NOWLEDG:> BOOSTE® STUDY WITH IBRAHIM FOR geared | 09026791514 #1IDey4You #WorkingTogether WithYouAndForYou Trespud ET CHAPTER 1 LnAricn & Information Age and Computers Data and Information It will rain tomorrow;” “There are 2,000 pupils in the school;” “The goat gave birth to a chicken yesterday.” These three statements tell you something. It does = mnatter whether they are true or false, each is telling a story. The story being ° to you 1s what is known as information. Sr Sirs seg se Us INFORMATION is news passed to you either orally or written, eee mene e information given is true, no matter who is giving it or when it is given, eis sid to be a fact or data. ‘fa -ormal everyday speech, the terms data and information are often used inerch:ngeably, as meaning the same thing. However, there are stricter definttions of the two terms, which makes an important distinction between them. 7 Data refers to facts, events, activities and transactions which have been recorded. Data isthe raw material from which information is produced. Jnformation § eee fere admitted into your school, you gave the school information if You probably wrote it on a form that must have been supplied to nation that you gave is a set of facts about yourself. The school now sof members of your class in a test give basic test data to the teacher. cher will know, among other things, whether or not you have the taught, This information is deduced from your test data after cnalysis on your class results ation is data which hasbeen processed in such a way as c= be meaningful and useful to the person who receives it. * a2¢¢23ton of Information inforrnatitn ; ~. be classified in various wa: s. Here, we will classify informationi. the forms in which information can exist, the time of occurrence; the frequency of occurrence. Information can exist in various forms including: and writen ihtormation: this includes information made up of numbers 4 words; oral information: this refers to verbal communication be more people; visual information: this refers to information communicated graphically, pictorially or by means of some representation; sensory information: this refers to information communicated or perceived by the five senses of hearing, smelling, seeing, fecling and touching. tween two OT Information can be classified according to the time of occurrence, into: Historical: This refers to events activities ana’ transactions which happened in the past. This type of information is actually data, since they have been recorded. Historical information, like your date-of-birth, where you were born, etc., can however be processed to yield new information, Present: This refers to information on current issues and day-to-day activities and transactions. Future: This refers to predictions and projections about activities and events likely to take place in future. Information about the future is usually deduced from current and historical information, for example, weather forecasting. Iso be classified according to their frequency of occurrence. cated: ‘0 and television; ly. annually, etc. eral characteristics. Whether information is good or Some characteristics of good information are given good enough for its purpose; otherwise it becomes falsehood; half-truth is also dangerous; e@ it must be accurate — formation containing errors will widead.the ioe of the infrmariam zmé can ead to making wrong decisions;(© itmust be expressed in the form the use: . the information can understand © iemust be available. when itis needed ned -must-be-communicated-~when- it We es © o it must be available when it is neede .d — it must be communicated when it is needed, or it might be delayed: it must come from a reliable source as confidence in it; | it must not cost more than i the user of the information must have + is worth, otherwise it might be shunned. ow is data processed into information? ; Basree ata could be listed, stored, up-dated, and some or all of it or Sc aavened serged together. The term, data processing, describes how dat ng information. Information ne ways to process data into information include: calculating e sorting e classifying, and > CeITUTATIAQS an carcusauny, uaia i prucesseu vy venULuny auMeEUe manipulation such as adding, subtracting, dividing and multiplying, etc. Sorting: In sorting, data is processed by arranging them into a predetermined order or sequence. For example, a class roster may be arranged in the order of students’ names (alphabetical order) or in the order of students’ numbers (numerical order). Sorting is usually arranged to range from the smaller or lower values to bigger or higher values (ascending). However, it is sometimes necessary to arrange things the other way round, that is, in descending order of data values. Classifying: This is a process of identifying certain characteristics in an item of data and putting them into a certain category according to those i ith the same characteristics ean be grouped rouped RE SAME CRTECIERSESS EQN OE together. For example, you can classify passengers on a train by: © age (children, youths, adults, senior citizens); e gender (male, female); e height (short, tall, average); wSummarising: This is a process of processing data whose purpose is to highlight or condense certain information so as to draw it more easily or quickly to the attention of the person who will use the information. For example, the contents of a long report may be summarised into a few short paragraphs. The box below is a summary of the content of this section. Puta coutd be listed, stored, up-dated, some or all of removed/or mergeds) 97 - Data processing describes-how-data.is converted into informa- tion: Data processingactions include calculating, sorting, classifying and - summarising. Transmission of Information How does information get passed round? For an item to be a piece of information, it has to be passed from one person to the other, from one place to another. There - are very many different ways by which information could be passed round. We examine both the ancient and modem methods of communicating information. _ Ancient Methods In the ancient times, information was passed orally, i.e. face-to-face discussion. beating drums, lighting fire, making representation, drawing diagrams, or using the town crier Oral: The informant went to the person he wished to inform for 2 — face-to-face discussion. Beating drums: Information was passed round by beating drums. read” from the sound of the drum. Happy messages soundec py ones. The approach of war could be interprete: “ye of sound from the drum. Fire lighting: If, for example, someone got lost in @ bush, the smoke from a fire would tell him My how far or near he was from the settlement. He could then go in the direction of the smoke and so locate the village. On the other hand, if he got lost and he lit a fire, the smoke from his fire, would tell the rescue team where he could be found. a ew Fig. 1.1: Fire lightingMaking a representation: A farmer always left his farm products by the road side unatiended to with a given number of stones beside it. The number of stones told the prospective buyer the cost of each item. So he was able to sell his products without being on the scene. Drawing diagrams: This was done on walls and tree barks. The people for whom it was meant understood the message. Such diagrams found in these modern times told the story about the people that lived at the location. Town crier: The message was told to the messenger by the king and the messenger would go round the village passing, the message to the people, * group ata time. Modern Methods sh modemisation, it is possible for an informant to talk directly with his target is udience without being face-to-face with him. The emergence of telephone has ace this possible, In place of the town crier, the radio/television has taken over. ‘sie will now look at some of these modern methods of information transmission. ing: In these modern times, information 1s passed on through writing which could be done by the formant in his hand-riting, printed or typed. Fig. 1.2: Handwriting ‘Typing/Printing: This involves the produc- 7 zion of documents in neater and more durable rm using the typewriter and other printing devices. This allows for production of several copies of the same document. Telephone: This is the transmission of voice ‘ormation over short and long distances. Fig. 1.4: AtelephoneTelex: Thus ssaseanrramimnuisuantaeuliiyy wine oite information. Radio: Radios are used to broadcast voice intacmation to a group of people. Television: These are used to broadcast information through voice and pictures to a group of penple Fig. 1.6: A television Fax: Fax 1s used to transmit text and graphics in image === form. it works like a photocopying machine, Ase srensierrmg a copy of the document to the receiver. ee we Fig. 1.6: A fax machine Satellite: Satellites are used for high-volume data transmission as well as for television broadcasting and telephone transmission. A satellite car also beam transmission to other satellites, which telay signals back to stations on earth Fig. 1.8: A satellite dishComputer: Computers are now used in con- Junction with telecommunication systems for transmission of information over short and long distances. Such information could be text, numbers or pictures. An example of such use is the E-mail discussed next. Fig. 1.9: Acomputer Sa ay : — Electronic Mail: Electronic mail, also known as E-mail, is used to transmit information over computer networks. This could be a local area network or 2 wide area network. Information is stored as computer files and at times various users can have access to the same information. Old methods of spreading ‘New methods of spreading information information © oral © writing © towncrier © typing © beating drums printing lighting fire telephone drawing diagrams representations/symbols ! «© satellite | = computer i E-mail eee ee Stages of information revolution ‘Se oldest evidence of writing by man so far consists of clay tablets discovered at Scmer in Mesopotamia about 3000 BC. These tablets contain records of grains ~=zived from, or issued to, individuals at a temple store. Since that time, the sacety has seen five distinct stages of information revolution. These stages are: invention of language et invention of printing invention of the mass media, particularly invention of the computer link-up of computers with-Communications and the development of personal compte jo and television The first stage, the invention of fanguage, allowed men to express their icowledge in form of codes, and to