Com Skills Textbk

SAIDI U.
PERSONAL COPY March 7, 2010
MIDLANDS STATE UNIVERSITY
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
CENTRE
CS101 - BASIC COMMUNICATION SKILLS

MODULE
Communication Skills Centre |MSU R 22l

SAIDI U. PERSONAL COPY March 7, 2010
Preamble
The CS101 Basic Communication Skills Module is a core module being offered to Level 1
Semester 1 students enrolled at Midlands State University in all faculties; Arts,
Commerce, Education, Law, Science and Social Sciences. The module imparts basic
communication skills; writing, reading, speaking and listening that make learning
more effective and enjoyable. In other words it promotes skills that are fundamental to
the Academic success of students.
General aims:
The course is aimed at equipping students with the necessary communications skills
essential for their degree studies as well as post university work experience. It is
intended for a two semester course on academic communication skills, which meets for
3 hours a week.
Objectives:
 To create awareness in students of those skills of thinking, personal organization

and language use necessary for academic success.
 To expose students to writing, reading, speaking and listening skills that make
listening more enjoyable.
 To enable students to cope with specialist vocabulary of a particular degree
programme.
Assessment
The continuous assessment shall be by course work 30% and examination will
contribute 70% of the overall assessment

CONTENTS
1 Time management
 Overview
 An active learner
 Academic Strategies
 Time Management
 Peer discussions
2 Academic Referencing
 Overview
 Referencing Conventions
 Secondary sources
 Direct and Indirect Citation
 Importance of referencing
 Plagiarism
 Referencing systems
 Harvard, APA MLA and Chicago
 conclusion
3 Essay Writing
 Overview
 Importance of Essay Writing
 Essay Topic
 Planning the Assignment
 Essay Paragraphs
 The Essay Writing Process
 First And Second Draft
 Components of A Good Paragraph
 Conclusion
4 Listening Skills
 Overview
 What is listening
 The listening process
 Factors affecting listening
 Difference between listening and hearing
 Types of listening
 Key to effective listening
 Conclusion
5 Note -making And Note–Taking

 Overview
 Sequential-Linear Notes
 Pattern and Nuclear Notes
 Advantages and Disadvantages of these types of Note making
 Note making Before the Lecture
 Note making During the lecture
 Note making After the lecture
 Conclusion
6 Reading
 Overview
 Types of reading
 Reading Strategies
 Reading and Study Skills
 Levels of Comprehension in Reading
 Conclusion.
7 Oral communication
 Overview
 The Oral Communication Process
 Strengths of Oral Communication
 Weaknesses of Oral Communication
 Non-verbal Communication
 Elements of Non-Communication
 Oral Presentations
 Speech writing
 Complementing Verbal Communication
 The audience
 Persuasive Speaking
 Establishing Credibility
 Conclusion

UNIT 1 STUDY HABITS & TIME MANAGEMENT

Saidi U. Gwarinda, M. C. Gumbo, L. Jhamba, D.
1.1 Overview:
University learning has its demands on students for it is learning with a difference. From
the heavily controlled learning at high school comes independent learning at university.
Independent learning characterizes the nature of university learning. In fact it is
individual-centered more than anything else. Learning with this regard does not
„happen‟ and strategies that are individually centered are a pre-requisite for learning to
happen. In this unit we offer guidelines of how you can develop strategies to learning.
1.2 Objectives:
At the end of this unit students should be able to:
 Set short and long term academic goals.

 Identify the study habits that promote adjustment to university learning.
 Organize yourself and leave up to the demands of university learning.
 Plan and execute your university work.
 Identify different activities unique to you.
 Manage your time.
 Understand what is behind the scenes of the study process.
 Realize your confidence and your competence in a range of different tasks
whether it be writing, reading, note-making etc
 Identify models of interactive learning.
 Appreciate the various roles of peer discussions.
 Select criteria for group membership.
1.3 Key Words
Active Leaner , transformative experience, Study Skills, priorities, modules, mental

journey, activities, Peer discussion, interactive learning, critical thinking, concept
development , competition and cooperation

1.4 Developing Study Habits:
1.4.1 Introduction:
Welcome to Midlands State University. The first thing we should mention is that you
chose the degree programme you have come to pursue, and have chosen it as offered
at this university. This also entails that you have become a family member of the
Midlands State University. Congratulations.
Being at university is a statement that you are continuing your education. A critical
investigation to it reveals that it is not as simple as that when we come to think of it.
Feldman (2005) presents the most frequently-cited reasons that first year students
gave for why they enrolled in college when asked in an American national survey. See
Feldman (2005:3).
Activities 1.0
(i) List at least five reasons why you enrolled for college?
(ii) Share some of your reasons with the class.
(iii) What is your observation regarding your fellow classmates reasons for
enrolling at college?
(iv) How are they different from yours?
1.4.2 Becoming an Active Leaner
Turner (2002:1) makes a very important observation when he states that „Nobody is
ever completely prepared in advance for university life, and arguably it would not be
good if you were.‟ He goes on to state that life at university should be „a transformative
experience‟ geared at making you a different person from the one you were before you
began your studies. Developing a positive attitude is perhaps the most important „Study
Skill‟ you should have, but you can develop other skills and strategies which help you to
make your way successfully through undergraduate study. The first thing required
though is to plan.
University life means many things and different things to different students. The
university environment exerts academic and social demands on you as a student, and
these have certain norms and values that are broadly taken for granted. Turner
(2002:xi) lists the academic norms and values as follows,
 Logical precision.
 Being clear about what you are saying;
 Accuracy in factual detail;
 Accuracy in grammar and spelling;
 Supporting your arguments;
 Providing evidence for any claims you make;
 Finding things out and documenting your sources.
It is however a process that takes time as well as effort to understand the academic
culture. This also applies even to the most confident-seeming students have to go
through a process of familiarization.
1.4.3 University Life as a Journey
Turner (2002:4) observed that the „concept of a journey underlies life itself.‟ We go
through university life where the learning process is „rugged‟. Turner (2002) lists three
important factors required to undertake this mental journey of getting a degree;
 A great deal of practical organization is required during the journey.

 Requires mental flexibility to get round obstacles and cope with a wide range of
challenges social, psychological and intellectual in nature.
 You definitely need the mental (and physical) stamina to stay on course.
Activities 2.0
(i) Identify (at least five in each case) the social, psychological and intellectual
challenges that you are likely to face as you sail through your university life.
(ii) What are some of the possible causes of these challenges you have listed
above?
(iii) Suggest ways in which your mental and physical stamina can be held on
cause?
Each day on university campus is a stage imposing demands on you and this means
that you have to meet certain requirements at each stage.
1.4.5 Information Regarding Your Learning:
Every degree programme is different and the following information is provided to you or
you should make an effort to find out;
 The title of your degree programme and the Faculty in which it is housed.
 The Titles, Codes and number of modules you are supposed to have.
 The physical administration offices of your degree programme i.e the faculty
office, administrator‟s office, the faculty and department secretaries,
Departmental Chairperson‟s offices, lecture rooms etc.
 The number of assignments you have to do for each module, how each
assignment is worth, due dates.
 The structure and length of each assignment. (Most departments prefer
assignments written on one face of each clean double margin sheet if
handwritten. Some departmental policies stipulate that assignments should be
typed and seek information as to how a typed version should be presented.)
 You may be required to shop modules from sister departments hence you have
to adhere to the demands and house rules of the departments. Knowledge of
their offices is also a requirement.

 You also need to know and document the ratio of assessed course work and end
of year exams as well as the weighting of assignments relative to each other and
to the year or semester in which they are undertaken. („exist velocity‟ is normally
used to mean that the causes you take in your final year are worth ore than
those in your first year posing a hierarchical progression of difficulty and value to
the courses you do each semester.
Activities 3.0
(i) What do you expect to find in the following; (a) course outline (b) student
guides?
(ii) Of what significance are they to you?
The orientation week is too short to cover all that you may need to understand
about university. The new faces that you first saw might have scared you or made you
shy thus made it difficult for you to ask important questions. Orientation is important in
formally initiating you to the system, but what is you are expected of is a process not
an event carried out in a week.
1.4.6 What to expect
You will meet familiar and unfamiliar questions as you proceed and various fields of
study are approached from various theoretical perspectives. It is these perspectives that
need your attention and how different kinds of available data fit into them. The ultimate
goal perhaps is for you to be a master of your learning, so prepare yourself to work
hard and have a positive attitude towards all your modules. What is required is not
having a „natural‟ academic ability and application of such but mostly finding and
developing strategies for working academically. This module will help you with this
regard because by the end of your studies you should feel responsible for the outcome
and what you learnt.
1.5 Academic Strategies:
1.5.1 The Plan:
Now that you are here and ready to engage your modules I suggest that we go back to
the preliminaries. Your grand plan determines the strategies suitable to you and how
they are to be implemented. We should also realize that each one of us has a unique
„inborn body clock‟. Feldman (2005:33) makes this known to us that being „aware of the
time or times of day when you accomplish your best work will help you plan and
schedule your time most effectively‟. Indeed some;
 Are enthusiastically bound out of bed in the morning ready to start a new day
and face the realities of the world.
 Hate the alarm clock and unwelcome the sound that jars them out of a pleasant
slumber.
 Are zombielike by 8pm while others are just beginning to rev up at midnight.
Thus the first thing you need to do is to write down clearly you PLAN. In other words
you need to identify your personal goals in terms of their short and long term. You are
thus required to set goals which are;
(a) Realistic and attainable (of what use is it to you to come up with
dubious goals that you cannot attain at the end of the day? Be realistic in
setting out your goals. Goals should be attainable, in other words they
should be measurable. At the end of the day you should be able to
measure what you have done and what you failed to do citing reasons for
future correction.

(b) Specific. Be specific in what you what to do e.g. „Complete and submit
CS101 assignment 1 by 10am‟
(c) Timely. Each activity and goal should have a specific time frame.
Activities 4.0
(i) Make a list of some of your long term goals?

(ii) Identify some of your possible short term goals?
(iii) Briefly, what are some of the strategies that you can employ to achieve
your short/long term goals?
(iv) What are the possible problems that you might face as you try to achieve
these?
Having set out your grand plan you will notice that it is difficult to implement without
time.
1.5.2 Time and Study Strategies:
We all have twenty-four hours per day but other people seem to achieve more than
what we do. Time hence is available to all of us meaning that it is an important
commodity which we must however guard jealously because it is a very scarce
commodity especially when we come to consider the activities on a daily bases which
we are supposed to undertake or which come to us without warning. How many times
have we complained of „not having enough time‟ to carry out all our activities?
Activities 5.0
Here are a few common daily activities for a university student.
(i) How long do you think on average it would take you to do them?
Activities Time
Taken
1 Read a book with 10 pages.

2 Take notes from a specific chapter
3 Look for a venue for the oncoming lecture
4 Gossip, or engage in a social conversation with
friends
5 Look for a book in the library.
6 Walk from Nehosho to campus
7 Take a bath,
8 Read through your notes before starting writing an
essay
9 Sleep
10 Playing a game on your cell phone
(ii) Generally speaking, how would you characterize your time management
skills?
(iii) What would benefit you personally if you could manage time more
effectively?
You will notice that in the activities above, some do chew up your time rather than
saving it. The most important thing therefore is to identify where your time is going so
as to invest this time in activities that bring profit to your studying. Setting your
priorities helps you a great deal. Feldman (2005:31) observes that priorities are „the
tasks and activities you need and want to do, rank-ordered from most important to
least important.‟ The decision in terms of priority is purely individual and whether
spending much of your time studying or with a friend of the opposite sex is important
to you, it is purely for you to decide.
1.5.3 Steps in Managing your Time:
(a) Indentify and prioritize your daily activities. (What is important to you at this
moment may be less of a priority next week, next month, and next year).
(b) Assign time to each activity using a time log or timetable.
(c) Identify how your short/long term goals are achieved at the end of each or all
the day‟s activities.

(d) Evaluate your time usage and make necessary adjustments.

(e) Keep a record of your time. (This guarantees and explains how accountable you
are to your welfare).
(f) Social and religious activities should also be considered and accounted for.
Three aspects are important in keeping a record of your time and these are;
 A master calendar (this shows all the weeks of the semester on one page. You
can make one yourself by making use of the university diary and departmental
master timetable)
 A weekly time table
 A daily to-do list
1.6 TIME MANAGEMENT
Definitions
It is usually defined as the management of time in order to make the best out of it.
However it is argued that you cannot manage time, but you can manage your activity
during time.
Gilreath (1966) says it can refer to all practices that individuals follow to make better
use of their time. Hence time management can be referred to as the management
within the available or allocated time.
Narrowly defined, time management can refer to principles and systems that individuals
use to make conscious decisions about the activities that occupy their time.
1.6.1 How to Manage Time
If you make a determined effort, you can manage your time and use it to your
advantage. It takes;
 Planning
 Organization
 Efficiency
 Discipline
Activities 6.0
(i) Identify characteristics of bad time management.

(ii) Suggest solutions to the problems you have identified above.
Never say you do not have enough time. You have exactly the same number of
hours/days that were given to everybody else.
 Planning
It is the cornerstone of time management.
 Planning gets work started on time. It gets things done in the right order
prevents projects from drifting off course
 Makes sure everybody knows what to do and when to do it.
 Do not plan too much. Build in time breaks
 Organization
 Use to do list and time- tables, they are helpful tools in time management.
 Priorities your to do list into priorities so that you do the most important things at
the appropriate tome. To priorities means to rate the importance of a task.
 Use written lists to sort activities into a logical order of the day.
 Make it a habit to start all projects and days with a list of things to do.
 Set deadlines for each step and activity.
 Time tables must be reasonable.
It is always good to write what you want to do; it increases your productivity
manifold. A to do list is an inventory that serves as an alternative to memory. A to
do list should be put where it can be clearly seen.
The ABC Prioritization List- Alan Lakein
A-most important
B-next most important
C-least important
However Sandberg (1987) argues that time schedules are not the key to
productivity, they are cradled up to be. He reports that an estimated 30% of
students spend more time managing their lists than completing what on for them.
What do you say?

