- (rewrite) ete; 3Greek, such as: sym- (sympathy), hyper- (hypertension) etc. When we analyze such words as adverb. accompany where we can find the root of the word (verb, company) we may treat ad-, ac- as prefixes though they were never used as pre- fixes to form new words in English and were borrowed from Romanic languages together with words. In such cases we can treat them as affixed words. But some scientists treat them as simple words. Another group of words with a disputable structure are such as. contain. retain, detain and conceive, receive, deceive where we can see that con- and de-act as pre- fixes and -tain, -ceive can be understood as roots. But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical meaning and are called pseudo-morphemes. Some scientists treat such words as simple words, others as affixed ones. ‘There are some prefixes which can be treat- ed as root morphemes by some scientists, e.g, after- in the word afternoon, American lexi- cographers working on Webster dictionaries treat such words as compound words. British lexicographers treat such words as affixed ones. Some scientists treat splinters (mini-, ‘maxi, gate-) and completives (aero-) as semi- prefixes, 34 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION Affixation as a way of forming affixed words. Functions of suffixes and prefixes Classification of suffixes according to the part of speech they form. Classification of suffixes according to their meaning, polysemantic suffixes. Classification of suffixes according to their productivity. Classification of suffixes according to their origin; splinters, completives Structural types of suffixes: simple and compound suffixes. Classification of prefixes according to their ‘meaning. Classification of prefixes according to their origin. Classification of prefixes according to their productivity. Semi-prefixes Prefixes changing the part of speech mean- ing. Analyze the following affixed words and words which can be considered as_ affixed words, point out suffixes and prefixes and Analyze them from different points of view, discuss splinters and completives: » 35to embed unsystematic, inwardly translaterese clannishness workaholic reconstruction afterthought childishness to ressit gangsterdom concentration counter-culture allusion to computerize slimster reservation docu-pulp 36 naurishment io encourage to accompany dispensable to de-restrict jet-wise to overreach foundation transgressor completenik pleasure refusenik brinkmanship self-criticism thoroughly bioculture actorishness coment COMPOSITION. COMPOUND WORDS Composition is the way of wordbuilding when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. The structural unity of a compound word depends upon: a) the unity of stress, b) solid or hyphenated spelling, ¢) semantic unity, 4) unity of morphological and syntactical functioning These are characteristic features of com- pound words in all languages. For English ‘compounds some of these factors are not very reliable. As a rule, English compounds have one uniting stress (usually on the first compo- nent), e.g. ‘hard-cover, ‘best-seller. We can also have a double stress in an English com- pound, with the main stress on the first com ponent and with a secondary stress on the sec- ‘ond component, e.g, ‘blood- vessel. The main stress can be on the second component, e.g, snow-white, skyblue. The third pattern of Stresses is two level stresses. The third pattern is easily mixed up with word-groups unless they have solid or hyphenated spelling. Besides, the stress may be phonological and help to differentiate the meaning of com- pounds, eg."overwork — extra work, 37‘over'work = hard work injuring one’s health, ‘bookcase ~ a piece of furniture with shelves for books, ‘bookcase ~ a paper cover for books etc Spelling in English compounds is not very reliable as well because they can have different, spelling even in the same text, e.g. war-ship, blood-vessel can be spelt through a hyphen and also with a break, insofar, underfoot can be spelt solidly and with a break: in so far. All the more there has appeared in Modern English a special type of compound words which are called block compounds, they have one uniting stress but are spelt with a break, eg. ‘air piracy, ‘cargo module, ‘coin change, ‘penguin suit etc ‘The semantic unity of a compound word is often very strong. In such cases we have idiomatic compounds where the meaning of the whole is not a sum of meanings of its com- ponents, e.g. 10 ghostwrite, skinhead, brain- drain etc. In nonidiomatic compounds seman- tic unity is not strong, €, airbus, 10 blood- transfuse, astrodynamics et. English compounds have the unity of mor- phological and syntactical functioning. They are used in a sentence as one part of it and only one component changes grammatically, eg. These girls are chatter-boxes. Chatter- 38 boxes is a predicative here and only the second component changes grammatically. There are two characteristic features of English compounds: a) both components in an English com- pound are free stems, that is they can be used as words with a distinctive meaning of their own, The sound pattern will be the same except for the stresses, e.g, a ‘green-house (mensuaya) and a ‘green ‘house (a house painted green). Whereas, for example, in Russian compounds the stems are bound morphemes, asa rule; by English compounds have a two-stem pat- tern, with the exception of compound words which have form-word stems in their structure, e.g, middle-of-the-road, off-the-record, up-and- doing etc. The two-stem pattern distinguishes English compounds from German ones. WAYS OF FORMING COMPOUND WorDS Compound words in English can be formed not only by means of composition but also by means of: a) teduplication, e.g. 400-100 ~ sentimental, and also by means of reduplication combined with sound interchange, e.g. rape-ripe ~ wor- thy of being hung, shock-frock ~ bare-bosomed cocktail dress, toy-boy ~ a gigolo; 39b) partial conversion from word-groups, e.g. 10 micky-mouse, can-do, make-up ete. It is different from conversion proper as the basic forms are not homonymous, because of the difference in the stress pattern and spelling. It can be the result of ellipses, e.g. drive-in cine- ma—a drive in; ©) back formation from compound nouns or word-groups, eg. 10 bloodiransfuse (from blood transfusion), to fingerprint (from finger- printing), to baby-sit (from baby-sitter) ete; d) analogy, eg. lie-in (on the analogy with sit-in) and also phone-in, brawn-drain (on the analogy with brain-drain) etc; ©) contrast, €.g. brain-gain (in contrast to brain-drain) etc. CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENGLISH COMPOUNDS 1. According to the parts of speech com- pounds are subdivided into: a) nouns, such as: baby-moon, globe-trot- ter; b) adjectives, such as: free-for-all, power- happy. ©) verbs, such as: 10 honeymoon, to baby- sit, t0 henpeck: @) adverbs, such as: downdeep, headfirst; ©) prepositions, such as: into, within; f) numerals, such as: fifty-five. 2. According to the way components are joined together compounds are subdivided into: a) neutral, which