communicate with one another. The second 8stage, the invention of printing, enabled moderate quantities of informeti. to be transmitted. The third stage, the mass media, enabled information tc be. transmitted to a wide and dispersed audience at the same time. The fourth stage the invention of the computer, brought revolution to the way information 5 processed. The fifth and final stage, the link-up of computers with communications, also called information technology (iT), has uly accelerated the pace of information revolution. Today, millions of computers arc now linked together with the help of communication systems allowing |< ge quantities of information to be moved from one part of the world toanother wizhin, seconds Information processing and need for computers Importance of Information Imtormation 1s the ‘lite wire ot today’s organisations, especially business and industry. Every organisation, regardless of its size and purpose, is concerned with processing data in order to provide current and accurate information. Employees. at every level within most organisations use the computer or results from it ir:the. performance of their everyday duties. Scientists, teachers and engineers use it te perform complex mathematical calculations. Most organisations accumulate large quantities of data relating to th: employees, accounts, sales, customers, and inventory and about their product: Although each organisation has different needs, large files tend to accumu =te over the years so that it often becomes time consuming to look for specific items of data in the files. Computers are used to reduce the large quantities of ¢:ts generated daily into forms in which they can be used by managers to me- decisions Organisations today now require tools that will enable them to get relevrt information easily and on time. One of the ways of dealing with this develop =t the computer to areas that would improve the performanc: of do we need computer to process data and information? methods of processing data have now become inadeq: tion needed by today’s business organisations for severat organisations today are bigger and complex in nature, and clic umber of day-to-day transactions and activities they handle; fi, the taditional approach were designed to take care of average loac oj activities (transactions), often resulting in uamsactlons that have to be rut forward till another time (backlogs); under the manual methods, you cannot be sure of the accuracy of the information; errors that are costly were occurring, and important deta 10at ie. ta we v. often get misplaced; extra time and resources were required to clear backlogs; often managers could not get information they need on time, hampering making of plans and decisions; traditional storage of data is inefficient especially when there are large quantities of information — shifting through them to extract required antormation could be very clumsy. Computers have certain characteristics and advantages that make them excellent wols for processing data into information. These include: seduction of error in data and information increased accuracy of information reduction of paperwork — information is now stored in a compressed form, occupying less space reduction of tedious jobs provision of efficient storage improvement of customer service giving fast access to information Areas of uses of computer spart fiom ns use in business, computers aze now widely used in: schools: for calculating and reporting grades, keeping students records, keeping accounts; inventory of school properties; computer-assisted instruction; electronic-typing (also called word-processing), etc; hospitals: for keeping records about patients, beds, doctors and nurses; billing of patients, and diagnosis of ailments and diseases, etc; banks: for keeping customer accounts, production of statements of accounts, and for dispensing money to customers (by means of automatic teller-machines or ATMs connected to computer), etc; at homes: for games, typing, as calculators, etc; government departments and companies, for storing information about workers, calculating their salaries, etc; oil exploration; weather forecasting; design of planes, ships, cars, etc. Questions What is information? In what ways is information different from data? List five ways by which information can be transmitted... Name five stages of information revolution. What are‘the qualities of good information? List the major advantages of computer for processing information. a & « » *£§ & eessify information by: i. forms of information, i. frequency of information, and time of occurrence of information. 7. Describe four ways to process data into information.CHAPTER 2 Historical Development of Computers Early Aids to Counting The Fingers ‘ook at your hands. Have you ever used you: fingers help you count? Perhaps you used them to help pu to ada two numbers. When you did this, you © using your fingers as a counting device, Iewas = very simple device which helped you to carry out \:- / simple additions, 4 - 3 = Fig. 2.1: The honi counting device Stones Te start with, look at your fingers again, How many have you? You have ten ify sicude your thumbs. Because you have ten fingers, they are not very good fox ating when the numbers are larger than 10, Because of this, primitive man started to use stones instead of fingers to help to count, Suppose he wanted tg count the number of animals he nwned. He ile of stones with one stone for every animal, After he had finished building =e pile he needed to look at it and see how many there were in tt. This was not easy if all the stones were in a single pile. So he put them ine smaller piles of the same size, What size did he choose for each of these smalier piles? He decided that the size of each pile should be ten. He picked this number secause he had ten fingers. ppose that after counting his animals the peminve man had three piles of ten stones andone 4 Pe Hier pile of four. After looking at the piles he said, 2 § 4 nave three tens and one four.” He called the =amber thirty-four, 2 quite small numbers like 34 used a lot of s. Using stones is no good for large numbers. ta) Next step was to use a different stone ‘© a See, 2GG0 1 animals. Perhaps our primitive man used blac Pecan stones to count upto 10, He used white stones to FB 2.2: Counting w: caunt the number of tens. ‘The number 34 only a needed 7 stones, 3 white and 4 black.T % ‘This method was also used to count large! numbers, Red stones could be used for hundreds. DOO @G@D Then the number 154 used only ten stones, The ‘stones looked like this: , ne i «10 stones looked like this: 3 4 This simple way of counting was difficult to use because stones were awkward. ABACUS, The neat idea was 19 use coloured beads 5S ona string. At firs the beads were made of stone. 2 [fl Around aboutthe year 1200 the Chinese used this 1 method to count. The beads were threaded on lines 7 f of wire frame. The beads on the first line counted the units. The beads on the second wire counted the tens. The bead on the third wite counted the hundreds and so on. By moving the beads back and Abacus with beads s~ forth along wires, numbers could be added and te number 4217, subtracted. This device was called an ABACUS, Fig. 2.4: Abacus de. Early mecnanicat aids to counting Caleule>>, the first machines for helping with calc: fere mechanical. They had parts which = ement was provided by the person who wa: slike these were still used in the 1970s 5. tion of electronic calculators, + invented the first machine which could d: 2. The machine was named PASCALINEacl a number of wheels with ceeth on them. The first wheel counted units, the second the tens, the thitd the hundreds, and so on. very time the first wheel made one complete turn, the second wheel moved ‘One position forward. Ten turns on the first wheel caused one complete turn on the second wheel second wheel. Fig. 2.5: Pascaline Cne hundred turns on the first wheel caused ten turns on the second wheel and. ne complete turn on the third wheel. “rer a large number of tums, by looking at the position of each wheel you can ead a number from them. This method is still used today in fuel and electricity maicers. dition is done by moving the wheels forward. Subtraction by moving them wards. STEPPED RECKONER “Ths next step was to invent a machine called THE STEPPED RECKONER which ible to do multiplication and division. It could also calculate square roots. This wi is done in 1671 by a German called Gottfried von Leibnitz, This machine als used wheels with teeth on them. ‘\‘ormation processing devices The machines mentioned so far are only calculators. They are used to add, swotract, multiply and divide two or more numbers. a the nineteenth century there was a new idea. This idea was to give a machine sone information which was then used by it. We say that the machine is processing the information which it has been given.Jacquard's Loom Amenrly example of a machine which processed information was used bya French cloth manufacturer, called Joseph Jacquard. In 1802 he built a machine to help {weave complicated patterns, When a pattern is woven, each of a number of threads must be raised or lowered. When this has been done the weaving loom pyjls aawolrathmaddavwenn.llre mised and lowerert sheers ewan icin a as veraiged or lowered in a different way andl the {tint raleses between them again: ere done very many times when a length of doth is woven. MMaequard’s loom used lines of holes on a card to represent the weaving pantem. Hfthere were ten threads there was space in each fine for ten holes. The catd was attached to a device on the Joom which was able to look for holes in the card. The device looked at each line. If there (vas a hole in positions 3, 5, and 9 then the third, fifth and ninth threads were raised and the rest lowered. After this was done the loom \would start to weave. Then the device would Took at the next line of holes on the card. It would raise and lower the threads and start weaving again. The information on the card was processed by the loom. A loom operator ‘used to do these before the invention and it was 2 tedious and time consuming job. Jacquard’s invention emphasised three concepts: ‘e information could be coded on punched cards © Cards could be linked in a series of instructions an¢ ‘many programs could automate jobs Sir Charles Babbage’s Difference Engine In 1822, an Englishman called Sir Charles 32! Difference Engine. In this, information on cards ‘The machine then used wheels with teeth on calculations Babbage later design c zeal Engine’. He died before he concepts from cwnas the father nathematical w could complete this difficult task. He was the Jacquard’s loom in a computing machine. Charies of computers because of the ideas he introduces A friend of Babbaze called Ada, Countess :¢ 2s: showed how the ‘Analytical E be used to do some pero 16 iElectronic systems used another imporiant idéa. You have aiways counced ina system based on tens. This is called a decimal system. You can also count in a system based on eights, sixes, twos or indeed in one based on any number. Electronic computers count in a system based on twos. We will look at this and other number system later in this book. Questions } What is the name of the first counting device ever made? a Which aids did people use for counting in the early times?