 Efficiency
 Stick to an agenda
 Start on time; take control of the to-do-list.
 By managing your time, you can be effective and efficient.
 Avoid procrastination; it is the thief of time. Procrastination is the act of
putting off projects until later, what should be done now. Almost everyone
has the tendency to procrastinate, put that urge aside and do what you
must do now.
 Discipline
 Do not let unfinished projects pile on your desk.
 Know what you want to do, hold the thought firmly and do
everyday what should be done.
Stopping and restarting projects tends to waste time. Once you
have started a task, try to stick to it until it is done.
 Avoid time wasters- cell phone, visits, poor prioritization,
Unnecessary perfectionism, sleeping during day time, etc
Activities 7.0
(i) Discuss with relevant examples how good time management skills can help
the student at university.
1.7 PEER DISCUSSIONS
1.7.1 Introduction
Peer discussions are an invaluable study technique. Scholars have found these greatly
enhancing academic performance. This section offers insight into the role of peer
discussions. Simultaneously, it will identify strategies of conducting effective peer
discussions.
Peer discussions belong to a form of learning known as interactive learning i.e.

acquiring knowledge through dialogue and multi-logging. A peer is a person of the
same age or rank, or both. When enrolled at Midlands State University, you became
part of a community. A community is a group which shares common beliefs, goals and
practices. According to Splitter and Sharp (1995) cited in Mukabeta (2001:110), a

community implies” a spirit of co-operation, care, trust, safety and sense of common
purpose and inquiry”. Learning is a goal oriented process of inquiry requiring working
together, confidence in each other and concern for the progress of fellow students. This
is the essence of peer group discussions.
Activities 8.0
i) Compare and contrast the study habits of a student with a sense of

community and one without it.
Discuss in small groups the effects of the following; (a) the pleasures leisure,
recreation, peer groups etc (b) the demands educational, social (c) the challenges
illness, death etc
1.7.2 Models of Interactive Learning
 Student-student interaction
Lecturer-group interaction
Lecturer-whole class interaction
Intra-personal interaction
This section will focus on student-student interaction as peer group discussion fall under
this model.
Activities 9.0
i) Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of each model.
Giving reasons, which oof the listed models do you prefer?
1.7.3 The Role/ Benefits of Peer Discussions
• Develops critical thinking. Thinking levels, according to Bloom (1966) can be ranked
from low order to high order thinking skills. Low order skills involve recall from

memory focusing mainly on facts. High order thinking skills involve manipulation of
data. Bloom (ibid) lists thinking skills as follows:
 Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
Mukabeta (2001) also contends that peer discussions develop critical thinking and lists
the following skills:
 Defining
Illustrations
Classifying/categorizing
Making generalizations
Constructing analogies
Formulating hypothesis
Activities 10.0
i) Define each of the thinking skills listed by Bloom and Mukabeta.
Give illustrations of the thinking skills.
Discuss how peer discussions facilitate the above skills.
The students‟ effective questioning ability is developed as a small group has more room
for questions than a whole class. Mukabeta (2001) identifies the following factors as
benefiting the student;

a) Encouraging spirit of enquiry.
Individual development.
Developing independence of thought.
Providing a more natural discussion than a lecture.
Respecting other students as sources of knowledge.
Building onto other students knowledge.
Barnes (1969) categorizes questions in a discussion as follows:
a) Factual
Reasoning questions
Open ended non-reasoning questions
Social questions
Activities 11.0
1. Define, with illustrations, each of the above.
What are the benefits of each type?
Social questions are distracters to an academic discussion while factual questions

require and show limited research. Reasoning questions demonstrate and encourage
critical thinking. Factual questions are the most encouraged at tertiary level.
Blooms taxonomy of educational objectives (1966) lists six categories of questions

starting with the less complex, low order questions to the more complex, high order
questions. These are the same as thinking skills. They range from knowledge,
comprehension (low order) to application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation (high order).
Activities 12.0
(i) Give examples of each of Blooms categories from your area of study.
Questions can also be categorized as follows:
a) closed questions
(i) single correct answer
(ii) Low order
(iii) Remembering facts
(iv) General knowledge
b) open questions i) variety of acceptable answers
ii) High order iii) Reasoning
They can be further classified as follows;
a) low order i) memory
ii) facts
b) high order i) reasoning
ii) analysis
iii) interpretation
iv) evaluation
Through making presentations and answering questions, peer discussions develop the
students‟ ability to explain and develop concepts. According to Mukabeta (2001) an
effective explanation has the following characteristics;
a) clarity i) defining terms
ii) explicit language
iii) paraphrasing / repetition
b) structure i) logical sequencing of main ideas
ii) links between main ideas

iii) examples
iv) analogies
c) involvement of other students through:
1. questions by presenter
2. questions by listeners comments
Exploration of students own ideas is facilitated through peer discussions, unlike in a

lecture where students mostly listen. Enhanced understanding of concepts occurs when
students are given the opportunity to discuss these, as Russell (1982) observes. The
reason, according to Rwambiwa (2001) is that students operate within the same field of
experience. That is, due to factors such as age, the examples which aid understanding
of ideas are more similar. Of course, the lecturer and students may also have some
similar experiences. For example anything which interferes with effective
communication is noise. Therefore, lack of common experience is noise.
Competition, in Zindi (2000:94) view, increases motivation and therefore, performance.

Students may compete to show the most knowledge or make the best presentation.
The peer group may compete with other peer groups or the whole class. Further, a
student may compete at a personal level with personal standards.
Peer groups foster co-operation. Gwarinda (1995:67) argues that co-operation is

superior to competition. Competition destroys the collective spirit of the class and
encourages elitism and individualism. Each member of the peer group should,
therefore, strive for competence, not competition. This encourages co-operation.
After all, each student compliments others as each is strong where another is weak.
Confidence is built through peer discussion. Zindi (2000:94) observes that over-
anxiety about academic performance can interfere with success. Increased roles
through participation in a group increases confidence. This is through feedback to
questions and comments.
Memory is boosted through discussion. Listening in a lecture activates the short term
memory bank. Discussions ensure transference of this information to the long term
memory bank.
Criteria for Group Membership

a) age
ability
friendship
gender
culture
background
One or more of these factors can be selected.
Activities 13.0
i) Identify the merits and demerits of each criterion.
1.7.4 Guidelines for Peer Group Discussion
a) a set convenient meeting times
set comfortable length of time
agree on topic to discuss- stick to it
Read in advance so as to make meaningful contributions and ask meaningful questions.
Participation by all members
Listening to others
Acknowledge different views
Appropriate and convenient venue
1.7.5 Summary
The peer group discussion study method is an effective interactive learning technique.
It develops critical thinking, questioning ability, and the ability to explain and develop
concepts. They provide an opportunity for students to explore their ideas. Common
experience enhances understanding. Competition and cooperation enhance
performance. Confidence and memory are also boosted. Various criteria can be selected

for membership of the group. Guidelines for operating the group make it more
effective.

UNIT 2 ACADEMIC REFERENCING

GUMBO L. and F. MUTEMA
2.1 Overview
Writing an assignment at University level is no easy job, one has to really work.
Academic essays requires that the student (writer) carries out wide research so as to
find out what has been written/ established by Scholars in that particular area. Thus the
researched material has to be put across in a very formal way through the use of rules
and conventions followed in academic referencing. To that end, this unit is going to
address academic referencing in order to prepare the University student for academic
essay writing, term papers and dissertation writing.
2.3 Aim:
This un
it is aimed at equipping university students with good referencing skills essential for
them to achieve academic success.
2.3 Objectives
1. To equip students with referencing skills that enables them to write good
referenced assignments.
2. To exposé student to various referencing skills that are used in academic
referencing
3. To enable students to reference different kind of books, journals magazines and
all the different academic articles
4. To compile a proper reference list whenever one writes an academic essay.
2.4 Keywords:
Referencing, direct quotation, indirect quotation/paraphrase, plagiarism,
citation, parenthesis.
2.5 Definition
Referencing is a system that allows one to acknowledge the sources of information you
use in writing, if not you are plagiarizing (http: //www.c.unsw.edu.). One must provide
reference whenever one quotes, paraphrases or summarize someone else‟s ideas,
theories or data. According to Anglia Ruskin University, year book (2006:83) referencing
is when a writer indicates that something s/he written at that time/stage comes from a
specific source or sources. In other words, it is the practice of referring to the work of
other authors in the body of a written text. It means that when one consults a book or
other sources; chapters in books, journals, magazines, the internet, newspaper articles,
conference papers, films/TV programs, personal communications like e-mails, interviews
or letters, electronic sources such as web pages, journal articles from online databases
or user net groups, research dissertations or thesis and use some of the material from
them in a written text or assignment, s/he have to acknowledge these ideas and their
authors. Furthermore, referencing is part of a sound academic practice and a skill that
should be mastered by every University student and all academics. This is supported by
Commack (1994:33) who states that, “when writing for a professional readership,
writers invariably makes reference to already published works.” Every citation in the
body of the text needs a reference at the end that gives the full details of the source
and should enable it to be traced by the reader.
2.6 REFERENCING CONVENTIONS

2.6.1 Direct Quotation
This involves the use of actual words used by the author and should be enclosed in
quotation marks and should give number of page where the quotation is found.
Gibbs (1981:89) states that, ‟for direct quotations write the text word for word and
place quotation marks and place the quotation marks at the beginning and end of the
quotation.‟
Thus this includes author, date and page number for example;
Gumbo (1994:130) suggest that “grammar should constitute the major area of second
language learning"
Including page numbers of a reference helps readers trace one's sources. As given in
the example above a direct quotation comprise ideas that are copied from another
writer's work. It is the exact word and sentence structure as the original author's work.
Direct quotation should be used when a writer makes a point in an especially, suitable,
significant and colorful manner. In other words it means that a direct quotation is used
only when necessary to support an argument, or if the quotation is something one
wants to analyze. Where a direct quotation is more than three sentence indent the
quote; leave out quotation marks and single line spacing maybe used. Thus quotation is
emphasized by indenting and this helps in identifying it as a work of someone else. If
you want to leave some words from within quoted passage insert ellipses (…) (3 dots)
to indicate that words have been omitted.
Activities 1.0
(i) Write a paragraph in which you incorporate a direct quotation from a certain
Scholar.
(ii) Start a paragraph by giving an idea by an authority.
(iii) Write another paragraph but this time put the authority‟s idea at the end of
the paragraph.
2.6.2 Indirect Referencing /Paraphrasing

In paraphrasing academic summaries and expresses in his or her on words the idea of
another writer. This is much more common in academic work. Thus this may be

regarded as a restatement of a previous point in your own words, e.g.
According to Gumbo (1994) the major constitution of second language learning is

grammar.
In a paraphrase or indirect quotation, words are paraphrased, there are no quotation

marks and page numbers are not indicated. However, the writer should keep the
author's meaning without distorting it. The paraphrase –when one expresses the
authors idea (s), it still remains his /hers and should be attributed accordingly steps to
follow when paraphrasing;
 Read every difficult sentence carefully.
 If the sentence has difficult words, deal with them by trying to work out their
meanings from the context or looking them up from the dictionary.
 Determine the subject and verb of the sentence; this should give you the core
meaning of the sentence.
 Reread the phrases.
 Write your paraphrase
2.7 SECONDARY SOURCES

These are sources one may come across when consulting an original work which one
might like to make reference to in their work e.g.
Gilreath (1998 cited in Bassert 1986:143) says," University requires students to carefully
and effectively use their time".
In the example above, Bassert (1986) is the primary source and Gilreath (1998) is the
secondary source. The secondary source is not included in the reference list which is
written at the end of one's document.

2.8 CITATION OF THE AUTHOR 'S NAME AND DATE

Author's name can be cited directly or indirectly as follows;
2.8.1 Author's name cited directly

This is when one makes direct reference to an author's work by citing the source
followed by year of publication and page references in brackets e.g.
(i) Moyo (1987:33) states that, “you can not manage time but you can manage
your activity during time"
(ii) According to Gilreath (1998) time management is the managing of time in order to
make the best out of it.
2.8.2 Author's name cited indirectly

This is when one makes reference to a work or piece of research without directly
mentioning the author. The author's name and publication are placed at the relevant
point in the assignment or at the end of the sentence e.g.
(i) "You can not manage time but you can manage your activity during time” (Moyo
1987:33)
(ii) Time management is the managing of time in order to make the best out of it
(Gilreath 1998).
2.9 WHY REFERENCING?

 This is done to show evidence both of the background reading that has been
done and to support the content in a written text. It bears evidence of research
by the writer.
 To support argument/arguments by referring to other published works. To
establish you own position by showing it in the context of other writers.
 Referencing gives credit to the concepts and ideas of other authors and it helps
to authenticate the writer`s work.
 It provides the reader (often the marker/examiner of your assignment) with
evidence of the breadth and depth of your reading (Commack 1994:33-34). In
other word
 It allows reader to identify and find the sources, which have been used.
 It supports an idea or ideas that look controversial and serves to illustrate that
although the idea is controversial it is supported by prominent scholars or
researchers.
 It clarifies ideas that are crucial to your written discussion.
 Referencing enables those who read your work to locate the cited sources easily.
 It shows the academic maturity of a student.
 To criticize the views of other writers
 It allows future use of sources in a piece of work.
 Last but not least, referencing guards against plagiarizing other people's works, a
grave academic offence that calls for disciplinary action.
Activities 2.0
Discuss the importance of referencing to academics, especial to University students.
2.10 WHAT IS PLAGIARISM?