are formed by joining together two stems without any joining morpheme, e.g. ball-point, to window- shop; b) morphological where components are Joined by a linking element: vowels ‘o” or ‘i’ or the consonant ‘s’, €.g. astro- space, handicraft, sportsman: ) syntactical where the components ate joined by means of form-word stems, eg. here-and-now, free-for-all, do-or- die. 3, According to their structure compounds are subdivided into: a) compound words proper which consist of two stems, e.g. to job-hunt, train-sick, g0-g0, tip-top. b)compound-alfixed words, where besides the stems we have affixes, e.g ear-minded, hydro-skimmer, autotimer. videoplayer, astronauties, astrophysical etc, The essence of compound-affixed words will be clear if we compare them with affixed words and compounds proper that possess a similar structure. Let us compare the words: brains- 4truster, honeymooner and millowner. If wwe analyze the word millownet we shall see that the immediate constituents of it are two noun stems: mill and owner, the first stem is simple, the second one is affixed. For the word honeymooner such division is impossible since moon- cer does not exist in English. The imme- diate constituents are honeymoonter (honey-+moon)+er. Thus, the word mil- Towner is formed by means of composi tion and the word honeymooner by means of affixation. If we analyze the word brainstruster we shall see that itis formed from a word group brains trust ~a group of experts, So brainstruster is formed by means of composition and by means of affixation; ‘©) compound words consisting of three or more stems, eg. cornflower-blue, eggshell-thin, singer-songwriter. In such compounds one of the immediate con- stituents is a compound stem or, as in the last case, it consists of an affixed stem and a compound-affixed stem; 4) compound-shortened words, e.g. boa- tel, tourmobile, V-day, motocross, inter- vision, Eurodollar, Camford. Com- pound-shortened words cani be of dif- ferent structure: the first stem can be shortened by means of apocope, eg. Eurodollar, maxi-series, Ecoforum, telecommunication and also by means of initial shortening, e.g. V-day, AlDSophobia. Sometimes the second stem is shortened by means of aphere- sis, e.g. beefburger, by means of apoc- ope, e.g. Skylab, or it can be an initial shortening eg, Three-D (stereofilm). Sometimes both stems are shortened: wecan have two cases of apocope (typ- ical of Russian compound-shortened words), eg. comsat (communication satellite), Centcom (Central Command). But more often the first stem is a ease of apocope and the see- ond one is a case of apheresis, eg. motel (motorcar hotel), boatel (boat hotel), slanguist (slang linguist), maga- Tog (magazine catalogue). 4, According to the relations between the components compound words are subdivided into: (A) subordinative compounds where one of the components is the semantic centre and the structural centre and the second component is, subordinate; these subordinative relations can be different: 43a) comparative relations, e.g. .Aoney- sweet, eggshell-thin, goldfish; b) limiting relations, eg. breast-high, knee-deep; ©) emphatic relations, eg. dog-cheap: 4) objective relations, e-g. gold-rich; @) cauise relations, e.g love-sick: f) space relations, eg. top-heavy, garden- party; g) time relations, e.g. spring-fresh, sum- mer-house: h) subjective relations, e.g. foot-sore: i)functional relations, ég. raincoat, bathrobe, textbook: i) material relations, eg. silverware, cla pipe: k) sex relations, eg. she-dog, he-goat, Tom-cat. (B) Coordinative compounds where both components are semantically independent. a)Here belong such compounds when one person (object) has two functions, eg. secretary-stenographer, woman- doctor, Oxbridge, Anglo-Saxon etc. Such compounds are called additive, b)There are also tautological com- pounds, e.g. roadway, courtyard. This group also includes compounds formed by means of reduplication,-e.g. fifiy- fifty, no-no, and also compounds formed with the help of rhythmic stems (reduplication combined with sound interchange), e.g. criss-cross, walkie- talkie. 5. According to the order of the compo- nents compounds are divided into compounds with direct order (syntactic), eg. killjoy, and compounds with indirect order (asyntactic), eg. nuclear-free, rope-ripe. 6. According to the meaning of the whole compound we can point out idiomatic and non-idiomatic compounds. Compounds may be very different in meaning from the corre- sponding free phrase. Such compounds are called idiomatic, e.g. a blackboard is quite dif- ferent from a black board. A blackboard is a teaching aid, it can be a piece of linoleum of some dark colour. And a black board is a board painted black Such compounds as wheelchair and pushchair look interchangeable, but wheel- chairs are for invalids and pushchairs are for infants. Non-idiomatic compounds are not, different in their meaning from corresponding free phrases, eg. airmail (mail carried by planes), swimming-pool (a pool for swim- ming), speedometer (a meter for measuring speed). 45TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION Characteristic features of compound words in different languages. Characteristic features of English com- pounds. Classification of compound words accord- ing to their structure. Classification of compound words accord- ing to the joining element. Classification of compound words accord- ing to the parts of speech, Classification of compound words accord- ing to the semantic relations between the com- ponents, Classification of compound words accord- ing to the order of components. Classification of compound words accord- ing to the motivation of their meaning. ‘Ways of forming compound words. Analyze the following lexical units: note-book speedometer son-in-law to job-hop brain-gain video-corder fair-haired well-dressed forget-me-not tip-top teach bio-engineer biblio-klept g0-g0 Anglo-Russian heliport backgrounder theatre-goee 46 to book-hunt to baby-sit g0od-for-nothing do-gooder Kleptomania paratrooper bus-napper three-cornered bread-and-butter counter-clockwise giver-away newly-created mini-term blood-thirsty throw-away skin-head sportsman, airbus cease-fire brain-drain motel to frontpage nobody Oxbridge a7CONVERSION Conversion is a characteristic feature of the English word-building system. Its also called affixless derivation or zero-suffixation. The term conversion first appeared in the book by Henry Sweet New English Grammar in 1891 Conversion is treated differently by different scientists, eg. prof. AJ. Smimnitsky treats conversion as a morphological way of form- ing words when one part of speech is formed from another part of speech by changing its paradigm, e.g. to form the verb fo dial from the noun dial we change the paradigm of the noun (a dial, dials) for the paradigm of a reg- ular verb (I dial, he dials, dialed, dialing), A, Marchand in his book The Categories and Types of Present-day English treats conver- sion as a morphological-syntactical word- building because we have not only the change of the paradigm, but also the change of the syntactic function, e.g, need