“ Who built a machine that helped him to weave complicated patterns? Who is the "Father" of computers? ‘What did Hermann Hollerith use his machine to process? paeEe Elactronic Computers Electronic computers are possible because of these two important points: cen be put ina binary form. Each 5 of 1s and Os. 1¢ words and numbers to be ‘ad letter is represented by a i, Information such as words and numbe number and letter is represented ii, Electronic devices have been inve: represented in binary form, Each series of ONs and OFFs of a curre: ‘ems are solved by giving the ‘sure of what happens. Computers are used to solve proble computer a set of simple instructions. Here ES | words and numbers: PROBLEM: ES ns. aoe =. Secs “ae cut into binary ‘rnin the computer. ‘Computer provides Comune Ta sos 2 solutions obeys me por icers Vaives The VALVE pr. set of ONs and OF number. The invention nethod of switching = === 2 be used to represen: Se > allowed the first elecncc . be built. Howeve: vai-es are quite large. Bee ese + computers had many valves, they were very re n= ect unteliable and so they hac co be replaced very ==. 18Sir Charles Babbage is often thoug! inventor of the computer and Lady 1 regarded as the first computer programms: She is also one of the few women to have been. the early history of computing. ‘The Analytical Engine has four parts: © amill for calculating © astore for holding instructions, intermediate and final results ean OPERATOR (or system) for caring out instructions ea device for “reading” and “writing” data on punched cards. a iktbiahele ot ay ve Hermann Hollerith's Machine During the rest of the nineteenth century more complicated mechanical devices were built. The most important was made by an American called Hermann erith. He used it to process the information obtained in the census of the population carried out in the United States in 1890. With this machine, he was 25ie to do in three years what would have taken very many people seven years to do by band. Hoilerith formed a company to sell his machines, After a series of mergers with scher companies, his company became part of the American Computer Company, inrernationai Business Machines (IBM). IBM is now one of the largest computer ssanufacturers in the world. Az this time a major change was about to take place. It was made possible by ‘cventions in ELECTRONICS. We will look at these inventions in the next section. Pig. 2.8: Hermann Hotlerith’s machine‘ Genorations of Computers rocgicuen « vie “1440 4 When we consider the history of pronto 1080) i computing we talk about different | nanan ss Trento GENERATIONS of computers. A new eens Rooaiadaevals nvention led to each new generation. (054 to 4972) These inventions and developments end dates of cach generation are gen in this box. Fourthoonerotion «+ Large scale integrated ‘(1972 to 1989), ‘Filth generntion ++ Knowledge bated systems: “(1900 tothe presont) Fest Generation Computers = the Second World War, from 1939 to 1945, } GERMANY — dasign of missites some of the first electronic computers were BRITAIN — code! In Germany a computer helped to (COLossus) sess the German flying bomb and missiles € British used a computer called | Wer Werll use of computers DWSSUS to crack the secret_code used by deed. It contained 1500 valves. Ir Figure 2.10 shows you what it look "er the war more large compurers were built. Some of the first ones were used > carrying out complicated calculations. One of the first was called ENIAC and sss Deilt in the United States. It contained 1800 valves. Figure 2.11 shows you ‘ooked like, ENIAC is an acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator and ‘Gaieulzior. “gy HO- 1956 2 Emhtrc - Lube Figure 2.10: The COLOSSUS computerAeon \ > Thuy cme Smells, 5 Sonamene. Lone Ml ene 1am Heo (Rin 110 \ ‘was built for the well-knov LEO. re end used in universities tor ney could be used in other ‘il outside a university ™mputer was called industry and by “ni Tea Compa Features of the first generation huge size instructions were coded j expansive to buy and po slow and often unreliable humited internal storage sed to enter data into the machines Second Generation Computers First generation computers relied on valves. >- quite large and ofter had to be replncey Ths ap Grawback with first generation eer ate: ‘Overcome with the The trai 1986 - [ag + Transistor 20second generation computers were nor ust more reliable than the earlier computers, they could also carry out more ¢.fficult caleulations. They used more scohisticated English-like computer languace: for coding, ¢.g. COBOL, FORTRAN. External storage like magnetic tape or mazrctic disks supplemented the internal curage for which magnetic cores were used astead of magnetic diums. ‘Third and Fourth Generation Computers \jel = IH Thece generations of computer were again more reliable than the earlier ones. ‘ndevdual transistors were not used any more. They were replaced by very small ‘Seine circuits which were put onto a small p:ece of a material called silicon. The cuits contained many tiny transistors. These circuits are called INTEGRATED ‘UITS. Te third generation computers used less power, cost less, they were smaller in and are much more reliable, Their internal memory increased and dhgh | ATIBILITY was introduced, This period also marked the emergence of SSaare industry and the development of mini computers. t 4s years passed more and more circuits could be packed onto smaller and peng sealer pieces of silicon. Today a piece of silicon, one centimetre square, can hold pp ‘ax thousands of transistors. This piece of silicon and its circuits is often called Mm $60 ICON CHIR \Qm 370 ‘The fourth generation computers used Large Scale Integrated circuits (LSI) and ‘sere recently Very Large Scale Integrated circuits (VLSI) and Ultra Large Scale sregied circuit (ULSI). Shough a silicon chip is very small, it is very ‘sowerTul, Computers using chips may be small in size but ‘tex can solve very complicated problems. Computers = = longer so big that they have to fill large rooms. Ke Sw 4 Mil Tne: are small enough to sit on a small table. These ss=purers are called MICROCOMPUTERS. Chips used in computers are called_micropracessors. Fig. 2.1%: Silicon chip =e Semi-conducior (MOS) was used for the SSSI memory: =m Generation Computers Ts sce towards the end of one millennium to the beginning of another has maces the dexelopment ate ofthe compunersto be very rapid. Reducing the size Dy lai [Sd = =e computers and enhancing its power are areas of concentration, Movement ( ‘ Sa made in such a way that greater memory capacity was possible. New words bk Sw2« T= 2 SIMMS", “SDRAM” were introduced to re-christen "CHIPS". Large-sized SSrnzre in terms of memory utilisation and complexity are common features. nel storage devices and drives as in CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only ~) are common features of this generation of computers.5a «Se i Bagmbee be by it [nab ve ¢ v Slov ad open Unclakl \ Tod Generation v Colores wae reete Lower vere lense od my ey dl | Gents cchon sevsiste Uy Used do f° Telep be Gereahan phir “RG rer: 4 pet iammumication Hetween Hardware, no maiter the distance in-between ther was conquered as in the INTERNET. The speed of operation could range from 2" 40 $50 Mil, the RAM from 32 MB to 128 MB, and the hard disk from 6.4 to 200. Th Pentiom I. Future Generation Computers Since the urge now is 10 endow computers with the ability to take decisions various circumstances, itis expected that this will now be the area of interest, actreve tis, software will have to develop more, so that its artificial intelligen and robotics can grow: The computer system too will have to be that will be developed and the task at h: developed to cope with the softwa ‘and to be accomplished. Every component of the computer and aspect of computing will go Uuuugh changes so that be able and disabled people, in whatever manner, can use the computer and en: the world of computing alike, Questions 1. Name one item used in distinguishes the comy 2. What are valves? 3. What are the fe: the building o* es-~ puter of one ge: *MUreS Of first generacio- ~~ Ate hock the Secced colt by dhe Gewany be sancl i a Woadsiny [G00 thea cau by ye Mead rahe mee Col (ut > ts { : ifsé Rey stented vel shadysons # est. Te gene ci CHAPTER 3 Computers and Computer Systems mat is a Computer? . -e-mputer is a machine that is used to process data. A formal definition is give A computer is any machine or device which, under the contro! of 2} Stored program, can accept data in a prescribed form, process aaanata-and supply the results as information ina specified form. e are three points to note about this definition: © Computer is a machine — It consists of electronic and electro: Srechanteal parts working together, 10 process data, These machine parts cre referred to as computer hardware «Computer processes data — Essentially, a computer processes data, auromanicaily: It performs three major functions: 'e Icaccepts lata; this is often referred to as input. © Itprocesses data. © Irsupplies data or information; this is often referred to as output. © A computer is controlled by a stored program — A program is @ ‘er of instructions which tells the computer what to do. The general term “ed to describe computer programs is software, in contrast to hardware, = program is normally stored in the computer's memory while the ‘uctions. are being carried out. Professionals trained in the art of sructing the computer to solve problems normally write these programs. ‘manufacturers permanently fix some programs, called firmware, into computers. In contrast, software can be placed in the computer's ory, used, taken out, and re-used again whenever required. men 2 computer is used, data must be presented to it in a preseribed form. Tee 5 called data input