Plagiarism is passing off the work of others as your own (Anglia Ruskin University
2006). According to the Midlands State University Year Book, (2007-2010: 151-153),
plagiarism is the unacknowledged use of another person‟s material or ideas. This
constitutes academic theft and is a serious matter which calls for disciplinary action,
such as suspension or expulsion of the student from the University. This means that
academics should, by all means, acknowledge sources of information when they write
academic materials. According to Cameron(1999) copying without attribution whether
from another student‟s work or from something on the internet can incur heavy
penalties, perhaps leading to expulsion from university or failing to get a good
reference from tutors. If students were not penalized for plagiarism it means degrees
would be worthless as lazy students would just copy from hardworking ones. According
to an extract available at
web.anglia.ac.uk/ante/academic/public/academicregulations.doc plagiarism is
 The submission of an item of assessment containing elements of work produced
by other/s in such a way that it could be assumed to be the student's own work.
 The verbatim of copying of another person's work without acknowledgement.
 The close paraphrasing of another person' s work by simple changing a few
words or altering the order without acknowledgement.
 The unacknowledged quotation of phrases from another person's work and or
the presentation of another person's ideas as one's own.
 Copying or close paraphrasing with occasional acknowledgement of the source
may also be deemed to be plagiarism if the absence of quotation marks
implies that the phraseology is the student's own.
 Plagiarized work may belong to another student or be from published sources
such as a book, a report, a journal or material from the internet.
Activities 3.0
Discus plagiarism scenarios cited above

Do some of them make sense to you?
2.10.1 Avoidance of plagiarism

 To avoid plagiarism students are encouraged to use their on words when writing
an assignment.
 They should quote other people when necessary.
 They should indicate clearly that they are quoting other sources.
2.11 THE REFERENCING SYSTEMS

Referencing occurs in a number of different forms, for example, Harvard, Chicago,

American Psychological Association (APA), Modern Languages Association (MLA)/
Chicago referencing systems, to name but a few. Faculties and departments differ in
the use of referencing and students should be familiar and adhere to the referencing
system in the faculty or department. However this paper focuses mainly on the
referencing system used commonly at Midlands State University which is the Harvard
referencing system, APA and MLA.
2.11.1 THE HARVARD REFERENCING SYSTEM

This model consists of two parts namely;
i) In- text Citation
This is when a writer identifies the author and publication date of the ideas used in an
assignment. This model is also known as the alphabetical name-date referencing
system. In this system the author's surname and year of publication are cited in the
text, for example;
Gumbo (2004) argues that grammar should constitute the major area of second
language learning.
In in-text referencing there is no mention of author's initials and no mention of book

title.
ii) The Reference List

The reference list shows all the documents that have been referred to through direct
quoting or paraphrasing. In other words it is a list of all sources cited in the assignment
provided on a separate page at the end of one‟s work. All the references cited in the
text of a research paper must appear in a reference list or bibliography, and all
assignments should have a reference list. The reference list contains complete public
details for all the sources used in the written work e.g.
Gumbo, L. (2004) Second Language Learning, Gweru: Mambo Press.
Students should make sure that every cited author is included at the end of the
assignment in an alphabetical order, citing the author‟s name and initials, date, the title,
the publishing town and the publisher as indicated above. This list provides the
information necessary to identify and retrieve each source and therefore its purpose is
to enable sources to be traced by another reader.
(N.B* Students/academics should carefully note the positions of full stops and commas in the
reference sentence.)
For clarity academics are advised to leave a blank line between successive sources.
2.11.1 How To Reference Various Works Using The Harvard Referencing

System:-
(a) A book with one author
Agatha, S. (1980), Women on the Job. Toronto: Heath And Company
(b) A book with two authors

-Where there are two authors for a work they should be all be noted in the text and in
the reference list e.g.
Chung, F. and E. Ngara, (1985), Socialism, Education and Development, Harare:
Zimbabwe Publishing House.
(c) A book with three or more authors

Where there are more than two authors for the same work, only the first author should
be used followed by et al. meaning 'and others' e.g.
Gumbo, L. et. al (1999) How Students Fail. Gweru: Mambo Press

But in the reference list the names should all be included in the order they appear in

the document e.g.
Gumbo, L., Moyo, M., Shumba, S. and Zhou, Z. (1999) How Students Fail, Gweru:
MamboPress.
(d) An edited book

In an edited book, the writer should indicate the author, date, the editor, the title of the
book from which the article a edited, ton and the publisher, eg
Shumba M (1985), How to Write a Good Composition, in Dube J G (editor), Writing

Essays Made Easy. Harare: Longman
 Referencing of articles other than books

References to periodical articles (journals magazines and newspapers) must include the
following elements; author(s), date of publication, article title, journal title, volume
number, issue number (if applicable) and page numbers e.g.
(e) Newspapers
Moyo L (1999) Sixteen Thousand Miners Dismissed in South Africa, The Sunday Mail, 6
September1997, Page 9.
(f) Journals
Author name and initials, year, title of article, full title of journal, volume number, page
numbers should be referenced e.g.
Women in Educational Administration, Education Digest, Volume 40:34-35.
Mellers, B.A. (1999) Choice and the Relative Pleasure of Consequences, Psychological
Bulletin, 16, 910-934.
(g) Works by associations; corporations; government agencies etc

The names of groups that save as authors (corporate authors) are usually written out
each time they appear in a text reference – National Institute of Mental Health (1999).
When appropriate, the names of some corporate authors are spelt out in the first
reference and abbreviated in all sub sequent citations. The general rule for abbreviating
in this manner is to supply enough information in the text citation for a reader to locate
its source in the reference list without difficulties e.g. (NIMH 1999).
(h) Published reports

Zimbabwe (1980) Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Poverty, the Mawere
Commission, Harare: Government Printers
(i) Unpublished reports
Zaquett I (1981) The Human Rights Issue and Human Rights Movements, Unpublished
Paper, Law Department, University Of Zimbabwe, Harare.
(j) Thesis/dissertation
Shumba, M. (2003) An Investigation into the Problems Faced by Black Zimbabwean
Women in Schools, Unpublished Thesis Midlands State University.
(k) no date (n.d.)

-Where there is no date of publication the abbreviation n.d. is used to denote this.
e.g. Zhou (n.d) has written that time management helps you to know what you want to
accomplish.

-However academics are encouraged to make every effort to establish the year of
publication if they intend to use such information as supporting evidence in an
academic work.
(l) No author
When the author cannot be identified, anonymous or anon and the title of the work and
date of publication are indicated. However every effort should be made to establish the
authorship if one intends to use this work as supporting evidence in an academic
submission.
(m) Internet
-For internet referencing the requirements are authorship of source, year, title of web
document, the web address and date of access e.g.
Ekudu G ,(2004) Walking Made Easy. Available at http://www.nhs.uk.hth.walking

(accessed 5 May 2005)
For in text referencing information is cited as, for example
According to information available on the internet, http://www.nhs.uk.hth.walking,

walking is as easy as ABC.
2.11.2 AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION (APA)

This refers to the rules and conventions established by the American Psychological
Association for documenting sources used in research paper. It is one of the many
variations of the Harvard referencing system. The APA Referencing system provides the
i) author‟s name, date and the page number for a direct quote e.g.
Ndhlovu (1987) postulates that for a direct quotation write the text word for word and
place quotation mark at the beginning and end of a quotation,( page 36).
and ii) the author‟s name and date for a paraphrase e.g.,
Zhou (1999) has written that time management helps you to know what you want to
accomplish.
The main difference between the Harvard referencing style and APA is that the page
detail is not written immediately after the date but at the end of the sentence. The two
elements above identify and credit the sources consulted in the paper and allow others
to access or retrieve this material on their own.
2.11.2.1 APA Reference citations in text

Citations to sources are placed in the text of the paper in order to briefly identify
sources for readers and enable them to locate the source of the cited information in the
reference list. These in-text references include the author‟s last name and publication
year enclosed in parenthesis, citations are placed within sentences and paragraphs so
that it is clear what information is being quoted or paraphrased and whose information
is being cited.
a) Works by a single author

The last name of the author and the year of publication are inserted in the text at the
appropriate point
One advantage of courses spread over one semester is that it allows greater
participatory roles on the part of students (Swales, 1993).
If the name of the author or date appear as part of the narrative, cite only missing
information in parenthesis
Walker, (2000) compared reaction times – will be written as – in 2000 Walker compared
reaction times
b) Works by multiple authors

When a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the reference occurs
in the text-
Joreskog and Sorbom (1989) states that …
When a work has three, four or more authors cite all authors the first time the
reference occurs;
Wasserstein, Zapulla ross Gerstman and Rock (1994) found that…
Then in all subsequent citation per paragraph include only the surname of the first
author followed by (et.al) a Latin word meaning and others – and the year of
publication.
Wasserstein et al (1994) found out that …
3) Works with No Author

When a work has no author, use the first 2 or 3 words of the work title (omitting any
initial articles) as you text reference, capitalizing each word –e.g. the book College
Bound Seniors.
2.11.3 MODERN LANGUAGE ASSOCIATION –MLA/CHICAGO MANUAL STYLE

It is widely used in the field of modern literature and linguistic, but without the year of
publication. It was developed since 1906 by the University of Chicago press. It permits
the use of both in text citation system and or footnotes or endnotes referencing
numbered references lists and author‟s date referencing, including use of content notes,
it gives information about in text citation by page number or by year of publication, it
even provides for variation in style of footnotes and endnotes, depending on whether or
not the paper include a full reference at the end. This referencing system is not
alphabetical but numerically based. Footnotes and endnotes are used when one is
making citation within the essay or any piece of work. Footnotes come below the page.
One numbers the quotations in an essay numerically in progression and the number is
written after the last word of the quotation. The information concerning the numbered
quotation is given just below the page, e.g.
1
Trumper returns to Barbados with a new term for his fellow being which is my people
Then below the page you write,
1) Lamming G, In the Castle of my Skin, Longman: London, 1962:5
Thus the reference list for Chicago comprises:

Author‟ surname and initials, title, place of publication, publisher and date and page as
in the example given above:
1) Lamming G, In the Castle of my Skin, Longman: London, 1962:5
For newspapers, magazines or journals all the information above is inclusive plus
volume number, e.g.
2) Hoko Farai, Driving Force, Football Score, Volume 10,16 February 1988: 16-19.
With endnotes, as the name suggests, contain the same information as footnotes only
that the details of the source appear at the end of the essay on a separate page. In
composing footnotes or endnotes one is directed to avoid lengthy discussions that
divert the reader „attention from the primary text. Comments that cannot be fitted in
the text should be omitted unless they provide essential justification or clarification of
what one has written. At Midlands State University this referencing system is mainly
used in the history and developmental studies department.
Activities 4.0
Compile a reference list for;

(i) 2 book by a single author.
(ii) 1 book by multiple authors.
(iii) 1 edited book
(iv) A revised edition text.
(v) A journal article.
(vi) An internet source.
2.12 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A REFERENCE LIST AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

The difference between a reference and a bibliography is that the bibliography is a list
of relevant items that one has used in the assignment preparation but not necessarily
cited in the text. Inclusion of such a list indicates that a student have read widely
beyond the items that have been cited.
2.13 CONCLUSION
This unit has mainly focused the Harvard, APA and MLA referencing models because
these are the most common models at Midlands State University. For information on
other models one can consult the list of references given at the end of this text.
REFRENCES
Anglia Ruskin University (008) http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk

Commack (1994) Discussion On Citation And Referencing, London: Marks and Penelope.
Midlands State University (2007) Yearbook, Gweru.
Study skills, C.A.C.C (Pty) Ltd, Harare.
http://.un.edu (retrieved 06-2008)
Wright Malcolm (2005) The Ombudsman: Verification of Citation – London: Fawlty Tower
Knowledge.
UNIT 3 ESSAY WRITING
Munemo, D. Mutema, F. & Charamba, B
3.1 Overview
This section introduces you to the process of assignment writing. At university much of
your work will be assessed by essay – whether that‟s an essay prepared in the your
spare time over a period of days or weeks, or one concocted in an examination hall in
the space of an hour. Therefore one should learn how to prepare, organize and present
essays, in order to do well. There are several types of written work at university;
essays, reports, projects, assignments which depend on the purpose. For instance,
writing up a lab report or a practical is different from writing a critical essay. Your first
task is to understand for what purpose you have been asked to write the paper

3.2 Objectives
By the end of this section students should be able to:
 Use writing as an aid to learning.
 Identify key aspects of the writing process.
 Understand the stages in the writing process.
 Distinguish between an academic essay and an ordinary essay.
 Use transition words appropriately.
 Explain the importance of the key aspects of the essay writing process.
3.3 Why Write An Essay

One of the most common forms of university assessment is essay writing. The essays
might ask you to; evaluate a quotation in light of what you have studied, analyze and
assess the significance of a particular policy or event, choose between two conflicting
assessments of an event or theory and to write about a particular theme on aspects
covered in a module.
Essay writing is important because it gives you an opportunity to demonstrate your

ability to:
 think critically about the themes and materials of the course;
 make your own assessment of those themes and conflicting interpretations of
them;
 support your assessment using evidence from the texts, lectures, and precept
discussion;
 show how well you are able to connect the various materials of the course to the
central themes of the course, and to each other and to
 Present or discuss something: develop a „thesis‟, argument or a set of closely
related points - by reasoning and evidence.
3.4 Essay Writing

The following is a list of steps involved in the writing process. The steps have been
mixed up. Indicate the correct order.
 compose a first draft

 Add key words or ideas to be included in each paragraph. This, together with the
introductory sentences, is a plan for the essay.
 Proof read, firstly to check on organization of the essay and secondly to check
spelling, grammar and punctuation.
 Make notes on the resources
 Revise the first draft, if necessary
 Analyze title for cue words and content words
 Split topic, if necessary, into paragraphs
 Find resources, own notes own thoughts about what the essay is about sections
of books, articles in journals, discussion of ideas with friends.
 Read title
 Use note and own thoughts to form a list of key topics (thandekile, chipo, ella,
thando
http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au
The word essay is derived from the Latin word “exagium” which means presentation of
case. An assignment /essay is a group of related paragraphs written to entertain,
inform and persuade .it is a collection of paragraphs about the same subject with a
more definite beginning, middle and end. So when writing essays one has to think
about making a case, i.e. constructing arguments whilst giving evidence rather than
making assertions. It is a continuous piece of writing in formal language, no
abbreviations or slang. It is an invitation to explore a question, undertake targeted
research and active reading and then to structure a logical and clear response that
typically answers the question one point at time via the use of argument supported by
evidence.