some good paper for my room. (The noun paper is an object in the sentence). I paper my room every year. (The verb paper is the predicate in the sen- tence) Conversion is the main way of forming verbs in Modern English. Verbs can be formed from nouns of different semantic 48 groups and have different meahinigiGodcatise of that, e.g. a) verbs have instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting parts of a human body, e.g. to eve, to finger, to elbow, t0 shoulder etc. They have instrumental meaning, if they are formed from nouns denoting tools, machines, instruments, weapons, e.g. (0 ham- ‘mer, to machine-gun, 10 rifle, t0 nail: ») verbs can denote an action characteristic of the living being denoted by the noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to crowd, to wolf, to ape: ©) verbs can denote acquisition, addition or deprivation if they are formed from nouns denoting an object, e.g. 10 fish, to dust, to peel, to paper; 4) verbs can denote an action performed at the place denoted by the noun from which they have been converted, eg. 10 park, 10 garage, to bottle, t0 corner, to pocket; €) verbs can denote an action performed at the time denoted by the noun from which they have been converted, e.g. 10 winter, to week“ end Verbs can be converted from adjectives, in such cases they denote the change of the state, eg. 0 tame (to become or make tame), (0 clean, to slim etc. 49Verbs can be also converted from other parts of speech, e.g. to down (adverb), t0 pooh- pooh (interjection). Nouns can also be formed by means of con- version from verbs. Converted nouns can denote: a) instant of an action, eg. a jump, a move: b) process or state, e.g sleep, walk: ©) agent of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, €.g. a help, a flirt, a scold: 4) object or result of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun was formed by means of conversion, e.g. a find, a burn, a cut; ©) place of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a drive, a stop, a walk. Many nouns converted from verbs can be used only in the singular form and denote ‘momentaneous actions. In such cases we have partial conversion. Such deverbal nouns are often used with verbs: 10 have, to get, to take etc., 8, fo have a try, t0 give a push, to take a swim: ‘Sometimes nouns are formed from adverbs, €.g. ups and downs, and even from affixes, e.g. ‘ism’ ~ a set of political or religious ideas or principles. (Socialism, communism, and all other ‘isms’ of modern world). 50 “ERITERIA OF SEMANTG oo DERIVATION In cases of conversion the problem of crite- ria of semantic derivation arises: which of the converted pair is primary and which is con- verted from it. The problem was first analyzed by prof. A.l. Smimitsky. Later on P.A. So- boleva developed his idea and worked out the following criteria: 1. If the lexical meaning of the root mor- pheme and the lexico-grammatical meaning of the stem coincide the word is primary, e.g. in ceases pen to pen, father ~ to father the nouns are names of an object and a living being, ‘Therefore in the nouns pen and father the lex- ical meaning of the root and the lexico-gram- matical meaning of the stem coincide. The verbs to pen and to father denote an action, a process, therefore the lexico-grammatical ‘meanings of the stems do not coincide with the lexical meanings of the roots. The verbs have a complex semantic structure and they were converted from nouns, 2. If we compare a converted pair with a synonymic word pair which was formed by means of suffixation we can find out which of the pair is primary. This criterion can be applied only to nouns converted from verbs, eg. chat n, and chat v. can be compared with conversation ~ converse. st3. The criterion based on derivational rela- ions is of more universal character. In th case we must take a word-cluster of relative words to which the converted pair belongs. If the root stem of the word-cluster has suflixes added to a noun stem the noun is primary in the converted pair and vice versa, eg. in the word-cluster: hand n., hand v., handy, handful the affixed words have suffixes added to a noun stem, that is why the noun is primary and the verb is converted from it, In the word- cluster: dance n., dance v., dancer, dancing we see that the primary word is a verb and the noun is converted from it. SUBSTANTIVATION OF ADJECTIVES Some scientists (O. Yespersen, E.Kruisinga and others) refer substantivation of adjectives, to conversion, But most scientists disagree with them because in cases of substantivation of adjectives we have quite different changes in the language. Substantivation is the result of ellipsis (syntactical shortening) when a word combination with a semantically strong. attribute loses its semantically weak noun (man, person etc), eg. a grown-up person is shortened to a grown-up. In cases of perfect substantivation the attribute takes the para- digm of a countable noun, eg. @ criminal, criminals, a criminal’s (mistake), criminals’ 52. (mistakes). Such words are used in a sentence in the same function as nouns, e.g. an fond of musicals (musical comedies) ‘There are also two types of partly substan- tivized adjectives: a) those which have only the plural form and have the meaning of collective nouns, such as: sweets, news, empties, finals, greens; b) those which have only the singular form and are used with the definite article. They also have the meaning of collective nouns and denote a class, a nationality, a group of peo- ple, e.g the rich, the English, the dead. We call these words partly substantivised because they do not get a new paradigm, Besides, they keep some properties of adjectives, they can be modified by adverbs, e.g. the very unfortu- nate, the extravagantly jealous, the enormously rich etc. STONE WALL COMBINATIONS (NOMINATIVE BINOMIALS) The problem whether adjectives can be formed by means of conversion from nouns is, the subject of many discussions. In Modern English there are a lot of word combinations of the type, eg. price rise, wage freeze, steel helmet, sand castle etc. 33If the first component of such units is an adjective converted from a noun, combina- tions of this type are free word-groups typical of English (adjective + noun). This point of view is proved by O. Yespersen by the follow- ing facts: 1. “Stone” denotes some quality of the noun “wall” 2, “Stone” stands before the word it modi- fies, as adjectives in the function of an attrib- ute do in English. 3. "Stone” is used in the singular though its ‘meaning in most cases is plural, and adjectives in English have no plural form, 4. There are some cases when the first com- ponent is used in the comparative or the superlative degree, and adjectives can have degrees of comparison, e.g. the bottomest end of the scale. 5. The first component can have an adverb which characterizes it, and adjectives are characterized by adverbs, eg. a purely family gathering. 6. The first component can be used in the same syntactical function with a proper adjec- tive to characterize the same noun, e.g, lonely bare stone houses. 