format. The form in which data is supplied to the ‘er ss that in which the program to be used by the computer is expecting, == tet program is also used to determine the format in which the results hed.ENGLISH 5 Ankane unm Rete Rist Hage Bh AetioFer amos Brodven amis fiximys Bodum BeleDer 38 AnkeweFusm To Deore 72 | WahareBola Ae SCIENCE Balovern 65 Atkawe Fun 60 retole$0 ete is) 7 admus Diooun 36 Figure 3.1: Process: results In Figure 3.1, a set of junior secondary se in English, Mathematics and Science are type of processing, as we shall see later: Looking at Figure 3.1, you will see that : various subjects as data, it processes them: 2 all the students, sorted in alphabetical ozce~ class of 5 studen port sheet. glk + os sery easy with the comput, accepts the marks itt ¢ zs outa single marks-sheet mation, How Computers Process Information Let us look at some systems that operate =~ € as the compute The Digestive System How does digestion take place in man? = as input, the process of digestion stan: ~~ --. ~ rough the mou: gh many org of the body such as the stomach, intesune: noon: and the outpe is whatever the body cannot absorb, whic ~~ - rough the ani The Respiratan Sysk How doe: res sake place in mar” nosnils as mput: “ne process involss: ~~ bddy anc the output comes ovr as ear shed in through ti: oxygen within tr nostrilsThe Water Tank System Let us look at the water storage tank we tio:mally have in houses. Water is either pumped or fetched into the tank: this serves as the input, The tank serves as a ore, and at times the water undergoes pur:yication with chemicals added to it in the tank; this is the process. The water is then distributed into the house or fetched from the tap: this is the output. The Computer As mentioned earlier, and from the examples given above, a computer takes data 2s input, it processes the data, and gives out information as output. The box xelow describes computing, very simply. A computer is used to solve a problem. Tne problem is put ini the computer as input, the computer does the processing, and if all goes well the solution comes out as output, otherwise error messages as output, Take a look at Figure 3.1 again. The input is the names and marks of the scadents in the various subjects; the process involves sorting, totalling, and szeing the students and their marks; the output is the marks sheet produced. Cemecteristics of Computers =ceng at our definition of computers, are the following equipment computers: adding machine? © slide rule? © cash register? © calculators? Xe rode y are not computers. Though they take data as input, process it, and results as output, nevertheless, they fall short in some respects. So how s ne distinguish a computer from these other processing tools? The computer zs some distinguishing characteristics that make it different from the 1< mecnoned above. Such characteristics include’ © speed © capacity ° e versatility programmability.Speed: ability t0 process at very faster than all the machines sted 22. -= Capacity: Ability to store and proc other machines listed above. Versatility: Ir can be nsed for many * sor ei} the: things the other informa as addition, subtraction, muitiplice: many other things they cannot do. : processing of examination results ar.c Programmability: Ability to be : when we get to the section on LOG w Questions i. Whats a computer? 2. What are the characteristics of ce= 3. Name five input-output devices 4, Why are computers called input 5, Computers can communicate w telephone an input-output device” 6. Define/explain the following term. (a) hardware tb) software {c) firmware. 7, What are the basic differences be-: 8. What is a program? Types of Computers: There are three main types of computers — -~ 3 © digital computers Digital Computers The g er cn ¢ ionts cant be used vic. It can atso be sane com] - 3s we have seen earlie seeping of students recor fe shati see how to guages, ware? : for exam; 2scause it restricts 2: chamnel 3.1 te the exact time operate by by computers are | microcompuAnalogue Computers ee devices, analogue cevices have continuous values. For . 1¢ control on your television set is an analogue device, because Kallows you to adjust the volume continuously in one smooth continuous action. Other examples of analogue devices are thermometers, speedometers, and petrol Gspensers at the petrol station, You will see that they operate in a very similar Way. i.e, in one smooth continuous form. Analogue computers operate by accepting data as a quamity varying over a length of time. They are mostly used ta industrial operations. Hybrid Computers. These combine some of the properties of both digital and analogue. For example, setting (programming) on a modern day television set involves both digital and analogue. You first select the channel (digital), you then tune the channel wntil it receives the station you want clearly (analogue); you then store the station on ‘that channel (digital). This is an example of a hybrid device; it involves different processes that combine both the properties of analogue and digital. Hybrid compsters are not too common; they operate in a programmed form and combine the properties of analogue and digital. An example is a robot used in an industrial ‘exuironment. First, it allows the process to get to a particular temperature analogue); it then does some other processes, which could be digital and/or aralogue. ‘Guestions List the three types of computers and explain the differences between them. Give three examples of digital devices. 2 Give three examples of analogue devices. Sassification of Computers “se Sllo wing factors are used in classifying computers: size of its internal memory, processing capability, price range and speed of operation. It must however be ‘macteshthat it is becoming increasingly difficult to distinguish among the classes of “These factors can be used in a general form to classify computers into: © Supercomputers © Mainframes © Minicomputers, and © Microcomputers. Sapercomputers These are the largest, fastest and most expensive computers. The cost ismillions of dollars, and the speed is berween 600 million to 900 milli Fig. 3.2: A Supercomputer Scientists in weather forecasting, oil exploration, etc. use these for comple calculations. Examples of supercomputers are CRAY X-MP and CRAY 2, which co: about $5 million each. Figure 3.2 shows a Cray-2 Supercomputer. Mainframes ‘A mainframe computer is a large computer in terms of price, size of intern: memory and speed. Mainframe manufacturers tend to make a “family” or a rafi¢. of computers, rather than a single computer — in much the same way as a cz manufacturer produces a range of different cars. A mainframe costs fror $200,000 to several millions of dollars. It also has a variety of peripheral device such as printers, plotters, terminals, etc. more than are found with sma. computers, and a large amount of extemal storage. Mainframe computers usually need 2 spedalised environment in which t operate: with dust, temperature and humidity carefully controlled. The size of th internal memory is usually more than 256 megzb;tes of storage. They are use mostly in large establishments (e.g. universizes. commercial houses, etc. ‘They are usually sophisticated and large; thus ‘or great detail of sup; from their manufacturers or representatives. les of mainframes are IB) 360/370 systems, NCR V-8800 system. Figur ‘ws a mainframe compute: — “H Gon 28Fig. 3.3: A mainframe computer Gmcomputers s&cccomputers were developed in the 1970s for specialised tasks (i.e. they are Secal purpose computers). They are smaller and less powerful and less expensive = mainframes. Minis, as they are often called, are easier to install and operate [= they require less floor space. Minicomputers do not require specialised ‘Sconment to operate in, but care must always be taken to ward off dust from Se equipment. They cost between $15,000 and $200,000. Internal storage ‘=Seacry of a minicomputer is usually between 128 megabytes and 256. megabytes. =aamoles include PDP 11, VAX 750/6000, NCR 9300, DEC, HEWLETT PACKARD 10, IBM system 38 and MV400 (Data General). Figure 3.4 shows a oomputer. Minicomputer Goccomputers -me=ccomputer is a computer whose central processing unit (CPU) is based on = mecprecessor. Microcomputers are at present the most popular of computers 29many and not as complex as minis or mainframes They are easy to use They c be linked with mainframes and minis approaching those of mmicomputers. Most m: between 16 and 128 megabytes. The price ranges Examples include IBM VC and its compatible. Ap: their capabihties are gradua computers today generally ha They are very small (desktop to briefease size < se capability 1s generally not | : y about $400 to over $5,00 ¢ pie Macintosh, ete. They are ofte: > called PCs - Figure 3.5 shows picture of a microcomputer There are very different kinds <7 Rcrocomputer. All of them have a Keyboard. whic looks like the Keyboard of -, 7 ‘pewniter. They also have a screen of a se ervey aes Uf you have a computer, it will probably De = microcomputer like the one in th no picture. In the second part of this boos. .2. will learn how to use you: 7S that, = i Le Questions 1. Whar are wi 2, S.asses of computers? a 4 = che most popular o | in your reasons } i Constituent Parts of a Computer System ' What is a Computer System? Look at @ cat in the gure in page 31, fore the body (the part you ca sev), the engine The bods alone docs sot make up the cs of thtee major parts | the driver i though unseen, 1s 30his aut of sSential for the car to function; and even if a car is complete, without a driver De car cannot move ‘This is the case with a Computer System. A Computer System is more than just Se computer alone; it includes all the other things that make the computer =nczon. It consists of four major parts, namely: © Hardware, © Software, © Peopleware, and ® Procedures. Body [Hardware] Driver (People ware) Sefmerare Sefeware is the word used for all s=puer programs. Programs are a set = Ssructions given to perform a (Software) sermoular function. They control how Fig. 3.6: A car showing the relationship = computer works. . : ‘with a computer system Seopieware are the people working with the =aocter. They range from professional users sc 2s the system analyst, programmers, to ssezzonal users such as data entry operators. -s5= could also be anyone who makes use of ‘== =mputer. Without people the computer meet function, Se following chapters, we will look at sacteare. software and peopleware in more Peopleware Software ae Fig. 3.7: Relationship between Hardware, Software