Although there are some basic steps to writing an assignment, essay writing is not a
linear process. You might work through the different stages a number of times in the
course of writing an essay. For example, you may go back to the reading and note
taking stage if you find another useful text, or perhaps to reread to locate specific
information
3.5 Planning the Assignment (fortude, portia, mazvita, nomazvo, linda)
Once given an assignment you need to start working on it early

You cannot write a successful essay unless you give yourself enough time to read,
research, think and write. Do not procrastinate or leave it until the last minute; start as
early as possible. Your lecture notes will give you the basic framework of the ideas,
theories and concepts you will need to complete the assignment. These notes will
however be insufficient on their own. You will need to familiarize yourself with the topic
and develop your ideas. When you begin to look at your readings more closely,
remember to read with a purpose. Ask yourself:
- What do I already know about the topic? Start with what you know. If a topic is
unfamiliar, do some introductory reading, lecture notes and course readings will help.
- What do I need to read to be able to answer the essay question?
- Is this material useful to my topic/argument?
- Can I use this material to support my answer? There will be a need to do some extra
reading, and consult extra references and any other material you come across in
the course of researching your assignment. Take down basic points from as
many sources as you can manage and compare what the authors are saying as
you are reading.
It is important to remember for referencing purposes, to take down page numbers of all
the quotes you reproduce from other people‟s work, and full citation details for
each source you use.
3.6 Taking Notes from Reading (anna, annah, lydia, constance, sandra)
Thompson and Waring (1999) advise that when you read in-depth and find information
relevant to your essay, note it down. Your notes will be the basis of your essay. Don‟t
take notes during your first reading. If you are using photocopies, underline or highlight
relevant information. You can return to it when you reread and take notes. Always
make notes with the question clearly in mind. You must use evidence to support your
argument, so look carefully
for relevant information. This can include summaries or direct quotes from texts, useful
examples, case studies or statistics. Make a note of any sources of information you use.
Copy down all the bibliographic details of what you read. Include author, date, title,
publisher and place of publication. For journal articles, include volume and issue
numbers. This will help with your referencing.
After you have done some reading, draw up an initial essay plan
3.7 Essay plan

- Decide on a possible answer to the question in terms of the research you have done.
- Decide on the information you will use to answer the question
- Look through your notes and choose examples to provide evidence to support your
answer
- Decide which points you will discuss, and in which order (first, second, etc.)
- Write all this down in point form and this will be your essay plan Your essay will
probably change as you draft and edit.
Write a second essay plan after you write a draft.
- decide which evidence and examples you will use
- decide whether you have enough information

3.8 Analyzing The Essay Topic
(Oshima, A & Hogue, A 1991,)
Your starting point for your essay is your initial response to the essay topic or question.
Your response is based on what you already know. There is a need to define the
question then analyze the task. It is important that you understand exactly what the
question requires before an analysis and answering of the question can begin.
Key words like discuss or analyze have to be identified and then decide on the approach
to be taken to answer the question
Activities 1.0

(i) Below are key words commonly found in essay questions? Match each of the
words to their essay conventional meanings:
Kumbirayi, innocent, prosper, dylan

KEY WORDS MEANING
To compare/and contrast
To describe
to discuss
to explain
to narrate
to illustrate
 putting forward arguments, evidence, advantages, disadvantages etc.
 giving reasons; showing how one thing causes another, cause and effect.
 expressing ideas and/or feelings; giving opinions and making some kind of
judgment of relative worth.
 telling how one thing happened after another.
 using examples and/or analogies to make your point clearer.
 saying how something works or how something is done
 saying what something is like
The following steps can be taken when analyzing a question:
- set times/dates for completing research, planning, first draft, editing, completion
- Underline keywords and check their meanings, key words will directly relate to the
topic.
- Highlight action words like discuss, critically analyse, compare and contrast , and
identify
- Mind map the question, here you create an answer in your mind through
brainstorming by using knowledge you already have
If you must respond to a quotation or to conflicting statements by different scholars,
do you understand what the quotation or quotations mean? To what event, time period,
or issue does the quotation pertain? What do you know about the person(s) being
quoted?
If you are taking a position in a scholarly debate, do you understand all sides of the
issue?
Ask questions before you begin writing, and make sure you choose the question(s) you
are best prepared to answer. You need to research, question your response, and find
some evidence to help form your answers.
Activities 2.0
Go through the writing activities below and underline the key/cue words
1. history cannot be taught in isolation from other subjects such as geography,
science, anthropology, sociology and mathematics. comment on this statement
2. give an account of the any five Shona festivals in Zimbabwe and explain their
significance
3. examine the contention that three-dimensional representation in art requires
more skill than that of two dimensions.
4. how do plutonic igneous rocks influence the landscape in Zimbabwe? use
diagrams and examples to illustrate your points.
5. write a short review of a musical performance you have attended recently.
explain the reasons for your opinions about it

3.9 The Essay Writing Process
A large amount of time should be allocated for this part and it should occur well before
the due date. The essay plan should consist of topics and ideas/points to be covered.
Each idea should be expanded into a paragraph
Your assignment should consist of an introduction/ discussion/ conclusion - i.e., set the
context of the essay and outline the structure of your argument, cover the
relevant material, and then tie the discussion up by summarizing what has been
said and offering your opinion on what the question is asking about, based on
the sources you have used.
1.9.1 Introduction
This should answer the question and provide a summary or „road map‟ of your essay.
The reader should be told what the essay is going to talk about and what you believe
the answer to be. Keep it brief, but mention all your main ideas.
Your introduction should be solid it should be captivating and grab the reader‟s
attention. It should contain something about how you have interpreted the question
and it also introduces the main point of the essay and it is often a good idea to state a
thesis (an argument) which you are going to illustrate or explore in the body of the
essay – although you may prefer to save the „findings‟ of your exploration to the end, in
which case you have to introduce the question carefully at the start. The introduction
will allow the assessor to judge whether or not the subsequent essay will answer the
set question.

Six really awful ways to begin the essay „Why have baked beans become so popular in
twentieth century Britain?‟
“The question of why baked beans have become so popular in twentieth century Britain
is an interesting…”
“The Oxford English Dictionary defines „baked beans‟ as…”
“In this essay I will explore the question of why baked beans have become so popular
in twentieth…”
“The Penguin English Dictionary defines „popular‟ as…”
“The twentieth century has been going for quite a while now and…”
“The Collins English Dictionary defines „twentieth century‟ as…”
!Why are these awful? Because they are so predictable, uninspiring and limp.
http://web.princeton.edu/writing
Activity :
How you would introduce an essay; an example of a good introduction, Stephen king
author of such stories as Pet Sematary and desperation stated that stories he read as a
child gave him the inspiration and instruction he needed to become a writer that he is .
1.9.2 Main Body /Discussion

The body of your essay is where you answer the question by developing a discussion. it
consists of all the sub-ideas that prove your point of argument. This is the answer and

is comprised of well structured academic paragraphs Here, show your knowledge and
grasp of material you have read. Offer exposition and evidence. Use relevant examples
and authoritative sources. If your question has more than one part, structure the body
into sections that deal with each part of the question.
, make reference to ideas, theories and concepts, empirical research and/ or experience
of your own which support your claims
You should provide evidence for all the assertions that you make during your
assignment; that is. Direct quotations are always good to use - they prove you have
read the source in question for a start! However, again, do not over do it. A good rule
of thumb is, if you can say it just as well yourself, then do not use a direct quotation -
but if you do summarize what someone else is saying in your own words, don‟t forget
that you still need a reference because this is an indirect quotation.
Try to write in a structured way - make sure that one point links clearly to the next. If
you need to move on to new material, then try using constructions like `Moving on‟ or
`On a different issue‟ at the start of the new point. Also make sure you link the sections
of your argument together, so that your assignment is not just a series of points.
Linking points make an assignment flow better.
In the main body you will often need to describe something before you give an analysis
of it. But the more the analysis the better. Only include as much description as is
needed for the analysis to make sense. The analysis is what you will get the marks for.
Of course, a muddled, illogical and unsubstantiated analysis can still leave you with no
marks. Examiners will be looking for a clear, coherent and consistent analysis,
supported by evidence.( Cuba, 1998,23)
Do not just repeat what some books (or your lecture notes) say – we want your
analysis. However, you should also show your awareness of other people‟s analyses Do

not use superfluous words, phrases or sentences. If a sentence means the same thing
with a word taken out, take it out.
The same applies to whole phrases and sentences within the wider context of a
paragraph. Using words and phrases which do not add anything to what you are saying
will mean that your examiners will conclude that (a) you do not have enough to say to
meet the required essay length, and that (b) you are trying to hide this by means of a
slow, repetitive and boring writing style.
1.9.3 Conclusion
The conclusion rounds off the essay, it summarizes the thesis and analysis developed in
the introduction and body of the essay. it needs to be tight, powerful which is the
logical consequence of everything that has gone before. It also makes a final effort to
convince the reader that the thesis has been established as a reliable conclusion with
effective supporting arguments.a good conclusion should notleave the reader hanging.it
ends gracefully and with a sense of finality. Do not conclude more than you have
argued for. The conclusion should be roughly the same length as your introduction and
you should relate it back to your main ideas or points and reiterate your answer to the
question. NEVER introduce new information in your conclusion.
3.10 Basic skills in academic writing

Written academic English uses:
- Full forms rather than contractions such as “don‟t, didn‟t” commonly used in speech
- forrmmal language rather than familiar/informal language is used
Activities 3.0

Instead of using several words you can use one word , for example
A large number of many
A certain amount of some
At the present moment in time now
For that reason because
Exhibits a tendency to tends to
In the event that if
Academic writing adopts an impersonal style and so personal pronouns: I, you, we, -
tend not to be used. Some writers however deliberately flout this convention.
Occasionally one can use personal pronouns when giving an opinion when making a
personal evaluation. An impersonal style is shown by using “it; one; there”
3.11 Writing the in-class exam/test
Before you begin writing, spend 5 minutes making a brief, schematic outline. Taking a
few minutes to organize your ideas first will result in a much more coherent essay, with
no key points left out.
1. Write out a concise statement of your argument (your thesis), and indicate what
major point you will make in each paragraph.
2. Under each major point, list the pieces of evidence you will use to support it, along
with the relevant citation.
3. Remember that even though this is an exam, your essay should have an identifiable
introduction and conclusion.
4. Essay exam responses should be concise and to the point; 5 or 6 strong paragraphs
are better than 8 or 10 poorly organized ones.
For citations simply indicate the author e.g., (Morrison), or the title e.g., (Beloved).

3.12 Essay Paragraphs

3.12.2 Topic Sentence
The topic sentence is your main argument for this paragraph, a generalized assertion. It
carries the main idea or controlling idea of the paragraph. It gives readers an overview
of what he/she is to read.
3.12.2 Supporting sentences
Those develop or explain what is stated in topic sentence. This helps to stick to the
topic and avoid the danger of rambling. Paragraph unity is hence achieved when ther is
the topic sentence and other supporting sentences contribute to the main idea
presented in the topic sentence.
3.12.3 Concluding sentence
This is the sentence that brings the paragraph to an end or to a close. It comes back
full circle to the idea which introduced the main topic sentence. The sentence can
restate your topic sentence, summarize your thoughts about the topic or add a new
insight in the subject.
The Link: Good links i) show that you have a coherent structure that leads the reader
by the hand through the essay and ii) improve flow and add an artist‟s touch. Identify
such links while reading and try them yourself.
What is a paragraph
A paragraph is a group of sentences communicating a single idea. Winkler and McCuen
(1997:40) says that “a block of print is a paragraph only if all sentences are focused on
the same topic”.a paragraph is not a random collection of sentences but “ a group of
sentences which develop one central idea”(Arnaudet and Barret 1990:1)when writing
you need to check that your paragraphs do have a central idea and that the other
sentences contribute in some way to the development of that idea
Each paragraph in the body of the essay should contain:

- a topic sentence ,initial sentence (or main idea sentence) that states your point. This
is a single sentence that sums up what the paragraph is about. The topic sentence
should be short, simple and concise. It is like roads sign that, telling the reader where
the paragraph is heading. an ideal topic sentence should make a single point, the point
should be discussible ,not too narrow or broad. The topic sentence helps to organize
the essay by controlling the rest of the paragraph. it should reflect your feelings
towards the subject, your stand point should be strong definite and clear. The topic
sentence is usually the first sentence of a p[paragraph but not necessarily the case all
the time. at may come for example after a transition sentence or it may even come at
the end of a paragraph.
-developers or supporting sentences that back up the main points with specifics.
supporting sentences give facts, examples, testimony, reason and logic to personal
observations(Winkler and McCuen ,1997)
- an explanation of the point you are making;
- evidence. Most of the time, your point should be supported by some form of evidence
from your reading, or by an example drawn from the subject area. Do not just leave the
evidence hanging there - analyze it! Comment on the implication/significance/impact
and finish off
the paragraph with a critical conclusion you have drawn from the evidence
It is difficult to be prescriptive about paragraphing but the usual guidance is to end a

paragraph when you have finished discussing a particular point. If you feel tha
your paragraph is getting too long, and you have not come to the end of the
point, then break off at a logical place and restart using a construction like
`Moreover‟, `Furthermore‟, `Additionally‟ etc., which makes it clear that you are
still discussing the same issue. Use a FULL BLANK LINE to indicate a
paragraph break

Use gender inclusive language like he/ she, his/ her, they, them, their etc. to gender
exclusive language like he, him, his etc. You should only refer to an individual as he or
she (etc.) when you either know their gender or you are directly quoting someone who
Activities 4.0
English should be abandoned as the medium of instruction in Zimbabwe
Imagine you are given the above topic for an essay try to the six sentences below in
order.
a) in a multi-lingual society like Zimbabwe it is vital that a language is used for

instruction which can bridge the gap between different sections of society.
b) By teaching children in English, one is effectively teaching them to attach less
value to their mother tongue.
c) The use of English on a regular basis is essentially the preserve of the urban
population.
d) Teaching and learning materials are only available in English and financial
constraints do not permit a major investment in translation.
e) That English is an official language in Zimbabwe- and a lingua franca throughout
the region- is a reality we have to accept; it is better to prepare children
thoroughly for this situation by teaching them in English
f) One cannot expect children to learn as efficiently through a language which they
do not fully master as they would through their mother tongue.
3.13 Writing a Descriptive Essay
Here you write an essay that describes a situation, problem or a process
Introduction: to write a descriptive essay it is helpful to begin by asking yourself some

questions.the answers to them provide the material for your introductory paragraph.
the questions are
-do I need to define any of the terms in the title?
- why is the topic important?
- how am limiting my discussion?
- can I break up my task into a number of areas?
Activities 5.0
a) What do you need to define in the following topics?
1) Explain with examples the role of the defence in border disputes?
2) Outline some of the problems of urbanization in one third world country
3.14 Writing an argumentative essay
Here you will be looking at how to write an essay that puts forward one point of
view and tries to defend that point of view. Your opinion on the topic should be
revealed, make sure that your supporting arguments actually support your main
idea which is your point of view. Each supporting paragraph should conclude with an
example that proves your support is valid, these arguments should be precise so
that your arguments convincing. in your conclusion do not summarize the
arguments raised this makes the essay repetitive and boring ,include a solution to
the problem that was being discussed
(Smith 1990, 16)
Activities 6.0
Look at the following topics and write some introductory sentences for them
- city life, should smoking be made illegal, sexual equality, is money the root of all
evil?
3.15 Referencing Your Essay

All academic essays MUST contain references. Referencing guards against plagiarism, a
serious academic offence. Plagiarism is copying someone else‟s words or ideas and
presenting them as your own. Make sure you are familiar with the referencing style of

your faculty or department. most faculties do not mind which system you use as long as
it is consistent. If this is the case, use the system you are most comfortable with.
3.15.1 Reference Lists

Remember to list all the books and articles you use for the essay in a Reference List.
This is a list of all works cited in your essay, and should be the final page
3.16 Editing Your Essay

Most essays are dramatically improved by careful editing. Good essays are the product
of writing and rewriting. If you have time, put your essay aside for a few days before
you begin to edit. This gives you time to gain a perspective on what you have written
and to think further about your answer and arguments.
The time allocated to this final stage is the difference between a pass and a distinction
or a pass and a fail. Try to edit a week prior to the due date.
Once you have a well-organized and fairly complete draft:

-Revise sentences. Make sure the words you use mean what you think they mean. A
good dictionary is a useful tool.
- Check transition signals. Be sure that a reader can follow the sequences of ideas from
sentence to sentence, and from paragraph to paragraph.
-Check punctuation and spelling.
-make sure the conclusion fulfils the promise you make in the introduction
- make sure that references are following the required format
3.17 Handing Your Essay In