7. After the first component the pronoun one can be used instead of a noun, e.g J shall 34 ‘not put on a silk dress, 1 shall put on.a'cotton However, Henry Sweet and some other sci- entists say that these criteria are not charac- terisite of the majority of such units. They consider the first component of such units to be a noun in the function of an attrib- ute because in Modern English almost all parts of speech and even word-groups and sentences can be used in the function of an attribute, eg she then president (an adverb), out-of-the-way villages (a word-group), a devil-may-care speed (a sentence) There are different semantic relations between the components of “stone wall” com- binations (nominative binomials). E.L Chapnik classified them into the following groups’ 1. time relations, e.g. evening paper; 2. space relations, e.g. top floor; 3. relations between the object and the ‘material of which it is made, e.g, steel helmet: 4. cause relations, e.g. war orphan; 5, relations between a part and the whole, eg. a crew member; 6. relations between the object and an action, e.g. arms production; 7. relations between the agent and an action, e.g government threat, price rise; 358. relations between the object and its desig- nation, eg. reception hall, wine glass: 9. the first component denotes the head, organizer of the characterized object, eg Bush government, Forsyte family; 10. the first component denotes the field of activity of the second component, e.g. lan- guage teacher, psychiatry doctor: 11. comparative relations, e.g. moon face; 12. qualitative relations, e.g. winter apples. TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION Conversion as a way of word-building. Different points of view on the nature of conversion, Semantic groups of verbs converted from nouns. Meanings of verbs converted from adjec- tives, Semantic groups of nouns converted from verbs, Criteria of semantic derivation. Substantivized adjectives. Characteristic features of “stone-wall” com- binations. Semantic groups of “stone-wall” combina- tions. 56 Analyze the followingdesigal units: toeye toslim to airmail London season sleep a read to weekend supersonics to wireless to blue-pencil ajerk have-nots to co-author to winter mother-in-law morning star awalk og cabin to blind blinds Bush government a bore the poor the French the non-partial afind a grown-up steel helmet rest aflirt handout a buildup a non-formal to submarine distrust news the English to water asitdown undesirables wine glass a find finals the blind to stone-wall © empties war orphan dislike home task to winterABBREVIATION In the process of communication words and word-groups can be shortened. The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguis- tic, By extra-linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. In Modern English many new abbreviations, acronyms, initials, blends are formed because the tempo of life is, increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more information in the shortest possible time, There are also linguistic causes of abbrevi- ating words and word-groups, such as the demand of rhythm, which is satisfied in English by monosyllabic words. When bor- rowings from other languages are assimilated in English they are shortened. Here we have modification of form on the basis of analogy, eg, the Latin borrowing fanaticus is short- ‘ened to fan on the analogy with native words: ‘man, pan, tan etc, There are two main types of shortenings: graphical and lexical, GRAPHICAL ABBREVIATIONS Graphical abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written speech while orally the corresponding 58 full forms are used. They are used for the economy of space and effort in writing, The oldest group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin origin, In Russian this type of abbreviation is not typical. In these abbreviations in the spelling Latin words are shortened, while orally the corresponding English equivalents are pronounced in the full form, e.g. ~ for example (Latin exampli gratia), a.m. ~in the morning (ante meridiem), No ~ number (numero), p.a. ~ a year (per annum), d— penny (dinarius), Ib ~ pound (libra), ie. ~ that is (id est). In some cases ini- tial letters are pronounced, e.g. a.m. [ei ‘em]. p.m. [piveml etc. In such cases they can be treated as lexical initial abbreviations. Some graphical abbreviations of Latin ori- gin have different English equivalents in dif- ferent contexts, €.g. p.m. can be pronounced in the afternoon (post meridiem) and after death (post mortem). There are also graphical abbreviations of native origin where in the spelling we have abbreviations of words and word-groups of the corresponding English equivalents in the full form. We have several semantic groups of them: a) days of the week, e.g, Mon ~ Monday, Tue ~ Tuesday etc; b) names of months, e.g. Apr — April, Aug— August, Sep ~ September ete; 59© names of counties in UK, e.ginYorks Yorkshire, Berks ~ Berkshire etc; d) names of states in USA, e.g. Ala — Alabama, Alas ~ Alaska, Calif ~ California ate, e) names of address, e.g. Mr, Mrs, Ms {miz}. Drete; ) military ranks, e.g. capt — captain, col colonel, sgt ~ sergeant etc; g) scientific degrees, e.g. BA ~ Bachelor of Arts, DM ~ Doctor of Medicine. (Sometimes in scientific degrees we have abbreviations of Latin origin, eg. MB — Medicinae Bacealaurus). hy units of time, length, weight, e.g. f/ft ~ footlfeet, see. ~ second, in. — inch, mg. ~ mil- Tigrant etc. The reading of some graphical abbrevia- tions depends on the context, e.g. m can be read as; male, married, masculine, metre, mile, ‘million, minute; Lp. can be read as fong-play- ing, low pressure. INITIAL ABBREVIATIONS Initialisms are the bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations. When they appear in the language, as a rule, to denote some new offices they are closer to graphical abbreviations because orally full forms are used, eg. JV ~ joint venture. When oo they are used for some duration of time they acquire the shortened form of pronouncing and become closer to lexical abbreviations, eg. BBC is, as a rule, pronounced in the shortened form [ bicbi’ In some cases the translation of initilisms is next to impossible without using special dic- tionaries. Initialisms are denoted in different ‘ways. Very often they are expressed in the way they are pronounced in the language of their origin, eg. ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, United States) is pronounced in Russian as AHBYC; SALT (Strategic Arms. Limitation Talks) was used in Russian as a phonetic bor rowing (COJIT), now a translation loan used (OCB ~ Mozosop 06 oepanuuentas empameewueckux soopy xcenuit). This type of initialisms borrowed into other languages (UFO - HAO, CIT JV} is preferable. There are three types of initialisms in English: a) initialisms with alphabetical reading, such as UK (United Kingdom), BUP (British United Press), CND (Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament), PWA (a person with AIDS) etc; ») initialisms which are read as if they are words, eg UNESCO (United Nations Economic, Scientific, Cultural Organization) 6OPEC (Oil Producing European Countries), HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) etc.: ©) initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound form. Such initialisms are called acronyms, e.g. CLASS (Computer based Laboratory for Automated School System), NOW (National Organization of Women), AIDS (Acquired Immunity Deficiency Syndrome) ete. Some scientists unite groups b) and c) into one group which they call acronyms. Some initialisms can form new words in which they act as root morphemes by different ways of wordbuilding: a) affixation, e.g. AWOLism (Absent WithOut Leave), ex-rafer (Royal Air Force), ex-POW (Prisoner Of War), AIDSophobia ete: b) conversion, e.g. 10 raff (Royal Air Force), to fly IFR (Instrument Flight Rules) etc; ¢) composition, e.g. STOLport (Short Take- Off and Landing), USAFman (United States Air Force) ete; @) there are also compound-shortened words where the first component is an initial abbreviation with the alphabetical reading and the second one is a complete word, eg A-bomb, U-promunciation, V-day ete. In some cases the first component is a complete word and the second component is an initial abbre- 62 viation with the alphabetical pronunciation, e.g. Three-Ds (Three dimensions) — emepeo- dur, ABBREVIATION OF WORDS Abbreviation of words consists in clipping a part of a word. As a result we get a new lexi- cal unit where either the lexical meaning or the style is different from the full form of the ‘word, In such cases as fantasy and fancy, fence and defence we have different lexical mean- ings. In such cases as laboratory and lab, we have different styles, Abbreviation does not change the part-of- speech meaning, as in the case of conversion or affixation, it produces words belonging to the same part of speech as the primary word, e.g. profis a noun and professor is also a noun. Mostly nouns undergo abbreviation, but we can also meet abbreviation of verbs, such as fo rev from to revolve, to tab from to tabulate etc. But mostly abbreviated forms of verbs are formed by means of conversion from abbrevi- ated nouns, e.g. fo taxi, to vac etc. Adjectives can be abbreviated but they are mostly used in school slang and are combined with suffixa- tion, e.g. comfy, dilly, mizzy etc. As a rule, pronouns, numerals, interjections, conjune- tions are not abbreviated. The exceptions are: 63J¥ (fifteen), (apocope), teenager, in one’s teens (apheresis from numerals from 13 to 19), Lexical abbreviations are classified accord. ing to the part of the word which is clipped Mostly the end of the word is clipped, beeruse the beginning of the word in most cases is the Toot and expresses the lexical meaning of the word. This type of abbreviation is called apoc. ope. Here we can mention a group of words ending in -o, such as disco (discotheque), expo (exposition), intro (introduetion) and many others. On the analogy with these words there developed in Modern English a number of Words where -o is added as a kind of a suffix to the shortened form of the word, e.g. combo (combination) — neGoxswon —dempadnert aucaubae, Afro (African) — npuyecxa nod adpuranya ete In other cases the beginning of the word is clipped. In such cases we have apheresis e.g chute (parachute), varsity (university), copter (helicopter), tuse (enthuse) etc. Sometinnes the middle of the word is clipped, eg. mart (market), fanzine (fan magazine), mathe (mathematics). Such abbreviations are called syncope, Sometimes we have a combination of apocope with apheresis, when the begin. ning and the end of the word are clipped, 2. tee (detective), van (avanguard) ete. 64 times shortening influences the speling of the word, ee” canbe substiut- ed by "A" before "eto preserve pronuncs tion, e.g. mike (microphone), coke (coca-cola) etc. The same rule is observed in the following, cases fax (facsimile) tek technical college), ink (tranguilizer) ete. The final conson: inthe shorn farms are subsite by Te ters characteristic of native English words, 65SECONDARY WAYS OF WORDBUILDING SOUND INTERCHANGE Sound interchange is the way of word- building when some sounds are changed to form a new word. It is non-productive in Modern English, it was productive in Old English and can be met in other Indo- European languages. The causes of sound interchange can be dif- ferent. It can be the result of Ancient Ablaut which cannot be explained by the phonetic laws during the period of the language devel- opment known to scientists., e.g. t0 strike stroke, to sing — song ete. It can be also the result of Ancient Umlaut or vowel mutation which is the result of palatalizing the root vowel because of the front vowel {i] or {j} in the syllable coming after the root (regressive assimilation), e.g. hot — 10 heat (hotian), blood ~ to bleed (blodian) etc. In many cases we have vowel and consonant interchange. In nouns we have voiceless con- sonants and in verbs we have corresponding voiced consonants because in Old English these consonants in nouns were at the end of the word and in verbs in the intervocal posi- tion, e.g. bath — 10 bathe, life - to live, breath ~ 66 to breathe etc. Sometimes it is combined with sulfixation, e.g. strong — strength, STRESS INTERCHANGE Stress interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic origin: nouns have the stress on the first syllable and verbs on the last syllable, e.g. ‘accent — to ac’cent. This phenomenon is explained in the follow- ing way: French verbs and nouns had differ- ent structure when they were borrowed into English, verbs had one syllable more than the corresponding nouns. When these borrowings were assimilated in English the stress in them was shifted to the previous syllable (the sec- ‘ond from the end). Later on the last unstressed syllable in verbs borrowed from French was dropped (the same as in native verbs) and after that the stress in verbs was on the last syllable while in nouns it was on the first syllable (if the noun consisted of two syl- lables), As a result of it we have such pairs English as: (0 af fix ~ ‘affix, to con'fliet — Act, to ex'port — ‘export, to ex’ tract ~ ‘extract etc. As a result of stress interchange we have also vowel interchange in such words because vowels are pronounced differently in stressed and unstressed positions. However, this is not regular, there are bor- rowed nouns and verbs with the stress on the » 67first syllable, e.g. comment, exile, figure, pref- ‘ace, quarrel, focus, process, program, triumph ete. There is a large group of disyllabic loan words that retain the stress on the second syl- lable both in verbs and nouns: accord. account, advance, amount, approach, attack, attempt, concern, defeat, distress, escape, exclaim, research etc. SOUND IMITATION It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by imitating different sounds. There are some semantic groups of words formed by ‘means of sound imitation: a) sounds produced by human beings, such as: to whisper, to giggle, to mumble, 10 snet to whistle ete; b) sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, such as: 10 hiss, t0 buzz, t0 bark, 10 ‘moo, to twitter ete; ©) sounds produced by nature and objects, such