and Peopleware Procedures ‘peratons of any computing or data processing centre requites an extensive defined set of procedures for performing the essential functions of the c=eocer centre. These functions generally include obtaining, preparing. en¢F sing special anc entering of data into the computer. They also include pricks g special fr . and changing Or Al wnmmabgeter got galaty 34? ting new programs 2 to-date, etc. Al. 36 Jobs, initia " " ‘up-to-date, regia Seeded Jods chat data is always correct and UPA TED ay, cones; securing would include provision for what actions are such procedures woul ; ne rms in the event of a hardware or software malfuncti Communication between Computers ate ‘A group of computers connected together to share resources is ee eaae The resources could be data, software or hardware. They allow 10t anche data and software over many locations simultaneously. Through Spat networks, it is now very easy for a computer user to communicate with a rs user, irrespective of the distance between them. The communication is poss ey through linkages, which are effected through hard-wired lines, or tl eee telephone lines. Connections through telephone lines require that a MODE! provided for the computers that will be usec his purpose. AMODEM is an equipment that translates the codes of telephone messages into digital ones, and vice-versa, so that computers can communicate, through telephone lines with each other. The word MODEM is coined from MOdulater/DEModulator. ‘This system of communication originated Department of Defence in the early 1970s. In and research centres were connected in su between them possible. Those that did not be: intrude. The system, now known as the INTER. possible all over the world, to communi: entire network or any absolutely necessary p2> has to get linked onto an organisation's host co Internet. When you get hooked onto the Intemet, documents stored on computers similarly hoo: of Electronic mail (E-mail) messages with pec made possible. The exchanges can still take persons with whom you are communican=: resources of public and private information p-~ interest, or put your company and its produccs of news headlines as seen on the informatic: rk set-up of the U.S. ‘ement, different military ade communication 2 unable to gain access or 2s many computers as rganisation owns the access, an individual is connected to the etrieve and read out the world, Exchange similar facility is also u do not know the can browse through issues of common re 3.8 isa snapshot the Internet. 32yo Step 1: Copy your program into your computer which puts it into the RAS Step 2: Copy your program from RAM into backing store or external storage, such as diskettes or magnetic tapes. Once you have put a copy of your program onto a diskette or a cassette tape it © safe to switch off your computer. hi Next time you switch on your computer, you can copy the Program from the ‘ckente or from the cassette tape into the RAM part of the main memory. Tt is zaiable for you to use without having to type it on the keyboard again. This diagram shows you what happens: STEP 1 STEP 2 Fd Program Main Memory Copy to Disk (RAM) or Tape NFA Backing up memory to external storage Zain Memory — ROM Wen you tum your computer on, your computer must have some pre-set s=xuctions to tell it what to do. These permanent, non- volatile instructions are ==eemmed onto ROM chips. Other names for ROM chips are firmware, or <==scired. ROM chips have many functions; for example, they tell the computer ‘== to do when the power is turned on, they check to see that the cable to the s====r is connected, and they tell the control unit what each key on the keyboard “mezas. Unlike RAM, users cannot normally store their own instructions on the 2 ROM is the preset instructions that tell your computer what to do. Types of ROM m= peogram could be put into a computer in ROM form, which could save you same Secause you do not need to move disk in and out. However, ROM has in the 7am been very expensive. In addition, software vendors would have to create new 4 chips every time they update program, and users have to open the computer “ae ex replace chips when they want to update their applications. There ; F suum fee however, three new types of ROM chips which do allow the users toPROM: Programmable Read Onl; nory. This is a version of ROM 1 can be changed for the user Once changed, it is permanent an. can no longer be altered. PR s the user the advantage of ROM and the flexibility to meer special needs, Howeve mistakes in a PROM unit cannot be corrected. EPROM: Erasable Programmable Re2d Only Memory. The chips can erased and then re-used. The chips, however, must be renov: from the computer and erased through certain processes belo” they can be re-used. EEPROM: Electronically erasable progr. allow information to be the ROM chip from the com ble read only memory. ‘The: >y software without removir How does a computer store data in its main memory? we humans hav numbers, letters and speciz wn as a byte, When you typ. 1d, a specific bit pater ic electronically transferred t- the memory. The bit pattern transferred depe ‘he particular coding schem used by the computer. syste 6. To represent large nun bytes to form words. Microcomputers y 16 bits; most mainframes and an inresene soe,” bytes, or 32 bits; and larger supercomputers ane « ‘use word-lengths of 8 bytes, or 64 bits and ‘The space into which data can be stored in == in bytes and expressed in kilobyte (K). 1 jalo ‘Kilo’ should remind you of one thousand as Temember that kilo here has 24 units ss approximately 256,000 bytes or characte available with memories in the millions, or equivalent of 1 million gigabyte (GB). 1 new fifth-gener L terabyte is ec. es are treated in chapt ‘ost computers combi rd lengths of 2 bytes, of microcomputers use powerful microcompute computer memory is measur: is equivalent of 1024 byte cic system, but you mu achine would sto ccomputers dre curren: megabytes (MB). 1 megabyte es. Modern superco: Spically have billion te is equivalent of 1 bition Stes memories, and int ‘o be in terabyte Mier a Questions 1, What doe. =. memory do? 2. What do RO: “AM stand for? 42 To = Reed Od Meee Bam = Pade Aes Meao f ‘ | \Multimedia output device The most common multimedia output is sound including music. The audio outs device on a computer is a speaker. Also headphones can be used to ress audio output in place of speakers.. ) | ie | Questions arses ee } 1. List and describe four common input devices. 2. Which of these input devices are hand held? £3. Listand describe four output devices a Je Name one device that could be input or output device, and explain i: CRM uw Main Memory Se vO" Lal” MAIN MEMORY is always connected to the processor Ina computer itis ust ( wel in the same box as the processor. | ‘When you type a set of instructions on the keyboard of your computer, the put into the main memory. ‘When you tell your computer to obey some instructions, they are taken or. one from the main memory and put into the processor. After each instruct been put into the processor it is obeyed EERE eee pee eee eer ‘Themain memory Is used to hold thie Instructions and information which are being used by tho computer. ‘The main memory has two parts: © Read Only Memory or ROM for shor: Random Access Memory or RAM for shor: £ Main Memory — RAM .” When you type the computer instruction called programs, into computer, they are put into the main memo: pert of the main memory which they are put is the random access memor: or RAM. f 7 t= RAM is the part of the main memory that stores your programs. When you switch off your computer, all the inform the information and pro é the RAM disappear. If you want to use the imiagain yu have to nee ; whenever you switch on your computer. 7 va y puter. T wwe must carry out these = 40ant ale alls are are Te wre se Some common output devices are: Printers CRT monitor Microfilm Voice output. Panter “as is the most common output device which =ndaces a permanent record in print. There are ssrous types of printers available and are -seadent on the quality of production; s=rples are dot matrix printers, laser printers, -——— me st ik jet printers. ———— Fig. 4.6: A dot-matrix printer ‘=RT monitor “= most common form of display monitor is the -——-—-—-. == AT means Cathode Ray Tube. This is the aa == of monitor used with microcomputers. “==ally all computers used in information smmcing initially ourput their information to a S=s7 unit. Figure 4.7 shows a CRT monitor. ‘Ber con output either text or pictures or both in ==xchrome (mainly two colours e.g. black and : wa) or colour. Fig. 4.7: ACRT Monitor “Eat sands for Computer Output on Microfilm. Pages of print may be s=rrzphically reduced and produced on reels of film. Special output devices s==-x2i6 10 produce microfilm output from data on magnetic tape without the need = == produce a printed copy. Special viewers must be used to read the COM === These viewers are often seen in the libraries. Sece output ‘Taz are 2 few specialist applications using computer speech output. At present ‘Se send: produced sound rather unnatural. One application is a book reading ‘Gace for the blind. 394 Light ben A light pen i A ight en is attached to a compute: oni les a pen at the end of a. Jength a kernatives are sometime called “ware cod ed data called barcodes an examp; 'n Hbranies, this is used to keep a rec:=: -- And who was the borrower. 4 supermarkets, the person at the the wa the bill for a customer, Fig. 4.5: A 8. Voice input Voice input means speaking to the comp: friendliness”. The principal problem sv pronounces a word is different from how word. Also voice input machines are mos: words, but vocabularies are very vast and so has been a hindrance in voice input but 2 final breakthrough of computers. The: wishing to use a few words again and agz:- not free to use a keyboard; for exampie handicapped. Multimedia Input devices Multimedia is the combination of sound capture sound and image data, special inpu: instance, can be recorded via a Micropho: photographs in the form of digital data th: are often used to record photographs on ice ~~ Output Devices The printed. ¢ equipment 38 ~ input device. This attacht € cable. More bulky hand code readers” They read sie reode reader ts shown in Fi sich books have been borr alight pen to help mz = i -es the directness and “t that the way one perso! om ‘on pronounces the sam. a= ‘ble of recognising a fe. and a lot of storage. Th sm + the laboratories and th th text and graphics. Be equired, Voice input, fa” Digital Cameras recon. on a computer, Thes. 4 webu ft erust Stor/Se0n sre 5. Dispiay or Brint average hardware CPU compris Questions 1 Name the basic parts of the computer and describe how they work: 2) Which part of the computer holds data and instruction? 