READ the assignment guidelines in your course outlines and find out how your
lecturer/tutor would like assignments presented. Make sure you have complied with
their requirements and that you know when and where your essay should be handed in.
In General:
-Make sure you know when, where or to whom your assignment should be handed in.
-Use 1.5 line spacing and a readable font (size 12 Times New Roman at least)
-Essays should be legible so make sure your essay is easy to read. If possible, type your
essay. If not, write neatly on every second line.
-Use a cover sheet available from your department.
-Number pages and use wide margins.
-Print on one side of the page only.
-Make sure you have an extra cop
3.18 CONCLUSION:
Remind the reader of your arguments and main points of evidence.
-So what? Implications/Significance.
- Do not introduce new material.
Recommended Reading
Arnaudet M.L and Barret M.E (1990) Paragraph Development Englewood Cliffs,Prentice
Hall
www.jcu.edu.au/learning skills
Assignment Writing Guidelines

http://www.le.ac.uk/teaching/writtencommunicationguides.html
Cuba, I 1998, A Short Guide To Writing About Social Science, Harper Collins
Essay Writing The Basics

Oshima, A & Hogue, A 1991, Writing Academic English, Addison-Wesley

The Learning Centre • Http://Www.Lc.Unsw.Edu.Au
Smith G ,1990 A Study Skills Handbook Oxford
Thompson E & Waring D 1999 Essay Writing Handbook For Philosophy Students
Department Of Philosophy York University http://web.princeton.edu/

UNIT 4 LISTENING SKILLS
Saidi, U. Charamba, B. & Gijima, T.
‘because listening is twice as hard as talking, we were given two ears but
only one mouth’ Kline, J (1996)
4.1 Overview:
From time to time all of us fail to take note of what people are saying, even if they are
giving us vital information. University life requires certain skills geared at assisting the
student achieve his or her goals. In this unit we focus on listening skills as a
requirement to university learning. We define and explain listening as well as
differentiate listening from hearing. We highlight barriers that impede efficient listening
as well as offer suggestions for improving one‟s skills, after all, we spend a great deal of
our communication time on campus, listening.
4.2 Objectives:
At the end of this unit students should be able to:
 Define listening.
 Distinguish hearing from listening.
 Distinguish between active and passive listening.
 Describe and evaluate the four stages in the process of listening using examples
from areas of study as well as own experience.
 Identify the types of listening and provide an example of the situation in which
each occurs.
 Identify barriers to listening as well as establish solutions to such.
 Identify at least five „other‟ learning skills that must be developed to improve
one‟s listening. Explain the function of feedback in the listening process.
 Define noise and its position in the process of listening.
4.3 Key Words
mental skill speech community concentration stimuli memory bank
aural sounds receiver eccentricities distractions consciously/unconsciously noise
4.4 Introduction:
You have so far been exposed to other modes of learning at university. Listening is
another mode of learning at the university, which is of great importance. It is not
surprising to note that most of us take it for granted that our listening skills are
adequate or even good. Hough observed that „it is often surprising for students…to
learn that listening is an active process‟ (Hough, 1996:36). Therefore effective
communication requires „skills‟, recalling that „a skill involves certain fundamental learn-
able techniques‟ see Severin et al (1983).
Most scholars, who have contributed to communication, particularly listening, do concur

that listening is indeed a skill. DeFleur et al (1993:101) point out that „listening is a skill
that is a result of hearing‟. Although this conclusion is somewhat problematic as it
assumes listening to be hearing, (a point to be expanded later) it captures the essence
of listening as a skill.
Listening is not „inborn‟ –we do not become competent as a listener because we inherit
the capacity from our parents. We learn to attend to, analyze and comprehend
messages directed towards us, just as we learn other skills. For Hough (1996:27) the
reason why listening is a poorly developed skill to most people is that „we are not
taught to value it in childhood‟ and the result is that it is taken for granted. She places

blame on adults hence on teachers, who are too preoccupied to give children total
attention, save for where it may be absentminded, abstracted or oblivious to the real
meaning behind the words. Children thus imitate and grow to reflect the same attitude
into adulthood and the circle goes on and on. Unless one learns listening skills, the
cycle is never broken.
Much of communication theory focuses on how to speak to others and how to convey
your message. Communication is a two-way process, an activity and not a one time
event. The listener‟s role is as central to the communication process as the speaker‟s
role. Besides, in most cases speakers like listeners have dual roles in a communication
process. The speaker turns listener while the listener turns speaker. To this end,
effective communication and connection occurs when the speaker and listener mutually
participate in the process. Thus listening is as important as speaking in the
communication process especially under a college environment.
4.5 What is Listening?
Social sciences research to unravel the behaviours involved in listening can be traced
back to the 1920s. A considerable body of evidence was made available to show the
importance of listening. Different definitions have been proposed against this available
body of evidence.
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines „to listen‟ as „to pay attention
to what someone is saying or to a sound that you can hear‟. The first part of this
definition brings us closer to the skills that you need to learn so as to make the best out
of this mode of learning at university, „to pay attention to what someone is saying‟. The
„someone‟ in this case becomes,
 The lecturer/tutor
 Fellow university mate
 Discussion group member(s)

Listening can also be defined by differentiation. Following Steinberg (1994) to

understand listening we have to distinguish it from hearing. She finds listening as „a
mental skill which can be developed‟ while hearing is „a passive process, --a physical act
of receiving sound noise or aural stimuli‟ (Steinberg, 1994:69). Baker et al (1979:77)
define listening as „the selective process of attending to, hearing, understanding and
remembering. To this end, a human being is born with the ability to hear, unless one‟s
physiological make up can be described as a clinical disorder to which deafness is a
characteristic. What we notice in this definition is a clear formulation that hearing is
genetically endowed but listening requires some mental effort or mental development
for it to be realized. As can be noted anyone with a clinical hearing disorder will not be
able to develop his/her listening skills.
From an applied linguistics point of view, listening,
…involves making sense of the spoken language,

normally accompanied by other sounds and visual input,
with the help of our relevant prior knowledge and context
in which we are listening. [Lynch & Mendelsohn in Schimitt,
ed. 2002:193]
Central in this definition are attention to speech and non-verbal cues that denote and
enhance the meaning of the spoken word. Here, „the spoken language‟ can be seen to
mean any message communicated in the same language as shared by both speaker and
listener of the same speech community. „…prior knowledge means the existing
knowledge to the subject under discussion or existing knowledge that informs the
message. Lastly, „context‟, becomes the environment in which the message occurs
including binding relationships to such.
We might then conclude that Lynch & Mendelsohn‟s definition alludes to the fact that
listening is basically the making of meaning out of message communicated within a
communication chain as appearing and occurring in a specific context to which both
speaker and listener need additional knowledge to the subject of the message. The
ultimate goal of this process is thus to provide understanding or comprehension
especially by the listener. In a lecture for instance, the student‟s (listener) goal is to
comprehend concepts, theories, and facts of a given area of study in his or her quest
for knowledge and skills.
Lynch & Mendelsohn however cautiously remind us that „listening is not merely an
auditory version of reading, just as speech is not simply a spoken version of writing‟
(Lynch & Mendelsohn, 2002:194) and we ought to take this into consideration. From
the foregoing we also notice that this definition is highly technical and does us little in
providing us with a foundation on which to build our goal of developing good listening
skills especially in listening for academic purposes.
Mental effort and concentration are needed in developing listening skills by virtue of the
fact that „listening intently involves total concentration‟ (Eales & White-head, 1995:15).
At this point it is vital to consider Hough who categorizes listening into „Superficial
Listening‟ (SL) and „Active Listening‟ (AL). SL involves an act of hearing words spoken
„…while engaged in activities like housework, watching television, or driving the car‟
(Hough, 1996:37). Notice that Hough‟s conclusions regard SL as synonymous to
hearing. Her defence is that SL or hearing, the listener does not give the speaker
„individual attention‟. In other words, „activities‟ splits the attention of the listener and
listening intently with „total concentration‟ is not realized. The opposite is thus true for
AL. Hough (1996) does not acknowledge that listening and hearing are different.
A basic definition to identify the factors that warrant discussion is necessary and it is
provided by DeFleur et al (1993) who adopt a non-technical definition of listening. They
view listening as behavior and formally define it as;
an active form of behavior in which individuals attempt to

maximize their attention to, and comprehension of, what
is being communicated to through the use of words,

actions and things by one or more people in their

immediate environment. [DeFleur et al, 1993:102]
This definition addresses the major aspects of listening and it lays the foundation of this
discussion. They go on to dispute the fact that listening is hearing by holding that
listening constitutes two main factors which are monitoring the non-verbal as well as
the contextual aspects of messages. The definition speaks for itself and it further
explains even the listening process itself which can be viewed diagrammatically as
follow;
4.6 The Listening Process.
A
Sensing &
Attending
Understanding &
Interpretation
B
Remembering
Key:
A Aural
Processing Sounds
B
Feedback
Message
Fig. 1. The Listening Process.
Activities 1.0
(i) Describe and explain the above diagram.

(ii) Which of the four elements do you think is the most important in the listening
process?
(iii)What conclusions do you draw from the diagram above concerning listening?

From Fig. 1 we notice that listening is a complex process which operates through four
basic stages.
4.6.1 Stage 1. Receiving
 Reception of „noises‟ that surround you, or that are active in a given context. This
can also be stimuli classified as either internal or external stimuli. Internal can be
an assignment we must meet tomorrow, a backache we developed by sitting too
long at the computer in Helenics Computer library, or the hunger pangs we
experience because we did not take time or had no food to eat for lunch. External
stimuli involve words spoken by the lecturer or printed on paper, or events
occurring around us. We realize in Kline‟s (1996) words that,
Whatever the source of the stimuli, we simply can‟t focus on all

of them at the same time. We therefore must choose, whether
consciously or unconsciously, to attend to some stimuli and
reject others.
www.au.af.mil/auawc/awcgate/kline-listen/b10ch3.htm
 It is therefore important to note that human listening is often ineffective because

receiving occurs but attending does not. Receiving thus incorporates
attending/sensing the message decoded or as received from the body of aural
sounds or sound noises.
In Listening we should note that, as has been discussed, it is a multidimensional

activity in which attention to, interpretation of all ways in which people use language,
actions and other things intended to arouse meaning in their receivers. We thus notice
that listening is more than just hearing words.
 Factors Determining How to Attend to Stimuli:

(i) Selectivity of attention: We direct attention to certain things to

prevent an information overload.
(ii) Strength of attention: Attention is not only selective; it possesses
energy, or strength. Attention requires effort and desire.
(iii) Sustainment of attention: Just as attention is determined by
selectivity and strength, it is also affected by time of sustainment.
 Selectivity, strength and sustainment determine attention. Receiving and

attending are prerequisites to the rest of the listening process.
4.6.2 Stage 2: Understanding & Interpretation
 Understanding and interpretation of the message is based on other factors such

as culture, profession, interest, understanding and language common to the
participants in the communication chain.
 Both verbal and non-verbal symbols are crucial on this stage.
4.6.3 Stage 3: Remembering
 The message is either temporarily or permanently stored in the human memory

bank for immediate or future use.
4.6.4 Stage 4: Processing.
 The message is processed based on the listener‟s level of intellect, status, and
sum total of information existing in the memory bank related to the message.
 Processing leads to responding to the message. Steinberg (1994:71) asserts that
„you complete the process of listening by providing feedback to the speaker.‟
 Indeed feedback B consists of all the verbal and non-verbal cues consciously
and unconsciously as well as environmentally conditioned. These are thus a
prerequisite for efficient listening.
 It is essential to note here that silence could be interpreted as feedback and the
meaning assigned to it may differ with contexts. Feedback serves the purpose of
informing the communicator or speaker that the listener/speaker has
sensed/attended („heard‟) the message, understood, interpreted and
evaluated it in relation to all stages described and shown in Fig 1 In other words
feedback is proof that one has been actively listening. Let us now turn to some
of the above in relation to university learning.
 How to achieve understanding & remembering

 Features of a Sound Listening Plan
A thoughtful plan is required before one engages in the listening process and performs
this vital task better. DeFleur et al (1993: 118) table seven features of a listening plan
as summed up below;
Feature Explanation
Understanding Listening Skills We are unique individuals who perform the
task of listening in characteristic ways. The
individual attributes that influence how
well you listen are called your receiver
eccentricities. You need to understand
your eccentricities as a beginning point for
an effective plan.
Preparing yourself for listening. Understand the concept of sender/receiver
reciprocity. This requires that you be open
and sensitive to all kinds of source persons
e.g. you lecturers and to the content of
what they are saying.
Concentration control This requires learning to concentrate
actively on what a person is saying. Such
concentration rests n the distinction
between active and passive listening. Such
concentration must be selective…with the
greatest effort directed toward important
messages and irrelevant ones screened
out.
Alertness and Interest It is important to appear to be listening.
The act of trying to show interest actually
does result in more effective attention to
and understanding of a sender‟s message.
Search actively for Meaning Search actively for the essential meanings
in messages being sent by source, and

summarize them on an ongoing basis in

your own terms. Seek every clue to take
into account how the sender‟s special
background may influence what is being
said.
Keep active while listening This can be difficult, but it pays off. Avoid
slipping into a passive manner of
receiving, with accompanying
daydreaming and distraction. Keeping
active may require changes in behavior,
e.g. adjusting posture, more actively
breathing, or other shifts away from a
relaxed mode.
Suspend judgment about message and Premature judgments about a person‟s
source. intentions, qualifications, or actual
positions can interfere with what is being
said. It is essential, therefore, to withhold
early closure about the real meanings
being transmitted, and wait until after the
entire message has been heard.
Adopted and modified from DeFleur M. L, Kearney P., Plax T.G Fundamentals of
Human Communication (1993) Mayfield Publishing Company, California pg118
The university context involves communication in a lecture, discussion group,

tutorial or a meeting. It is therefore necessary to work out a systematic personal plan
for effective listening. This should not be another „odd‟ of academic exercise but a
personal or individual positive attitude combined with one‟s goals and aspirations,
motivation and self discipline. Making such a plan has its costs for it is not easy or
enjoyable. Remember the world today is very complex and social skills are far more
important than manual or even technical ones. The following are expected of a student
to achieve the above goal.
4.7.1 Before a Lecture:

(i) Pre-reading/pre-studying/research of material on topic(s) to be covered in
the coming lecture/tutorial/discussion.

(ii) Punctuality –being in class/lecture room earlier than the

presenter/lecturer/tutor, enhances listening as opposed to lateness as one
would find hard to establish where the lecture began. Lateness also
disturbs punctual students already in session. Thus each time you are late
for lectures consider yourself a destructor.
(iii) Synchronization of one‟s stationary and any requirements of the lecture.
(iv) Comfortably position yourself in the lecture room –research has shown
that those who sit comfortably where lectures are being delivered gain
much out of the lecture than those uncomfortably seated.
4.7.2 During A lecture:
(i) Attend with your ears to the message.