as: f0 splash, to rustle, to clatter, to bub- bile, 10 ding-dong, to tinkle ete. The corresponding nouns are formed by means of conversion, eg. clang (of a bell), chatter (of children) et. 68 BLENDS Blends are words formed from a word- group or two synonyms, In blends two ways of word-building are combined: abbreviation and composition. To form a blend we clip the end of the first component (apocope) and the beginning of the second component (aphere- sis) . As a result we have a compound-short- ened word. One of the first blends in English was the word smog (smoke + fog) which means smoke mixed with fog. From the first component the beginning is taken, from the second one the end, “o” is common for both of them, Blends formed from two synonyms are: slanguage (slang and language), to hustle (hurry and bustle), gasohol (gasoline and alcohol) etc. Mostly blends are formed from a word-group, such as: acromania (acronym mania), bit (binary digit), cinemaddict (cine- ‘ma addict), chunnel (channel tunnel), dramedy (drama comedy), detectifiction (detective fic tion), faction (fact fiction ~ fiction based on real facts), informercial (information commer- cial), Medicare (medical care}, magalog (magazine catalogue) slimnastics (slimming gymnastics), sociolite (social elite), slanguist (slang linguist) ete. ‘The analysis into immediate constituents of blends permits the definition of a blend as a 0word with the first constituent represented by a stem whose final part may be missing, and the second constituent by a stem of which the initial part is missing. The second con- stituent when used in a series of similar blends may turn into a suffix. A new suffix -on is, for instance, well under way in such terms as nylon, rayon, silon, formed from the final ele- ment of cotton, BACK FORMATION {(DISAFFIXATION) It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by dropping the final morpheme to form a new word. It is opposite to suffixation, that is why it is called back formation. At first it appeared in the language as a result of mis- understanding the structure of a borrowed word, Prof. V. Yartseva explains this mistake by the influence of the whole system of the language on separate words. E.g. it is typical of English to form nouns denoting the agent of the action by adding the suffix -er to a verb stem (speak ~ speaker}. So when the French word beggar was borrowed into English the final syllable ar was pronounced in the same way as the English -er, and Englishmen formed the verb to beg by dropping the end of the noun, Other examples of backformation 70 are: 10 accreditate (from accreditation), to bach (from bachelor), to collocate (from col- location), to enthuse (from enthusiasm), t0 compute (from computer), to emote (from emotion), to reminisce (Som reminiscence). 10 televise (from television) etc ‘AS we can notice, in cases of backformation the part-of-speech meaning of the primary word is changed, verbs are formed from nouns. TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION Lexical and graphical abbreviations. ‘Types of graphical abbreviations. Types of initiatisms, peculiarities of their pronunciation, Lexical shortenings of words, their refer- ence to style. Compound-shortened words; their struc- tural types. ‘Sound interchange. Stress interchange. Sound imitation. Blends. Backformation (disaffixation) Analyze the following lexical units: aggro (aggression) Algol (algorithmic language) napex Fei peks) (advanced purchased excur- sion) A-Day (Announcement Day ~ day of announcing war) AID (attificial insemination by a donor) AIDS (acquired immunity deficiency syn- drome) Ala (Alabama) 4S. a. p. (a8 soon as possible) bar-B-Q, barb (barbecue) to baby-sit (baby-sitter) burger (hamburger) Camford, Oxbridge CALL (computer-assisted language leam- ing) CAT (computer-assisted training) cauli (cauliflower) COD (cash on delivery) COD (Concise Oxford Dictionary) COBOL (common business-oriented lan- guage) co-ed (co-education girl-student) comp (accompaniment) DINKY (double income, no kids yet - a young married couple having no kids yet, both working, rather prosperous) E-Day (Entrance Day, the day of joining ‘Common Market) expo (exposition) ed biz. (educational business) n clhi (elementary and high schools) x lib (ex libris ~ Lat. from the library of) ete (et cetera ~ and so on) Euratom (European Atomic System) fax (facsimile) G-7 (Group of Seven, including GB, Germany, Japan, France, Canada, Italy, Spain) FORTRAN (formula translation) specs (spectacles) phone (telephone) BSEMANTIC CHANGES The meaning of a word can change in the course of time. Changes of lexical meanings can be proved by comparing contexts of dif- ferent times. Transfer of the meaning is called lexico-semantic word-building. In such cases the outer aspect of a word does not change. The causes of semantic changes can be extra-linguistic and linguistic, e.g, the change of the lexical meaning of the noun pen was due to extra-linguistic causes. Primarily pen comes back to the Latin word pena (a feather of a bird). As people wrote with goose pens the name was transferred to stee! pens which were later on used for writing, Still later any instru- ‘ment for writing was called a pen. On the other hand, causes can be linguist e.g, the conflict of synonyms when a perfect synonym of a native word is borrowed from some other language one of them may special- ize in its meaning, e.g. the noun tide in Old English was polysemantic and denoted time, season, hour. When the French words time, season, hour were borrowed into English they ousted the word ride in these meanings. It was specialized and now means regular rise and fall of the sea caused by attraction of the moon. ‘The meaning of a word can also change due to 4 ellipsis, e.g. the word-group @ train of car- riages had the meaning of a row of carriages. later on of carriages was dropped and the noun rain changed its meaning, its used now in the function and with the meaning of the whole word-group. Semantic changes have been classified by different scientists. The most complete class: fication was suggested by a German scientist Herman Paul in his work Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte. It is based on the logical principle. He distinguishes two main ways where the semantic change is gradual (special- ization and generalization), two momentary conscious semantic changes (metaphor and metonymy) and also secondary ways: gradual (elevation and degradation), momentary (hyperbole and litotes). SPECIALIZATION Itis a gradual process when a word passes from a general sphere to some special sphere of communication, eg. case has a general ‘meaning circumstances in which a person or a thing is. 1 is specialized in its meaning when used in law (a lawsuit), in grammar (a form in the paradigm of a noun), in medicine (a 18patient, an illness). The difference between these meanings is revealed in the context. ‘The meaning of a word can specialize when it remains in the general usage. It happens in the case of the conflict between two absolute synonyms when one of them must specialize in its meaning to remain in the language, e.g. the native word meat had the meaning food, this meaning is preserved in the compound sweetmeats. The meaning edible flesh was formed when the word food, its absolute syn- ‘onym, won in the conflict of absolute syn- ‘onyms (both words are native). The English verb starve was specialized in its meaning after the Scandinavian word die was borrowed into English. Die became the general verb with this meaning because in English there were the noun death and the adjective dead beginning with the same consonant ‘d’, Starve got the meaning 10 die of hunger. The third way of specialization is the for- mation of proper names from common nouns, it is often used in toponymics, e.g. the City — the business part of London, Oxjord ~ a uni- versity town in England (which was built near the place where oxen could ford the river), the Tower originally meant a fortress and palace, later ~a prison, now it means a museum. 