3, What are the major components of the CPU? tnput Dovices Unput devices are equipment used to get instructions into the computer. Some ‘common input devices are: © Keyboard Mouse Lightpen Voice input. Keyboard The keyboard resembles QWERTY typewriter keyboard, but usually has several 2&ciitional keys, which are used to control and edit the display. ‘The keyboard contains alphabetical keys in the original layout known as the QWERTY layout along wit eee ‘Numeric keys: both above the alphabets and in a separate optional group Special character keys Control key: for example, shift key, return key, cursor control on a VDU, etc. Function keys: processing function used by a program. fae Sa ae ee eet eee ae rater Fig. 4.3: A typical layout of a keyboard ‘Te House Te = a simple device that moves a pointer around ‘Se computer screen and enables simple commands to = . ‘ses=at to the computer screen. It normally works in. ~ —— : ‘=Se=cuon with a keyboard and is dependent on the roan ebvrare being used. Fig. 4.4: The mouseFre links between the basic components of the computer hardware can be shy =, diagrammatically, as in Figure 4.2. Secondary Storage devices Floppy Hard-disss 6. Keep a copy of results, fy 1 Input Uni Devices © Keyboard * Mouse * Scanner Output Unit ‘* "Monitors/Seroon © Printers 5. Display o | int average | 1, Load the program pe 2. Load data salary 3. Request for ‘computation of i average. Z Central Processing Un 4, Compute resus Fig. 4.2: The links between the basic components of computer hardware ‘The processor comprises the ALU and the Co: the ALU, Control Unit and Memory. 361e Fig. 4.1: A human example to illus te Computer Technology = ‘Computer izmicats Purpose Human Example PUT To take in data (facts) and instructions | Using eyes or ears via a suitable device, ina suitable form for the device. OTPUT To give out information via a suitable | Using mouth — for device, e.g. a printer. The information is fed to the device from main storage —see below. speech, using hands — writing with pen and pad. 3am/intermnal mesory) To hold data and instructions after input until needed. Also to hold infor- mation awaiting output. The instruc- tons dictate the action to be taken on the data. To supplement main storage. A less costly supplment to main storage for mass storage, e.g. diskettes. Memorising the data and instructions and recalling them when needed. Also remembering results. Using a notebook to record data or instruc- tions too long to memo- rise. Subsequent use to read back or reference contents required, e.g. adding two numbers or checking whether two data items match. To obey specific instructions aa Reasoning, recalling, comparing and mentally pondering over problem to find solution. CONTROL UNIT To take stored instructions in sequence one ata time. To interpret each instruc- tion and prompt its execution by one of the other units input, output, storage or addition. Following a set of instruc- tions by controling one's own mental or bodily actions. These actions could be looking, lis- tening, memorising recalling, adding, wrinn ee.CHAPTER 4. Computer Hardware t 4 The Basic Parts of a Computer Hardware f $n this chapter, we will look at various 2-5 2:2 devices that comprise computer hardware. The basic parts of a computer's hardw:-+ = -:.:* of the following: © Input devices © Arithmetic and Logic Unit E_ e Control Unit ue e Memory : e@ Output devices © External Storage devices Input devices — accept input data and Arithmetic and Logic Unit — does ¢ stores data in the memory of the comput: processing iculations on the data Control Unit — performs the process: programs. control of the sto: Memory — this is the computer memor, memory; in contrast to external memory) and data while the computer is processing ermal memory or nie inkerntediate rest Output device — thisis where the resu result or in form of data for future process:> : to, eitheras prin External Storage devices — the exte—2, ~~ backing store) is used to permanently sto: evices that car. be attached to the input a= = called secondary sauon, They come In tre foi wing example, you will see how :. = tnuman beings #.> ration of a compu: 25 adding up a which introduces ae‘al and ing old etc. All and by Work, ‘nge of puter Rother :US, litary ation 'SS or ts as 5 the dual othe read inge also the ugh non shor eee JOHANNEERIRG 20nawesnuRG What is hardware? What is software? What is meant by Peopleware?THAPTER 5 amputer Software, Professionals and Users Samputer Software ‘sss most general form, software, in contrast to hardware, is the invisible part of sca=puter system. It refers to all programs that can be used on a particular system. are specifically, the term software is applied to all those programs which, in some 25 can assist all users of a particular type of computer to make the best use of sex machine, as distinct from the specific programs written to solve the problems = 225 particular user. Sefware is generally categorised as either: = Systems software, or © Applications software, Sgmtems Software Ts eser of a computer has at his or her disposal a large amount of software ssaeded by the manufacturer. Much of this software will be programs that =uxibute to the control and performance of the computer system. Such programs s==sren the collective name ‘systems software’, or ‘utility programs’. Samens software can be further sub-divided into Operating systems, ‘“Suslators, and Utilities. eceating systems are the major software required by all computers. Without ‘=, the computer cannot understand your instructions. The operating system 2st of programs designed to efficiently manage the resources of the computer ==m=n. It performs such functions as supervising input and output operations, =s=cunicating with the computer operator, and allocating the computer's “sauces to allow the operation of the computer to progress smoothly with cosimum intervention. It contributes to the control and performance of the — Scamples of operating systems are: 1 MS-DOS — Microsoft Disk Operating System; commonly called DOS and is used with a single microcomputer. 2 NOVELL — Used in a network environment, where many computers are linked together — to share resources. 513 UNIX — Used in a multi-user environment where many people can © one big computer at the same time. t 4. Windows operating s; ina network environment system — Used with a single microcomputers t. It makes the use of the computer easier as do not have to remember any command. Its graphical interface enab the user to have fun while communicating with the computer, So- software are Windows. “driven. They will run only in a Windor. environment. With the earlier introduced Windows like the versions 3. and 3.11, you still require computer to function. Now, windows si and Windows NT are s Windows operating syste 'e another operating system such as DOS for nuch as Windows 95, Windows ~ self-sufficient. We will shall learn how to & ms in Section Two of this book, Some other examples of operating systems are XENIX, CPM and LINUX. ‘Translators are used to write o ate FORTRAN; COBOL; BASIC; Lt the computer and write simple three and four of this book. Utilities copying. sorting and printing you DOS SHELL, Norton’s Utilities and Dr Solomon's Antivirus tool! uulities are normally ineluded as part of the operating system. Applications Software Applications software consist o specific tasks for users. A involved in preparing and printing bills for Customers is an example of applications software. Applications software may b supplier, but in many cases the called user programs (e.g. payrol applications software can only are used for general housekeeping on the computer: ll programs, stock control programs, etc. ther software and computer programs. Exam: OGO; C; JAVA, etc. We shall learn how to instre Programs in LOGO and BASIC later in sectic like backing ir data. Examples are Windows. Explorer, PC-toc. kit. Some of the e provided by the computer manufacturer users produce their own applications softwar. |. Mok work if used in conjunction with the appropric: systems software, 4 Some groups of general-purpose management packages, packages; communication integrated packages $2 Applications software are used wi Specific tasks given to the computor by the user, ith systems software to perform applications software are s} graphics packages; Packages; presentati Preadsheets, dat. word-processin: ion software an eeSectronic spreadsheet packages: A spreadsheet is simply a way to keep ‘zack of and manipulate data — separating them into rows and columns. Each z= can change the format to adapt a spreadsheet to various applications, “ou can use spreadsheets to display selected data graphically as well-as to pe-Sarm computations. An electronic spreadsheet program relies on formulas that sax be revised with great accuracy. These formulas allow the software to secaiaulate spreadsheet values automatically when the data are modified. Other anges, such as inserting and deleting rows and columns, are equally easy to st zy application where the problem can be written in mathematical terms can ‘be used for electronic spreadsheet. A spreadsheet should be considered for any pons that: are recreated regularly, e.g. salaries of staff; edited; need calculation; need graphs, or consist of data that are of the same type, e.g. marks of students. For example, a spreadsheet package can be used to analyse results of students == 2 dass. Common examples of Spreadsheet packages are LOTUS 1-2-3 and ‘Microsoft EXCEL. We shall learn how to use Microsoft Excel later in this book. Bara management packages are packages that deal with creation and =zzatenance of data for enquiry and reporting purposes like keeping records of -cutents, their birthdays, sex, etc. Common examples of software that can do this a= DBASE IN, FoxPro, Paradox and Microsoft ACCESS. ‘Seaphics packages provide facilities that allow the user to do various kinds of s=uputer graphics. Some allow the user to produce drawings or diagrams and Seqzently use input devices such as the mouse. Some packages are aimed at “==Scular application areas. For example, a business graphics package might 2==ride means of providing business charts and graphs. Common examples are arvard Graphics, DrawPerfect, and PAINT. ‘Werd processing packages provide a number of options for the user. They iow the user to create (type) document, amend document, edit an existing Zzcument, copy a document, print document, etc. Some examples of word secessing packages are WordStar, WordPerfect and Microsoft Word. We shall ‘azn how to use Microsoft Word later in this book. Cemmunication software are computer programs which can be used to send semos, reports and messages to transfer computer data files, to access scéormation stored at distant locations, and even to have “electronic meetings” czzong people in dispersed locations. Examples of communication software are ‘=-=zail programs, such as Pegasus mail, Outlook Express; and the Internet Srowsers such as Netscape, Mosaic and Microsoft Explorer. 