(ii) Attend with your eyes to the speaker‟s body language (Non-verbal cue i.e
tone of voice, facial expressions and all emotional signals sent by the
speaker)
(iii) Attend to your own reactions and feelings to the message.
(iv) Withhold personal judgments –many a times do we give precedence to our
personal judgments on our lectures/tutors, fellow college mates as presenters
based on their dressing, accent, attitude or mood towards the class/group
members of the discussion group.
(v) Focus on content, not delivery.
(vi) Avoid emotional involvement. When you are too emotionally involved in
listening, you tend to receive or attend to what makes you comfortable –not
what is actually being said. Ueland (1992) encourages us to try to remain
objective and open minded.
(vii) Avoid distractions. Do not let your mind wander or be distracted by the
person shuffling papers near you. If the classroom is too hot/cold try to
remedy the situation if you can. The situation may require that you dress
more appropriately to the room temperature.

(viii) Maintain eye contact with the presenter/lecturer –keeps you involved in the
lecture. Eye contact should be at a comfortable and appropriate level because
eye contact is often misunderstood with staring continuously. Remember
there are cultural and social elements and constructed meanings associated
with eye contact.
Activities 2.0
(i) What are some of the socially constructed meanings associated with eye
contact?
(ii) What are some of the problems and possible solutions caused by these
socially constructed meanings of eye contact?
(iii) What should you do after the lecture?
Swain (2007) best sums up how we can get the best of our lectures,
The first top tip you want to get the most out of a lecture is to
be there…But being there in body isn‟t enough. You have to
make sure your mind is somewhere in the vicinity too. The best
way of doing this is to prepare beforehand. Think about where
the lecture fits into the course, how it follows on from the last
lecture, seminar or lab session, and try to anticipate what might
come up, what questions might be addressed and what you
want to get out of it. (Swain, Tuesday October 16, 2007 Mail &
Guardian)
4.7.2.1 Phases in the Lecture:
Effective listening requires attention, especially to those aspects of a message in

their diverse and complex nature as this influences interpretation. Generation of
meaning on the other hand is also based on the accumulation of both indirect and
direct expression we have had during our lifetime. In other words, past experiences
influences feedback and understanding.
4.8 FACTORS AFFECTING LISTENING
What we have been discussing so far makes us realize that listening more than
anything else is a mental effort. It is individual and no daggers can be drawn to force
one to engage in it. Students are only encouraged to listen and to develop their
listening skills for their academic and presumably professional purposes after college
life. To this end we should thus treat listening as a mental task. Listening to an
academic lecture is not a passive act for other aspects of academic excellence can be
realized such as note taking and note making.
Of the various types of listening (this point will be developed later), active listening is
best suited for the lecture. When students stay active by asking mental questions such
as what key point is the professor making? How does what the Dr. is saying fit with
what I know from previous lectures/research? How is this lecture organized? They are
indeed engaged in active listening and they gain the best out of the lecture.
Ueland (1992) encourages students to use the gap between the rate of speech and
personal rate of thought because a listener thinks faster than the lecturer can talk.
Interestingly, the mind has the capacity to listen, think, write and ponder at the same
time, requiring practice though. These processes to be realized nothing should affect
the mental process which the student requires.
There are various factors that affect listening or the listening process. Anything
unwanted in the flow of a message from the speaker to the listener and back to the
speaker as feedback constitutes distractions. One would want to treat any factor that
discourages the smooth flow of the message as a distracter. Distractions should be
avoided at all costs in a learning environment not necessarily for personal gain but also
for the purpose of other students who may be engaged in a lecture or discussion.
Selfishness on campus becomes another clear example of distractions especially to
individual students of say Musicology playing mbira or any other portable musical
instrument in the vicinity of an Africa Languages lecture.
Eales & Whitehead‟s (1995) approach is admirable and we adopt it. They divided
distractions into internal and external distractions (IDs & EDs respectively). IDs are
heavily embedded in the listener‟s psyche and physiology. EDs are those factors that
may not be in the immediate control of the listener such as weather, a helicopter
passing over the roof top of a lecture room. EDs in most cases affect more than one
person, that is, the ringing of your phone will affect the next person and even the
lecturer who may be delivering an important lecture. This explains why in the exam
room the penalty for ringing cell phones is stiff and possibly the same should be
extended to the lecture rooms too. Below is a table with examples of IDs and EDs.
Examples if Internal Distractions Examples if External Distractions

 Tiredness  Physical noise
 Hunger  Lack of privacy
 Feeling burdened by own problems/  Poor handwriting
stress
 Day dreaming
 Anxiety
 A need to be somewhere else.
Table 1. Examples of Distractions
Activities 3.0
(i) What are some of the barriers to effective listening not listed in Table 1
above that you can think of?
(ii) What solutions can you implore in each of the IDs and EDs as noted by Eales
& Whitehead, and those you have identified?

DeFleur et al (1993) view the IDs and EDs as basically barriers to effective listening. A
„barrier‟ is any condition, either in the context or one that is personal to the listener,
which functions to reduce accuracy in communication (DeFleur et al 1993:113). They
identify barriers grouped into five broad categories as summed below;
 Physical conditions: these hamper the process and are characterized by

physical noise.
 Personal Problems: these pose barriers to good listening which affect
individuals physically. Sickness, exhaustion and discomfort caused by illness are
characteristics of personal problems.
 Cultural Difference: cultural differences between the players in a
communication chain.
 Prejudices: against speakers.
 Connotative meanings: personal, subjective and unshared interpretations we
have for verbal and non verbal symbols and signs.
Activities 4.0
(i) What can be done about connotative meanings as an influence on listening?
Noise can be viewed as a distracter by virtue of the fact that it interferes with
the transmission and comprehension of a message. Noise represents anything that
interferes with the transmission and understanding of a message. All linkages within the
communication process are affected.
4.8.1 Noise Factors:
 Speech impairment.
 Illegible handwriting.
 Poor eyesight.
 Physical distance between sender and receiver.
4.9 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HEARING AND LISTENING
It is important to note that there is a great difference between listening and

hearing. Most people put little attention to listening for they perceive it as hearing
hence illusionary conclude that hearing is listening. Most linguists do not distinguish the
two and in the cases they do, it is in the abstract sense because in their study of
speech, hearing is the first stage of the mechanics of the auditory system and this
simply drives us into the realm of hearing (see Martin & Rahilly, 1999).
4.9.1 Hearing
Linguistically it involves the reception of the sound noises from the air. Sound noises
have multiple sources and are unlimited. In hearing there is an implication that sound
waves have been received or are capable of being received for further mental
processing. Hearing is passive and unconscious.
Activities 5.0
(i) Try to be conscious (listen) to all the noises outside and within your
immediacy.
(ii) How many noises can you hear?
(iii) What then do you think is the difference between hearing and listening?
4.9.2 Listening
Involves and thinking about, understanding and evaluating what is heard. It is an active
decoding of sound noises meaningful/purposeful to the receiver. The sound noises are

received to have a positive purpose or function to the receiver. Barker et al (1979:77)

see listening as involving evaluation and responding to what has been communicated.
The following points are to be noted when developing listening skills that;
 Listening involves the „heart‟ which means emotions are also involved.
 It is limited to particular function or environment.
 Complex, as it also involves the eyes, heart and only the ear.
 An active and conscious act.
As such it requires special training as skills of this nature in a given environment will
make an individual achieve the best out of the unlimited and multiple sources of sound
noises in the air as well as non-verbal cues. Hedde et al (1975) are of the opinion that
speech (spoken language sic) has more influences than written language. Think of the
university environment where lecturers and tutorials, instructions, group discussions,
meetings are conducted through the use of speech or spoken word. For the influence to
be highly recognized, speech or spoken word requires Listening Skills. In most
corporate environments one gets instructions orally (speech or spoken language) and
how well one listens determine how successful one performs. Similarly, the university
environment has the same construction where most lectures/tutorials are delivered
orally and how well one uses his/her own listening skills determines how successful the
student performs. It is therefore apparent that as one hears spoken language/speech
he/she learns LISTENING SKILLS consciously/unconsciously.
Listening is much more than trying to hear and decipher the phonetic sounds
being produced by the sender. It is matching of the mental faculties of the sender and
the receiver. The vital ingredient of good communication, that is, listening seems to
have become a part of hearing. We are often confronted during the transmission of any
message with queries of the following nature;
 Do you hear?

 Do you understand?
The response to this is more in the nature of a nod or a reply in the affirmative and
most of the time there is no endeavor on the part of the receiver to catch the unspoken
beneath the spoken word. Hearing is perception of all that is being stated in accordance
with one‟s own frame of reference.
4.10 Causes of poor listening.
Listening ability decreases when information is difficult to understand and when it has
little meaning to you. Other causes are failure to concentrate, forced to drift when
listening to information, tiredness and when concerned about another matters.
Activities 6.0
(i) With your friend, establish instances when you were unable to follow one
particular lecture. What caused your inability to follow the lecture?
(ii) How did you solve the problem and what did you do to get the information
lost in that particular lecture?
Activities 7.0
(i) What type of listening go along with the following;

1. Listening to be entertained i.e. to escape for a while from the cares and harsh
demands of the real world?
2. For Inspiration, think of the Sermons on Saturdays and Sundays?
3. To understand the feelings of others and help them?
4. To gather information?

The university environment always require/demand the student to carry out

some or all of the above for they serve the important purposes in sharpening academic
and social excellence.
4.11 Types of Listening
There are basically two major types to listening and these are Active Listening and
Passive listening. The other aspects fall below these two.
4.11.1 Active Listening
This is the most important type of listening. The receiver absorbs all that is being
said and also makes an attempt to verify all that he has been listening to when
combined with sensitive listening it can result in the best kind of listening. With the
receiver moving in accordance with the communicative intent of the speaker we can
assume that listening takes place in such circumstances is the ideal kind.
4.11.1.1 Informational
As a student, you may engage in this type of listening more often than any other. It is
usually done when attending to a lecture‟s remarks, instructions, lectures and
comments in class. It demands that we attend to specifics as well as distinguish one
piece of information from another in order to attend to more pieces of information.
Listening for Information is typical of academic situations. It is the ability to understand
and assimilate factual information i.e. listening to instruction, to a lecture and to
authorities.
4.11.1.2 Evaluation

Evaluation and decision making is its intended purpose. Information should occur
before any evaluation with these points in mind;
 How believable is the speaker?

 Is he highly competent to talk about the topic?
 How much support is given for the arguments raised?
4.11.1.3 Emphatic Listening
Part of the emphasis in this type lies on the ability of the receiver to match his
perception with those of the sender. It is a myth to presume that words have the same
meaning to everyone. Meanings assigned to spoken words lie in our perceptions and
not in words. An attempt is made to decipher the meaning of the statement in relation
to the perceptions and experiences of the sender. To understand the message in a
more meaningful manner it is necessary for the receiver to raise queries. This helps in
understanding the viewpoint of the sender and therefore presents a correct perspective
of the message sent. Sensitive listening in itself is not a very useful tool of
communication if taken in isolation. It also involves „empathy‟ where one projects one‟s
own personality for another for better understanding. It is listening to understand
feelings and emotions for others. „Put yourself in other peoples‟ shoes.‟ (Anon). The
following points are worth considering on this type of listening.
- Focus more on emotion than on information or evaluation.

- The goal of such listening is to provide emotional support to the speaker in order
to help him solve a problem or come to terms with a situation.
- It is crucial to listen for feelings as well as for facts and to support the speaker
with responses like „I understand how you feel‟.
- It is a type of listening you engage when you listen to a friend who is trying to
decide to deal with an alcoholic parent for instance, whether to break off a
romantic relationship etc.

- Also used when a friend is questioning what to buy someone for a birthday gift
or whether to go for a certain movie.
4.11.1.4 Participative Contribution from the Receiver
As long as there is some kind of activity in the form of participative contribution

from the receiver, there can rarely be any kind of miscommunication. This state can
be achieved when questions are asked in response to the statements made by the
sender since words have different meanings for different people. Active listening is
not solely a product of the capabilities of the listener.
4.11.2 Passive Listening
In passive listening, all that is being said is heard but not really absorbed.
Absorption of the spoken words comes only where there is „sharpening‟ and
„assimilation‟. Utterances sink into the mind of the individual in the form of the heap
„verbal garbage‟ without any actual processing being done to it. In passive listening
there is no invasion on the thought process or an onslaught of ideas which could
probably change the trend of thinking or strengthen the preconceived ideas of the
receiver. In passive listening the listener should be held primarily responsible for the
lapse in the listening on the part of the receiver.
4.11.2.1 Pseudo Listening

When engaged in this type of listening we appear as though we are listening and
engaged in all the right external behavior, but allowing our minds to wander.
Activities 7.0

(i) What are the characteristics of the following listening types (a) selective
listening (b) Self centered listening?
4.11.2.2 Marginal Listening
Provision of too much information can lead to an information load. As a result listening
tends to get hampered. One listens to the entire presentation merely because one is
expected to do so. We have instances where an individual listens only at the superficial
level and does not try to go beyond a brief understanding of the topics discussed. The
most common factor which can be attributed to this kind of listening is fatigue or
boredom. The respondent resects a barrier through which he allows information to seep
only in bits and pieces. As a result partial or marginal information can be retrieved if the
situation demand or the need so arises.
4.11.2.3 Projective Listening

4.11.2.4
The responses of the receiver are in a state of „restful alertness‟. Each individual has on
him a frame of reference in which he tries to adopt the perspective of the co-interact
ant. While listening, the receiver tries to view and absorb the contents of the
presentation within his own frame of reference. The image of a camera can be used to
understand the concept. The receiver‟s frame of reference is like the pin-hole in the
camera through which he views the outside world/perspective of the speaker and tries
an amalgamation of the two. Projected listening is an attempt by the receiver at
viewing the world or viewpoint of the interactant from limited personal perspective.
Activities 8.0
(i) Think of a situation when you said something to your friend and he/she was
engaged in something and not listening to what you were saying.
(ii) How did you feel after your message was received or you thought it was
received (heard) and no feedback was provided?

(iii) Think of a situation when something important was said to you and you were
not „listening‟.
(iv) How did the speaker react? What did you „loose‟?
4.12 Essentials for good Listening:
The student grows responsibly on campus and achieves academic excellence.