16 ‘The fourth way of specialization is ellipsis. In such cases primarily we have a word-eroup of the type attribute + noun, which is used con- stantly in a definite situation. Due to it the attribute can be dropped and the noun can get the meaning of the whole word-group. e.g. room originally meant space, this meaning is retained in the adjective roomy and word- combinations: no room for, t0 take room, The meaning of the word room was specialized because it was often used in the combinations: dining room, sleeping room which meant space for dining, space for sleeping. GENERALIZATION Itis a process contrary to specialization, in such cases the meaning of a word becomes more general in the course of time, ‘The transfer from a concrete meaning to an abstract one is most frequent, e.g. ready (a derivative from the verb ridan ~ ride) meant prepared for a ride, now its meaning is pre- pared for anything. Journey was borrowed from French with the meaning one day trip, now it means a trip of any duration (jour means a day in French). All auxiliary verbs are cases of generaliza- tion of their lexical meaning because they ndeveloped a grammatical meaning: have, be, do, shall, will when used as auxiliary verbs are devoid of their lexical meaning which they have when used as notional verbs or modal verbs, cf. I have several books by Austin and Thave read some books by Austin. In the first sentence the verb have has the meaning possess, in the second sentence it has no lexi- cal meaning, itis used to form Present Perfect. METAPHOR It is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of comparison. Herman Paul points out that metaphor can be based on different types of similarity: a) similarity of shape, e.g. head (of a cab- bage), bottleneck, teeth (of a saw, a comb); b) similarity of position, e.g. foot (of a page, ofa mountain), head (of 4 procession); ©) similarity of function, behaviour, eg. a whip (an official in the British Parliament whose duty isto see that members were present at the voting), a bookworm (a person who is fond of books); 78 4) similarity@pf cotour, e.g. orange, hazel, chestnut etc. In some cases we have a complex similarity, eg. the leg of a table has a similarity to a ‘human leg in its shape, position and function, Many metaphors are based on parts of a human body. e.g. an eye of a needle, arms and ‘mouth of « river, head of an army. A special type of metaphor is when proper names become common nouns, e.g. philistine ~ a mercenary person, vandals ~ destructive people, a Don Juan — a lover of many women ete, METONYMY Itisa transfer of the meaning on the basis of contiguity. There are different types of ‘metonymy: a) the material of which an object is made may become the name of the object, e.g. a glass, boards, an iron ete: b) the name of the place may become the name of the people or of an object placed there, e.g. the House ~ members of Parliament, 7»Fleet Street — bourgeois press, the White'#élise ~ the Administration of the USA ete; ©) names of musical instruments may become names of musicians when they are united in an orchestra, e.g. the violin, the sax- ophone, the piano etc; 4@) the name of some person may become common noun, e.g. boycott was originally the name of an Irish family who were so much disliked by their neighbours that they did not mix with them, sandwich was named after Lord Sandwich who was a gambler. He did not want to interrupt his game and had his food brought to him, while he was playing cards, between two slices of bread, not to soil his fingers etc: ©) names of inventors very often become terms to denote things they invented, eg. watt, om, roentgen ete; 1) some geographical names can also become common nouns through metonymy, e.g. holland (linen fabrics), Brussels (a special Kind of carpets), china (porcelain), astrakkan (a sheep fur) etc. 80 @RCONDARY WAYS OF SEMANTIC CHANGES Elevation It is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes better in the course of time, e.g. knight originally meant a boy, then a young servant, then a military servant, then a noble ‘man. Now it isa title of nobility given to out- standing people. Marshal originally meant a servant looking after horses, now itis the high- est military rank. Queen originally meant a woman. It is a transfer of the meaning when it becomes worse in the course of time, It is usu- ally connected with nouns denoting common people, e.g. villain originally meant working on a villa, now it means a scoundrel le Hyper It is a transfer of the meaning when the speaker uses exaggeration, e.g. to hate (doing something), not to see somebody for ages. The same can be said about such sentences as You'll be the death of me. It’s a nightmare, A thousand pardons. 81Hyperbole is often used to form phraseo- logical units, e.g. to make a mountain out of a ‘molehill, to split hairs ete. Litotes It is a transfer of the meaning when the speaker expresses the affirmative with the neg- ative or vice versa, e.g. not bad, no coward, not half as important ete. It is not bad is used instead of it is good. TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION Causes of semantic changes. Specialization Generalization Metaphor, Metonymy. Hyperbole, Litotes. Elevation. Degradation, 82 PHRASEOLOGY The vocabulary of a language is enriched not only by words but also by phraseological units. Phraseological units are word-groups that cannot be made in the process of speech, they exist in the language as ready-made units, They are compiled in special dictionaries. Like words, phraseological units express. a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. American and British lexicogra- phers call such units idioms. We can mention such dictionaries of phraseological units and idioms as: Words and Idioms by L.Smith, A Book of English Idioms by V.Collins and a lot of others. In these dictionaries we can find words peculiar in their semantics (idiomatic) side by side with word-groups and sentences. In these dictionaries they are arranged,.as a rule, into different semantic groups. Phraseological units can be classified according to the ways they are formed, according to the degree of motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning. WAYS