53Preseny tion software aie used to design, produce and make presentation Their output can be projected directly from the computer to a screen or used = make transparencies. They greatly simplify the process of preparing for busine” or academic presentations. Integrated Software: The data generated by many packages designed for ex microcomputers were not always transferable from one package to another. programs were not integrated, i.e. data could not be electronically moved free one program to the other. Transferring data from one program to another vw. either impossible or complex and tedious. ; For example, if you were asked to analyze and make a report of the results your classmates that have been entered using a database management systez you could transfer the data into a spreadsheet package to draw graphs, and law to transfer the graphs into your word processing package to write a report th: you will submit. Integrated software allows several programs to share the same data. Re example, a spreadsheet package can use data from a database package to dre sraphs. Integration also implies the use of similar functions and a common set: commands among programs. However, in reality, this happens in varying degree- The result of integration is that the user can work faster, more efficiently and thre more productively than if non-integrated programs were used. Commonly, an integrated software package integrates software for spreadshee._ database, graphics, and word-processing packages. ‘Three examples of integrated programs ar Microsoft Office: which comprises Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft Access, Microsoft Power Point, Microsoft Outlook and Bookshelf Basics. Corel WordPerfect Suite: which com; Pro, Corel Presentations, Corel CI Claris Works: which comprises a Word processor, a spreadsheet and 1 database, iprises Corel WordPerfect, Corel Quattr: ENTRAL and Corel Photo House. Questions 1, Acomputer without software is ike a car withoutan engine, Do you agree’ ‘ith this statement? —\ oo - Distinguish between systems software and application software 2 3. What is the importance of systems software to applications software? 4. List three examples of operating systems. 5. List three examples of application programs, Computer Professionals Computer professionals are those who have unde rgone one form of formal computer training or the other. Such forma | training includes certificate, diploma’ 84 % t *sad degree programs in computing. These categories of people are involved in the development, maintenance and sm of computer system. Various categories are the computer manager, s@stems analyst, programmers, computer educators, computer engineers and operators. The computer manager has the overall responsibility for the computer cenment. He ensures that the computer installation runs efficiently in satisfying Se computing needs of the organisation that it serves. ‘The systems analyst looks at the details of existing systems and the design computer based systems. The systems analyst also implements and reviews the =x system. The programmer encodes the procedures detailed by the systems analyst in > lexguage suitable for the specified computer. A programmer must be able to s===xn logically and clearly. Computer educators are people that teach computing at various levels smzzing from university down to the secondary school levels. Computer engineers and technicians are people that install, maintain sm repair the computer. Operators are people that handle and operate the hardware in the computer ‘e=m: they communicate with the operating system and try to keep system “=z smoothly. Today, the term ‘operator’ may be used to include data entry escmnel, who do data input. ‘computer Users cGmputer users are those in other professions who make use of the computer to S& Sei jobs. They are called end-users. Examples of such are managers, “xnecss, doctors, lawyers, bankers, teachers, typists and students. The outcome =e work of the computer professional is used by the end-users. Computer users «mecherefore very important in the utilisation of computers. “omputer users are thoso in other professions who make use of = computer. : ‘ew the user can obtain software packages Saieare are very useful to the users. Each software must solve the user's ssetiems. However, many users face the problem of finding the right software 10 wsiee their problems, Users do not even know where or how they can get the izace to accomplish their tasks for them, There are basically two ways t semice applications software:The tirst 1s simply to buy pre-written software from one of the soz shops or vendors. One characteristic of pre-written software is that are designed to be general so as to fit many situations. It is like bo ready-made clothe, it might not fit the problem needs exactly and r= modified in some way before it can be used. Some are easy to modify« some cannot be modified at all. One must therefore know the capat= and limitations of software and be sure that it will solve one’s pra! before committing money to it. In general, pre-written software, also called packaged software, is che and casier to implement and usually comes with proper document The major disadvantage is that the user must, to some extent, alzer Procedures for doing the work to conform to the software, wir normally it should be the reverse. 2. The second method of making software available is to obtain software are made specifically for the intended application. This may be writ the user — if he is ready to master a programming language and wri necessary program himself, or he can hire a professional to do all o= » of the work. Questions . 1. Who is a computer professional? 2. Who is a computer user? : 3. List four categories of computer professionals. 4. Is a mechanical engineer that makes use of the computer a comp: professional? 5. Are you a computer user? Explain your answer. : 6. Is a computer professional also a computer user? Explain your answe: 7. 56 What are the two ways by which a user can acquire applications softe=CHAPTER 7 COMPUTER SOFTWARE sofiware ean be defined as the sets of instructions and procedures. ne computer to perform ces!s.n activities or tasks. Tt acts like a tions link between the user anc the computer. A set of instructions perform ¢ particular task is called ¢ program, or software program. The the pi he eospuler to perform input operations, he data and output the restlts. 1) shoul software, a computer is like a nt fuel, passed to comamini that TYPES OT SOFTWARE are can be classified inte the follow’ : categories System Software Application Software Ulilities Application (Off the Shelf) Packas OFTWARE | System [orrme sreir | Software | | Techs F Application | Sofware 1 Coyntetn Math Asoites ie rosea sncor Soates = A Magic es | | | |esig red to contsol and tem. They are general tem by performing into and oui of mi SYSTEMS SOFTWARE system software are sets of one aupervise the operation and performance of a computer syst srogramss written to assist users in the use of the computer s) >| asks, such as controlling all the operations, moving date puter and all other steps involved in execriting an app Fealion pros jgeneral, system software support the following, a Running other software programs F Communicating with other devices such as printers, 2 Monitoring the vare resources Stic or more programs d tape devices et has memory, CPU use of various harcw System software ean be classified as follows: a. Operating Systeins b. Assemblers c Compilers d. Interpreters e. Simulators {Emulators OPERATING SYSTEMS e compuicr und An operating system is the master control program that rans th et courdinator and supervisor. It cor rols the flow of > varius parts of the computer, It is the first pro after the computer is switched on. Pe DOS, Windows (95,98, NT 2000, XP), O5/ ater Operators m cpu computer's memor systems inchide MS 4 Enux. Operating systems interface with Co snnel, Programs, Hardwase and endauscs. Administrative per ae operating, system performs the following functions a) Job Management b) ‘Taxk Manageme ©) Data Manag d) Security ¢) Bootstrap A Masines teat a : Copyeis a DateKtirFig 7.2 Operating System Contro}s all Operations of the System a “sx ) 2S a Mouse Job Management In suiall computers, the operating system responds to commands from the user and loads the desired application progra:n into memory for execution. In a large computer, the operating system earrics out its job control instruction CL), which can be described as the mix of progtams that must be run for a particular peried, Task Management Sometimes. the computer is required to perform multiple tasks at the same time. This is referred to as multi-tasking. The operating system is responsible for the concurrent operation of one or more programs. Advanced operating systems like UNIX have the ability to assign priori:ies to the different programs running on the computer. Such operating system: also have fine-tuning capabilities that low the compuler operator to speed up or slow down specific jobs via commands, Data Management One of the main functions of an op sang system is to keep track of the data on the disk. The applical vam dees not know where the data Slored of how fo get il That Enowles ge is contained in the operatin; ice dy nals Une ope satiny n pre routine When a program is ready to accept data, 5 ay Ir se coded message, The operating system BesicCeamnuine Nth. Beneee’ Tet Copeisbs Dotands the data and delivers it to the program. Conversely, when the program is xady to output, the operating system transfers data from the program onto the text available space on disk. Security a compuler used by multiple users, the operat ng system maintains a lis rized users and provides password protection against unauthorized users may Iry to gain access to the computer system Large operating systens «iso xlain activily logs and accounting of the user's me and actions for billiny; oF : purposes. They also provide backup and rea very routines to start all aver sain the event of system failure Bootstrap Program ng start or make the computer system ready to take instructions. The ‘boot’ comes from “bootstrap”, since bootstras helps you .o get your boots : booting the computer helps it to get i's Read Only Memory (ROM) kewis ‘actions get loaded into ils main memory. You can boot your compute ovo ways: onv is called cold booting, when the consputer is first turned on; and Ue called warm booting, when the computer is already on and is being reset. puters, you can do the warm booting by pressing the ay, it will nol do initial checks ant time most personal cony Alt and Del keys together. In this w Jnich it will do only when i is switched on for the first : ‘ i : g i 3s ' ' ' i socting routines w’ Assemblers sograin which (ranslates an assembly langu. ge program into a mises age program is called an assembler. It anslstes symbolic operation coc waachine cade, and symbolic addresses i> actual machine sddresses. cates areas of main storage and produce object srograms as vulput Compilers A program which translates high level language program into & Enguase program is called a compiler. A compiler is more intelligent cmibler, It checks all kinds of limits, ranges, errors ete. It lakes more time to te and occupies a larger part of memory. It has low speed and tow ciency in memory utilization Interpreters DERRIDA ke fi see Studies A Bags Test Ke (Cupy viet DataBlbiAosunate LiAn alternative lo usiag a compiler for high - level language translation is often employed with personal computers. Instead of translating the source program and permanently saving the object code produced during a compiling run for future use, the programmer merely loads the source program into the computer along with the data to be processed. An interpreter prograr .ored on the computer then converts each source program statement in! ne — language form as it is needed during processing of the data. ct code is saved for future "ise. The next time the instructios “ — d, it must once again be preted and transiated ints nacht guage. For example, during the repetitive processing of the steps in a Jey, each instruction in the loop must be terpreted every time the loop = executed. Compiled programs run 5 to 25 times faster than an interpreted program and occupy less memory space. Simulators Simulation is the representation of ce“! ~" . {eatures of the behaviour of a physical or abstract system by the behavie ut another system. In computing, simulation refers to the use of the computation process to implement a model of some dynamic system or phenomenon. The purpose of simulation is usually to carry out experiments or predict behaviour. Simulation is a process that employs a computerized model of certain significant features of some physical or logical system. The object of the process of simulation is to provide an experimental model for the accumulation of data on the target system. The process of simulation comprises the steps of experiment definition, modeling, computer implementation, validation and data gathering. Simulators are programs developed to apply the process of simulation. The term “simnutiator” usvially implies the iacorporation of some model clements, even though the tool mey be quite fiexible and thus useful for many modeling adapiations, Simulators are differzntiated from “simulation languages”, which are general purpose nd contain no model basis. Emulators To emulate means to imitate one system with another such that the imitating system accepts the same data, executes the same program, and achieves the same results as the limited system. An emulator is’ package that includes both special hardware and comolementary set software which runs in manner of an interpretive routine simulator program but is 5 or 10 times as fast asa purely software simulator. In terms of software, emulator means a translator which translates one High level language to another; say a program written in Pascal to Fortran. An emulator can also Le used to make a program written for one Opevutiy system to run on another eg. a program written for V system run on Macintosh OS. ompater Sudeep ne Associates LoiAPPLICATION SOFTWARE 3 ir desigt ed to help enc plication saftware oF program is a computer prog: ain kind of activity. An application progr m thes 2), a utility Qvhich performs ti Jowers perform a co +som an operating system (which runs a comput | -saintenance and general purpose tasks) and a lan, uage (with which comput which ic was designed, an “scrograms are created). Depending on the task(s) fo “ppheation program can manipulate lext, numbers, graphics or a combination of Glements, Some application software offer considerable computing power automation of tasks by focusing on specilic functions; others called Stegrated software offer somewhat less computing power but include several -=plications, such as a word processor, a spreadsheet and a database package. pplication software are sets of one or more progtams designed to automate the § scerations of a particular application. A payroll application calculates workers © salary and prints pay-slips on a monthly basis. { sscitionally, application packages ate Hnted to the general purpose functions © payroll, human resources management, general ledger and accounting, © Application software has also been written for banking, insurance, ic] administration, hospital administration, manufacturing ele. stem software controls all other software on the computer and as su lication software cannot run without system sotware. Also, system software sre usually supplied by the manufacluress while application software can be © written in-house with good programmers. rlgage, » UTILITIES A utility program is a program desi igned to perform maintensace work on the computer system or its components. For example, a storage b: up progiam, a disk and file recovery program etc. Uulity programs, also known as service prograins are routines that pesform services such as editing texts, or programs, sorting records in 2 particular order ssing, or transferring data from one cevice to another etc. A few available in a computer system ax for proce: examples of ulility programs commonly a Text Editor a Debugging Tool : a Sort and Merge ; Memory Dump Program i a Trace Routine Peripheral Interchange Program (PIP) a File Manager eaaoenlenapacr snc ‘Basle Computer Studien A yinnce’s Teat s80e Copy sieht Datalink Assuabates LanitedText Editor A lext editor is program that facilitates the creation of and correction of texts. The text being edited is usually a symbolic language program typed by the user. The text editor program docs not interpret the meaning of the text bul has the capability of chenging it when special commands are issued by the user. Thus, with the help of 1 text editor, « user can prepare programs and correct them with relative ease. Debugging Too ‘his is a program that helps the user to locate and correct logical mistakes in his program. A dyn umic debugging tool alows the computer programmer to control Program execution using his video terminal. While the program is being executed, the user can stop the execution of the program at any desired point, examine the contents of various registers, change the contents of registers and memory, make alterations to his program and other similar functions. Thus, by using the facilities of adynamic debugging tool, the user can easily detect and correct logical errors in his program. Sort and Merge programs: Se used to arrange data into a specified sequence. For example, business transactions may be stored in a computer as they occur. The iraasactions may have to be rorted by different items such as by account number fo identify the client or by account officer to calculate commission due. The sort Program reads the un - sequenced input file and by means of vatious copying lechniques, ultimately produces a copy of the input file in the required sequence as the output. Merge programs, on the other hand, are used to combine two or more sets of data into one file containing all the items of all the original se!s. Memory Dump Program A memory dump program allows the user to print the contents of specified locations in the main memory at some point during program excculion. A memory dump typically shows both programs and operand data in use. B inspecting both program and data and comparing it with what it should have been if the program had ran correctly, the programmer is able to find the akes in his program. Studies =A Reginnce's Text Ble psright DataKtiaik Ascociates LintTrace Routine A trace routine allows the user to trace the flow o. Ais prograsa w executed. The programmer can request, for exarsy'e, that the contents of eeztain registers or memory locations be printed every te a particular or when the values of cerlain variables changec. This allows the user to have a clear picture of what his program is doing and c ect the mistakes accordinys!y. Peripheral Interchange Program (PIP) These utility programs facilitate the transfer of data fr device {o another. They make possible the co; instance, magnetic tape to disk, This results resources. one Input/Output ng of data from one unil, for 1a more efficient utilization of File Manager A fe manager a program which permits programmers to create, copy update or delete files on the disks. A file is a collection of information siored on the disk as a single entity and is accessible by a name. A directory of files stored on the disk is also maintained by the file manag and includes the file name, file ‘The directory it-elf is stored on dis! ote. e and unused memory capacity of the dis APPLICATION PACKAGES perform a particular type of activity. For exa ple, an acco E general ledger package. Software packages ai igned to -atisly the nec han one organization; they are generally referred to as “off the shelf “canned” programs. Application packages ai available for ali types of They may be for business applications, engineering designs, dom applications, teaching aids etc. The main advantages of application pa include the saving of programming effort and expense, as the develop: are shared among users; the user gets a well tested and tried program wich be used with confidence and implementation ix vlatively fast. Application packages are available for various groups of applications of which the following are prominent: o Office automation suites of programs. Groupware Graphics and Presentation Programs Accounting, Apple eve C asie Computer Stolen Ma Cay cig Matabshah Assonittes Lime