The student becomes a good social mate and a „natural‟ leader. However, for listening
to be effective, certain behavioral patterns should be observed.
(a) Good Positive Attitude: starting on the negative or bias can be

counterproductive to the listening process. It closes the mind of the individual
to the ongoing proceedings and he practices marginal or passive listening.
Positive attitude towards listening results in acceptance of the speaker.
(b) Concentration: at the hard core level is encouraged, even trying to anticipate
the utterance of the speaker can keep our attention glued to the topic at
hand. This can only be achieved by a conscious desire to the part of the
respondent not to miss out on any of the vital issues under consideration.
413 Attributes of Good Listening:
Good Listening Positive Connotations

1 Wider perspective Comprehensive approach
2 Increased sense of competence Sense of accomplishment
3 Increased sense of mastery Sense of self confidence
4 Greater objectivity and open mindedness Objective viewing of facts
5 Decreased defensiveness Opening up to new ideas and new

avenues
4.14 Keys To Effective Listening
We would have done Manning et al (1995) injustice should we not include the ten keys
to effective listening. Let us consider the table below;
KEYS TO EFFECTIVE THE BAD LISTENER THE GOOD LISTENER

LISTENING
1. Capitalize on thought Tends to day dream. Stays with the speaker,
speed. mentally summarizes the
speaker, weighs evidence,
and listens between the
lines
2. Listen for ideas. Listens for facts. Listens for central or overall
ideas.
3. Find an area of Tunes out dry speakers or Listens for any useful
interest. subjects. information.
4. Judge content Tunes out dry or monotone Assesses content by
speakers listening to entire message
before making judgments.
5. Hold your fire! Gets too emotional or Holds judgments until
worked out by something comprehension is complete.
said by the speaker and
enters into an argument.
6. Work at listening. Does not expend energy on Gives the speaker full
listening. attention.
7. Resist distractions Is easily distracted. Fights distractions and
concentrates on the
speaker.
8. Hear what is said. Shuts out or denies Listens to both unfavorable
unfavourable information. and favorable information.
9. Challenge yourself Resist listening to Treats complex
presentations or difficult presentations as exercise
subject matter. for the mind.
10. Use handouts, Does not take notes or pay Takes notes as required
overheads or other attention to visual aids. and uses visual aids to
visual aids. enhance understanding of
the presentations.

Derived from G. Manning, K. Curtis & S. MacMillen, Building the Human Side of Work Community
(Cincinnati, OH: Thomson Exercutive Press, 1996)pp 127-54; and P. Slizewski, “Tips for Active
Listening”HR Focus, May 1995, p 7.
4.15 Conclusion
We have noted that listening is very complex and as such qualifies in the realm of other
skills that need to be developed. Listening Skills therefore do not develop themselves
within an individual; they require effort and certain conscious parameters to be
followed. It is also interesting to note that both lectures and students are subjects to
listening in their various goals at college.
From the table we notice how comprehensive it is in addressing elements of listening

and how it offers one guidelines in which to develop one‟s listening skills. It is also vital
to point out here that effective listening is not a visible physical skill. It is highly mental
and a conscious effort whose results are seen in the listener‟s achievements of his or
her goals. For a college student, there is no other way but to be conscious to the art of
listening, only then can you successfully pursue your studies and gain the best out of
your lectures, discussions and eventually passing your exams. With this in practice you
are rest assured that your long term goals are guaranteed. Nurturing your listening
skills also go beyond the lecture room. After your graduation, you will require your
listening skills too in real life situations such as work places, community, and church.
Thus, this is the time to start developing your listening skills.

UNIT 5 NOTE TAKING

Mugomba, M., Matandare, S. Hlatshwayo, P., Ntabeni
5.1 Overview
According to Montgomery (1982) notes are a form of summary of the main points and
important details of a text. Notes are made after a text has been read and understood
and they should be brief and clear. Notes should also be accurate.
5.2 Objectives
This chapter seeks to :
 Paint a clear picture of what notes are and to provide a clear definition of notes.
 Display the importance of note taking
 Equip the students or readers with different techniques of making notes so that
they produce notes that are relevant, accurate and understandable.
 Develop effective note making strategies that are appropriate to the study task.
 Equip students with information of how notes are supposed to help them to
study and what to do with the notes once they have been made.
 Equip students with information of how notes are supposed to help them to
study and what to do with the notes once they have been made.
5.3 Key words
Sequential notes, linear notes, pattern notes, summary notes, tree-branching,

outline notes
5.4 Why Make Notes
Notes help students through out their study at college, one can refer to his or her
notes quickly rather than going back to the original text or trying to remember what
a text was all about. Payne and Whittaker 1999 assert that notes aid understanding
and learning that is one can not remember much of what was read unless they
recall and review regularly. Making notes in one‟s own words aid retention of the
material in your memory. By summarizing theoretical approaches, arguments and
ideas in note form, one gains a better understanding of their strength and
weakness. When making notes it is important that one aims to understand the
material rather than taking down word for word what is said or written. Notes also
help to aid concentration since more of it is required when taking down notes than
when one is reading or listening, it forces you to pay attention. In summary notes
help:
 To remember key points.

 To use information in assignments
 To make a follow up in some way and
 To understand the topic
Activities 1.0
The following Questions are to be answered by students in class
1. What sort of notes did you make as a student before coming to university?
2. What did you do with your notes once you made them?
3. What kind of notes do you expect to make as a student at University?
5.5 When and Where To Make Notes
Notes are made:
 In meetings, at work
 In lectures
 When someone is reading and
 In discussions, tutorials and seminars
Ways of making notes
According to Payne and Whittaker (1999) there are two ways of writing notes which
are sequential or linear and Pattern.
5.6 TYPES OF NOTES
5.6.1 Sequential/Linear Notes
Sequential notes are the most common way of presenting notes. Burns and Sinfield
(2004) assert that making linear note involves taking down what is written line by
line. It also involve s listening or reading and then recording in one s words the
relevant information in the sequence as the original material is presented. Linear
notes are an advantage to a student who can write fast and they can be quite

information packed and can give a comforting feeling .According to Payne and
Whittaker(999)Linear notes can be made as summery or outline notes.
5.6.1.1 Summary notes
These are a summery of what has been said or read but put in one‟s own words.
They are a shorter version of the original. To make summery notes one picks out
the main points or ideas.
5.6.1.2 Outline notes
Key words and phrases are noted. The notes maybe sequentially numbered or there
is the use of headings, subheadings and indention for clarification and it makes the
notes easy to follow.
Disadvantages of linear notes.
 You can take down so much information such that you feel swamped by it.
 You take so many notes and may never have time to read them again.
 If you can not write really fast you may end losing track and may start to
panic and miss more information.
 If you leave things out you may feel that you are a failure.
 All the information looks the same hence it is difficult to focus on specific
points.
 You can be trapped by the way that the lecturer has presented the
information and one might find it difficult to think about the topic in any other
way.
 It is a very passive form of note taking and one hardly uses their brain. It
only utilize half the brain ( in Buzan‟s terms –left brain logical rather than
right brain creative)Hence according to Sinfield and Burns(2004) note taking
becomes a boring and monotonous process rather than an exciting one.
5.6.2 Nuclear/Pattern notes
 Defer ordering and prioritize information.

 Encourages short notes
 Create distinctive notes.
 Encourages active learning since the process utilizes the whole brain.

According to Sinfield and Burns (2004) Pattern notes have the following
advantages:
 They encourage a key word system

 Encourages short notes
 Students actively reduce information to keywords as they go or as
they subsequently revise their notes. This means that one has to
think about their notes.
 Such notes are short and there for usable
 One does not need to be able to write fast but just have to be able
to learn to think.
 Notes are not in hierarchical order you can arrange them in your
own order.
 Each set of notes looks distinct from other set of notes, making
them more memorable.
 Information is more easily located within these notes.
 Buzan (1999) argues that this is an active and creative note taking
system that utilizes the whole brain and thus prompts more
learning.
5.7 Successful notes
According to Sinfield and Burns (2004) successful notes should have the following:
 Source- if one is in lecture –title, lecturer‟s name and date.

publisher.
 Key words, key points, examples, names and new ideas.
 Headings which capture key sections
 Some structure- This includes things that make the notes
easy to read and these include patterns, numberings, arrows
and highlighting.
 Should also have things that link the notes to the course
aims and outcomes and assignments.
 Good notes should also have mnemonic triggers that make
the notes memorable for example cartoons, colors, and
illustrations.

 Good notes should also provide a section for further reading

for example names highlighted in the notes or gathered in a
specific place.
Activities 2.0
Answer the following questions and find out if you are good at note taking. Tick where
applicable.
Do often find Very often Often sometimes Not at all

you need more
time to get
things done?
Do you tend to
take only a few
notes?
Do you take
down important
information and
key words
only?
Write down as
much as the
tutor says?
5.8 What to do before the lecture
According to Sinfield and Burns( 2004) the essence of good note making is preparation
there for students should prepare by exploring the aims, learning outcomes and the
overall syllabus of the programme. They should also examine the topic and recall the
topic as a whole and then brainstorm with the following questions in mind: What do I
already know on this topic? What do I need to find out? Etc.
5.8.1 During the lecture
 The student should actively remain in tune with the lecture.

 Listen for new ideas and information.
 Select key points and write them down as briefly as possible.

 If the lecturer mentions research evidence or further reading, one should note
down the names.
5.8.2 After the Lecture
 After the lecture an active student should do something with his or her notes.
Buzan (1999) argues that unless we do something we will forget ninety-eight
percent of what we heard in three weeks.
 One may also take some time to draw up a shorter version of the notes,
replacing sentences and phrases with key words.
 Should revise and this will increase both the student understands of the material
and their ability to remember it.
 Discussions also help and discussing is an effective learning technique.
 Students are also encouraged to compare notes and this will help them to fill in
the gaps or missing information they would have left out during the lecture.
Activity Three
Look at your last lecture notes and write a brief summery of them.
5.9 Conclusion
Notes are a form of a summary of the main points and should be made after a
text has been understood. Notes help students to remember key points and they
aid understanding .There are two ways of making notes which are linear and
pattern. Linear notes can be made as summary or outline notes and sequence is
of great importance. Pattern notes defer ordering or sequence and they can be
made as mind maps. Pattern notes encourages active learning.
From the information presented it is clear that pattern notes are better than
linear notes. Pattern notes encourage active learning whereas linear notes do
not.


References
Burns and Sinfield 2004 Teaching, Learning and Study Skills, New York, Longman
House.
Buzan,T.(1989) Use your Head, London, BBC Publications.
Fieldman R, S (1947) Power Learning Strategies for success in Colleges and Life
New York, Mc Graw Hill Companies.
Montgomery,M.(1982)study Skills For colleges and Universities in Africa, New

York, Prentice Hall.
Payne,E and Whittaker,L.(2006)Developing Essential Study Skills, Newyork,

Longman House
.

UNIT 6 READING
6.1 Overview
This unit will focus on reading for academic pursuits, that is ,different materials such as
texts, articles ,handouts and from electronic media‟s most University work requires an
ability to understand and reflect intelligently on written texts and, subsequently ,to
respond in writing to them, this unit will equip you with various reading skills essential
for study skills such as functional reading and recreational reading .Reading is a vital
component of University learning as college courses involve reading challenging
material which you have to approach with skills. The reading skills you develop during
your college years will help you advance your studies and in future professions.
6.2 Objectives
This unit will enable you to;
 Define the term reading

 Identify different types of reading and reading strategies
 Explain the link between reading and study skills
 Apply different reading skills as relevant to the purpose of reading
 Identify reading disabilities and suggest how they can be dealt with.
6.3 Keys Words
 Reading
 Skimming
 Scanning
 Intensive Reading
 Extensive Reading
 SQ3R
 Study Skills

6.4 Definitions
Many authorities have come up with various definitions for the term reading. According
to Smith (1977:09) reading is” essentially a process of gleaning meaning from printed
symbols” Dearborn and Anderson (1977) define reading as a controlled form of talking
in which the words on the page are substituted for the usual stimuli of speech. It is one
of the key elements to successful study. McKee (1977:09) provides another definition:
“the process of reading consists of carrying out three major tasks
(i) Identifying and recognizing printed words quickly and accurately
(ii) Arriving at an adequate understanding of the meaning intended by the writer
(iii) Making use of the meaning arrived at”
Reading is a multi-faceted skill. It is a receptive skill and in language, receptive skills are
concerned with the understanding of anything written or spoken. Wingard and Abbort
(1981) assert that normally reading is a silent and individual activity since the writers
intention was that the text should be read not heard. On the other hand, Tichapondwa
(2000:42) posit “reading is a holistic act involving the process of constructing meaning
from the text .It is a complex skill requiring the coordination of a number of interrelated
sources of information. In reading learners can take time to reflect on the form and
meaning of language they are dealing with as it is part of the learning process. Reading
is a fundamental aspect of academic work, hence the learner has to be able to able to
read for different purposes and acquire knowledge through various reading skills
Activities 1.0
Basing on your experience as a student, formulate your own definition of reading.
6.5 TYPES OF READING
In present day society the quest for information is of paramount importance. Those
who read can be well informed and this enables them to keep up to date with modern
development in industry and commerce and can consult right sources of information for
their requirements. The type of reading one engage in depends on the purpose of
reading. Reading is the key to new experiences and enrichment of life, that is, through

reading we can have access to free information on what is happening around us and
can add our own views.
We will look at the two types of reading one can undertake.
6.5.1 Recreational Reading
This is reading for pleasure. Reading is one of the most pleasurable ways of learning
new experiences of others, that is through reading magazines, newspapers,
e.t.c.Through reading the learner can be in touch with different societies and
imaginative adventures and experiences .However for the reader to enjoy reading, the
article being read should be readable. Readability is of prime importance when reading
for pleasure. Factors which influence readability are legibility, interest, and ease of
understanding through pleasant and attractive styles of writing. According to Chalk
(1948) it is the sum total of all those elements within a given piece of printed material
that affects the success which a group of readers have with it. This success is the
extent to which they understand it, read it at optimum speed and find it interesting.
Another effect to pleasurable reading is dyslexia which is a reading disability that
produces the misperception of letters during reading and writing, unusual difficulty in
sounding out letters, spelling problems and confusion between right and left, Feldman
(2005).This can affect meaning of material being read and hence brings no joy to the
reader.
Activities 2.0
What is recreational reading? Explain what is meant by readability and identify three
factors that influence it .
6.5.2 Functional Reading
This is reading undertaken to obtain information necessary to tackle a specific problem

.There is need for the reader to acquire or develop skills to locate and process
information quickly and efficiently. In functional reading, retrieval of information is of
particular importance .Functional reading is undertaken to obtain information for a
specific purpose, e.g. for an examination, assignment, research presentations e.t.c.