OF FORMING PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS AY. Koonin classified phraseological units according to the way they are formed, He 83pointed out prifnary and secondary ways of forming phraseological units. Primary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a unit is formed on the basis of a free word-group: a) the most productive in Modern English is the formation of phraseological units by ‘means of transferring the meaning of termino- logical word-groups, e.g. in cosmic terminolo- gy we can point out the following phrases: Taunching pad ~ in its direct meaning emapmosan niowadxa, in its transferred meaning — omnpasnoit nynxm; to link up ~ cineixosamocs, —emuikosams Koemuuecxue xopa6;, in its transferred meaning it means aNaKOMUIO CH; )a large group of phraseological units was formed from free word groups by transferring their meaning (simile, contrast, metaphor), eg. granny farm — nancuonam dan npecmape- aux, as old as the hills ~ emapeiia xax sup, in a nutshell Kopove eosopa, more or le um senee, Troyan horse — Komnosomepuan npozpausa, npeduanepenno cocmaenennan dan nogpencdenust Koxnoso-mepa; ©) phraseological units can be formed by means of alliteration, e.g. a sad sack ~ necuacmnott cxyuait, culture vulture — Wex08ex, uumepecyrouuiten uexyecmson, fudge and nudge — yrnorsusoeme; 84 4) by means of rhyming, e.g. by hook or by crook ~ by any possible means, high and dry — left without help ete; ©) they can be also formed by using syn- onyms, e.g, to pick and choose ~ to be terribly choosy, really and truly — quite honestly, stress and strain ~ in a very strained condition ete. 1) they can be formed by means of expres- siveness, it is especially characteristic of interjections, e.g, My aunt! Hear, hear! etc.; g) they can be formed by means of distort- ing a word group, eg. odds and ends was formed from odd ends; h) they can be formed by using archaisms, e.g. in brown study means in gloomy meditation where both components preserve their archa- ic meanings; i) they can be formed by using a sentence in a different sphere of life, e.g. that cock won't fight can be used as a free word-group when it is used in sports (cock fighting), but it becomes a phraseological unit when it is used in everyday life, because itis used metaphori- cally; ) they can be formed when we use some unreal image, eg. to have butterflies in the stomach ~ ucnounoreame goanenue, to have green fingers — npeycnesam Kak cadoaod- moBumens ete; 85k) they can be formed by using expressions of writers or politicians in everyday life, e.g corridors of power (Snow), American dream (Alby), locust years (Churchill), the winds of change (Me Millan), Secondary ways of forming phrascological units are those when a phraseological unit is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit, They are: a) conversion, ¢.g. to vote with one’s feet was converted into vote with one's feet (expressing a protest by going away); b) changing the grammar form, a sentence, eg. Make hay while the sun shines is trans- ferred into a verbal phrase ~ to make hay while the sun shines: ©) analogy, €.g. Curiasity Killed the cat was transferred into Care killed the cat; 4) contrast, eg. cold surgery ~ a planned before operation was formed by contrasting it with acute surgery — a non-planned operation in cases of danger; thin cat — a poor person was formed by contrasting it with fut cat ~ a rich person: kiss of death — treachery was formed by contrasting. kiss of life ~ saving a person; ©) shortening of proverbs or sayings, e.g. by means of clipping the middle of the proverb You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow's ear the phraseological unit to make @ sow’s ear 86 was formed with the meaning fo make a mis- take, ) borrowing phraseological units from other languages, cither as translation loans, eg, living space (German), to take the bull by the horns (Latin), of as phonetic borrowings, eg. meche blanche (French), corpse delite (French), sotto voce (Italian), bona fide (Latin), mutadis mutandis (Latin) ete Phonetic borrowings among phraseological units refer to the bookish style and are not used very often SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS Phraseological units can be classified according to the degree of motivation of their meaning. This classification was suggested by acad. V.V. Vinogradov for Russian phraseo- logical units, He pointed out three types of phraseological units: a) fusions where the degree of motivation is very low, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meanings of its components, they are highly idiomatic and cannot be trans- lated word for word into other languages, e.g ‘on Shank's mare. (on foot), at sixes and sevens (ina mess) etc; in Russian: Gums Gaxaytuu etc; 87b) unities where the meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its com- ponents, but it is transferred (metaphorically ‘or metonymically), e.g. to play the first fiddle (10 be a leader in something), old salt (experi- enced sailor) ete; ©) collocations where words are combined in their original meaning but their combina- tions are different in different languages, e.g ash and carry ~ (self-service shop), in a big way (in great degree) etc. STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION ‘OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS Prof. A.I. Smimitsky worked out a detailed structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with affixed words because affixed words have ‘only one root morpheme. He points out two- top units which he compares with compound ‘words because in compound words we ustal- ly have two root morphemes. Among one-top units he points out three structural types: a) units of the type to give up (verb + post- position type), eg fo art up — mpueypauueam, to back up —noddepocusame, to drop out ~ omceusamven (0 emydenme), to 88 nose out ~ pasysnasam, pasnioxueams, to buy into — xynumves, to sandwich in — srmucnymacs. ete; b) units of the type to be tired. Some of these units remind the Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositions with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions by or with, e.g. 10 be tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at, etc. There are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of the type to be young, eg, t0 be akin 10, to be aware of ete. ‘The difference between them is that the adjec- tive young can be used as an attribute and asa predicative in a sentence, while the nominal component in such units can act only as a predicative. In these units the verb is the ‘grammar centre and the second component is, the semantic centre; ©) prepositional-nominal phraseological units. These units are equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjune- tions, adverbs, that is why they have no gram- ‘mar centre, their semantic centre is the nomi- nal part, e.g. on the doorstep ~ quite near, on the nose ~ exactly, in the course of ~ during, on the stroke of ~ in time, on the point of etc. In the course of time such units can become words, e.g. tomorrow, instead ete. 9