The aspect of readability is also of paramount importance in functional reading. Skilled

reading is an essential prerequisite to academic study In functional reading, the reader
has to find information systematically and easily depending with the readability of the
text being read. The reader can only be actively engaged in reading when material
being read makes him/her stay alert, creates questions and answers within the reader.
Functional reading should lead to critical thinking and provide answers or solutions to
specific questions.
Activities 3.0
What is functional reading and how does it differ from recreational reading? Which of
the two do you prefer and why?
6.6 READING STRATEGIES
At University /College ,you are not expected to read everything with the same degree of
intensity There are different reading strategies one may adopt depending with the level
of comprehension one wants to acquire These are : .
 Background reading
 Skimming
 Scanning
 Intensive Reading
 Extensive Reading
6.6.1 Background Reading
It is the pre-course reading which can provide an overview of the topic and help identify
framework of more details to come. It is the skeleton type of reading without much
detail, is done quickly at a steady and easy pace and in a fairly relaxed and receptive
frame of mind. The reader locates general views and background information rather
than detailed and specific arguments, theories, models and perspectives. It is meant to
give the reader the big picture of the topic to be studied.
6.6.2 Skimming

This is fast reading with eyes running down the page very rapidly .It is meant to give a
general impression of the authors meaning. It involves searching through a text or
article very quickly by reading the first and last paragraphs and noting other cues such
as the introduction and summary or conclusion .It can be done when superficial
knowledge is needed or a rough idea of the subject is required. The reader may skim
for no particular information before reading the text in detail, going through headings,
names of people, unusual features, and capitalized words in a newspaper etc. This can
be done when researching as the reader has to skim through a text or article before
making a decision to read it thoroughly, discard it or use it for assessments.
6.6.3 Scanning
This also involves running your eyes over a text, but looking for particular information
or facts. The reader reads very rapidly, searching for specific point‟s .You can read the
introduction and conclusion in detail and then speed-read other parts. The reader only
reads what is necessary in order to specific essential details. Other materials that can
be scanned include graphs, maps, pictures etc for summarized details. This provides the
learner with moderate level of information about the subject to be read. It enables the
reader to identify new terms and try to find meanings before detailed reading.
Activities 4.0
Skim and scan through the extract below and explain the differences between skimming
and scanning.
6.6.4 Intensive Reading
This Is Essential For Through reading, for analysis, comparison, evaluation, e.t,c. It can
be carried out in stages for effective results to be obtained, skimming the material to
gain an overview of the chapter, book or article, then read in detail for understanding of
information as well as relating to the subject overall. It requires a formal method such
as SQ3R method, which stands for
Survey, Question, Recite/Recall, Review, Read

These five components will be explained below;
6.6.4. (i)Survey
Material is surveyed to get a general view of what is in the text. It helps the reader to
find out the objectives of the text, index layout etc.
6.6.4.(ii)Question
This second course of action in intensive reading requires you to formulate questions
that enable you to actively engage the text
6.6.4.(iii)Read
At this stage the reader has to actively engage the text in two or even three rapid but
searching readings of the text .This enables you to answer questions formulated above
and you do so by making notes.
6.6.4(IV) Recall/Recite
Make an effort to recall main points of what you have already read .This can be done at
the end of a chapter or at frequent intervals .This is the most vital part of the process
as it enables the reader self testing to find out how much you can recall from your
reading.
6.6.4.(v)Review
This stage involves going back to revisit the chapter or article you have just attempted
to recall to check if you recited details correctly. It gives the reader room to make
additions or changes if there is need to.
6.6.5 Critical Reading
This builds upon the other three types of reading and is evaluative .The reader has to
make judgments by weighing incoming information with the existing knowledge already
in the mind .There has to be a distinction of fact and opinion .A critical approach to
reading requires the reader to engage a text in a dialogue manner. In this process the
reader has to analyze ,evaluate and hypothesize in order to be able to shape own
preexisting ideas into some new perspectives .This is not all about getting answers to
questions ,but, using them as an avenue to arrive at meanings that are embedded
within the text
Activities 5.0
What does SQ3Rstand for? In what type of reading can it be applied and why?
6.7 READING AND STUDY SKILLS
A college or University student can use reading competence to advance studies.

Reading is one of the essential components of study skills and can be used to acquire
higher educational qualifications. In your quest for information there are four basic
reading and study skills you must attempt to master. These are;
 Location of information
 Retention of information
 Organization of information ,and
 Evaluation of information
6.7.1 Location Skills
This involves use of indicators used in texts such as authors preface, table of contents,
index of names and many more. These are pointers which need to be gone through
carefully as they determine your subsequent and the extent of your research.
6.7.2retention Skills
Apply SQ3Rwhich has been explained above. This is an advanced technique

recommended to students at a higher level of learning.
6.7.3 Organization Skills
This involves laying out information located in a logical and orderly manner .It entails
note making and sequencing of notes.
6.7.4 Evaluation Skills
Read information with a critical mind so as to pass judgment of the author‟s

competency in writing. Make distinctions between facts and opinions.
Activities 6.0
Identify and explain the four basic skills in reading and studying
6.8 LEVELS OF COMPREHENSION IN READING
Reading without comprehension is valueless because one has to understand what is

read in order to benefit from it. There are four levels of comprehension readers must be
familiar with and these are;
i)Literal
This is the first level of gaining literal meaning of the story or text from the printed
words. It calls for straight forward answers and uses simple questions such as; w
(ii)Inferential
At this level the reader has to be a bit more attentive to the text in order to draw
conclusions on what might have happened. The reader has to infer and make
conclusions on information that has not specifically been stated in material read. It uses
why questions

(iii)Critical
It requires the reader to put him/herself of those in the text. It is a level of empathy It
uses the what…imagine questions, for example, what could I have done if I was in the
same situation.
(iv)Creative
At this highest level of comprehension, the reader is free to put forward own thoughts
or ideas in relation to what has been read.
Activities 7.0
Outline the four levels of comprehension and state how they relate to reading for study
6.9 SUMMARY
The purpose of this unit has been to define reading, identify and describe different
reading types and strategies as well as levels of comprehension .It is our hope that you
have appreciated the fact that reading is a developmental process which depends on
the mastery of a number of skills. We also hope that you will be able to use skilled
reading in your academic pursuits and as a means of relaxation and enjoyment.
Note making skills are:
a)formulating questions to be answered
b) titling of passages
c) recognition of keywords, phrases, facts, concepts in sources and their selection
d)use of abbreviations
e) layout and presentation (systematic and memorable)
f) organization of data
g) incorporation and interpretation of diagrammatic materials

h)re-assembly of written format from a set of notes
i) generalize/ conceptualize
j) knowledge of when to copy, paraphrase or summarize
k) organization of material for easy access
l)non-written recording
REFERENCES
1. Bearne. E(1999) Use of Language Across the Secondary Curriculum. London;

Routledge
2. Dale E. and Charles JS. (1984) A Formula for Predicting Redability in Educational
in Educational Research. Bulletin No 27 pp 11-12
3. Feldman R.S. (2006) P.O.W.E.R Learning: Strategies for Success in College and
Life. McGraw Hill: New York
4. Moyle D (1977) Teaching Reading, Holmes McDaugall: Edinburg
5. Smith MW and Wilheim JD (2002) Reading Don‟t Fix No Chexy‟s: Literacy in the
live of Young Men, London, Routledge
6. Sullivan T. (1979) Reading and Understanding Cambridge, National Extesion
College
7. Tichapondwa SM. (2000) Intensive Communication and the teaching-learning
process, Gweru Mambo Press
8. Toft D. (2005) Master Student Guide to Academic Success. Houghton Miffin: New
York
9. Wingard and Abbot (1981)

UNIT 7 ORAL COMMUNICATION

Mawire, P. Mariko, I, and Shoko E.D.
7.1 Overview
Oral communication like other forms of communication needs to be approached

cautiously in various contexts for there to be effective communication, i.e. for there to
be mutual understanding between the sender of a message and the receiver of that
message. A lot has to be taken into consideration in oral communication for instance,
the relationship between the sender of the message and the receiver of that message.
Age, cultural differences and other factors also affect the Oral communication process.
It is on this basis that this chapter seeks to clarify the different factors that affect oral
communication and those that have to be implemented if oral communication is to be
an effective form of communication.
7.2 Objectives
 To identify and analyse oral communication process.

 To identify strength of oral communication, Comparing and contrasting oral
communication with written communication.
 Analyse the role of none verbal communication in oral communication..
 To identify factors to consider when giving an oral presentation.
 To determine why the identified factors are of importance when giving an oral
presentation.
 To discuss the art of persuasion in oral communication.
7.3 Communication
It is the relaying of information or messages from the sender or the receiver through a
medium. It is communication by word of mouth

7.4 THE ORAL COMMUNICATION PROCESS
medium/
sender receiver
channel
This can be simplified to the existence of a speaker and audience. It has been referred
to as a process which is dynamic, fluid and ever-changing in nature. Dynamism implies
that communication is flexible and continues. Communication being a process requires
at least two people, that is, the sender and the receiver.
7.4.1 The Sender Or The Source
 Conceives or thinks of an idea

 Gives it shape
 Conveys the idea
7.4.2 The Receiver
 Receives the idea

 Tries to understand it (decodes) - translates verbal or oral aspects of message
into a form that can be interpreted
 Finally takes an action which may be either to store it or send back a message to
the original source or take any other action required by the source.
 According to Lasswell (1948) one way of describing the communication process
is to break it down into various components by answering the following
Questions

1. Who? – Sender/ Transmitter

2. Says what? Message
3. In what channel or medium?
4. To whom? – The receiver
5. With what effect? – Impact/ feedback
For example
1. Who – sender – lecturer

2. Says what – message – The lecture is cancelled
3. In what channel? – Oral communication
4. To whom – the receiver – students
5. With what effect – Feedback –
a) ok
b) when do we meet next?
c) any other action – e.g. students stand up and leave the lecture room
 Communication is a circular and dynamic process – messages move back and

forth between the sender and the receiver.
 The sender speaks while the receiver listens
 The receiver answers or reacts by providing feedback in the form of a message
while the other person listens.
 In other words, the receiver now becomes the sender while the original sender
of the message becomes the receiver.This can be illustrated by the diagram
 below
Sender/ Channel Receiver
Activities 1.0
Communicator of communication
a) In pairs or groups demonstrate the oral communication process.

b) Discuss obstacles that can affect this communication process.
7.5 Strengths of Oral Communications
 Allows personal contact which facilitates clarification.

 Enables the interpretation of non verbal communication.
 Allows exchange of points (feedback) – participation from all parties.
 It is instant – it is the quickest form of communication as it allows feedback
immediately.
 No distortion of facts as it is relayed on a one on one basis.
 There is room for clarification or corrections.
7.6 Weaknesses/ Disadvantages of Oral Communication
 Poor planning (unlike written communication where time is spent planning).

 No permanent record except in formal situations if notes are taken .
 Time consuming if debate is allowed.
 Interference from different barriers, for example noise, language and lack of
interest.
 [Cannot be received in absentia.
 Affected by intercultural barriers.
7.8 Characteristics Of Oral Communication
2. Repetition
In spoken communication, there is a wide usage of repetition unlike in written

communication .It is used to stress or emphasise an important issue.
3. Use Of Non Verbal Elements

 Hesitation

At times oral communication is denoted by hesitation as the speaker tries to convey

his/her message, for example “i…i…don‟t know.” It may indicate that the speaker is
unsure of what he/she wants to say.
 Self corrections
Flexible and allows the speaker to make self-induced corrections to his or her
messages even before the receiver has had a chance to point out the mistake as
exemplified by words like “what I meant was…”, “what I mean is …”
 Use Of Fillers
Allows the speaker to search for a better word or to think about what he/she wants
to say or even recall an idea which he/ she has forgotten, for example “Ah…eh
…hm”
 Paraphrasing
Allows the speaker to rephrase his/ her initial statement in a way that is easy to
comprehend hence the use of words like “in other words”, “put differently” e.t.c.
 Immediate feedback
Allows instant response.
7.9 Non Verbal Communication
It is any message sent or received independent of the written or spoken word. Includes
such factors as use of time and space, distance between persons when conversing, use
of colour, dress, walking behaviour, standing, positioning, seating arrangement, office
locations and furnishings. Experts say non verbal communication is responsible for up to
sixty percent of a message being communicated.

o Nonverbal communication reinforces verbal messages.

o Audiences look for nonverbal elements, for example when one says, “I am really
interested in the topic” one expects eye contact or even nodding of the head.
o Non verbal communication can contradict verbal messages, for example saying “I
am really interested in the topic” when one is yawning.
o Non verbal communication is important as it creates trust and credibility if the
two are constant with one another.
o Non verbal communication can even replace words.
7.10 Elements of Non Verbal Communication
4. Facial expressions
Facial movements communicate a wide variety of emotions. The most frequent

studied are happiness, fear, surprise, anger, sadness and disgust.
5. Gesture
Uses of body limbs (legs, hands, arms) to convey a message. Humans speak with
words as well as gestures.
6. Proxemics/ space
Refers to the communicative function of space.
Four major proxemics distances are;
a) Intimate distance- actual touch to eighteen inches

b) Personal distance- eighteen inches to four feet
c) Social distance- four feet to twelve feet
d) Public distance- twelve feet to more than twenty five feet
One‟s treatment of space is influenced by such factors as status, culture, context,
subject matter, sex, age and positive or negative education of the other person
 Touch/ haptics
Touch communication may communicate a variety of meanings, for example positive

affects, playfulness, control, ritual etc. Touch avoidance refers to the human desires
to avoid touching and being touched by others.
 Time Communication/ Chronemics

Refers to the messages communicated by our treatment of time. Cultural time

focuses on how our culture defines and teaches time and with the difficulties
created by the different meanings people have for different time terms.
 Paralanguage
Refers to the vocal but nonverbal dimension of speech. This includes rate, pitch,
volume and vocal quality as well as pauses and hesitations. It enhances or reduces
believability.
 Dress/ Appearance
When one communicates, it is difficult to separate them form their message hence
dressing and appearance play an important role in communication.
 Posture/ Stance
The way one walks, stands or sits generally says a lit about that person. Walking
with confidence and standing with one‟s head high implies a positive image. Walking
slowly with sloping shoulders, eyes down and withdrawn shows a negative image.
Activities 2.0
a) Discuss how body language varies from one culture to another and how
this might affect Oral communication between people of different cultures
b) Prescribe solutions on how the following problems can be solved.
7.11 ORAL PRESENTATIONS
A presentation is a formal talk delivered to an audience. A successful presentation

should always be designed for a particular audience, thus when making a presentation,
it is important to analyze the audience, in terms of their socio, political or economic
background. At one time or another you could be invited to present a speech at a

function. You might, as well, be requested to prepare a speech to be delivered by
someone else. Some of the speeches you could be requested to prepare include:
(a) Guest of Honour‟s address at a Wedding party;
(b) Presentation at the Launch of a new book; and
(c) A Vote of Thanks.
Activities 3.0 y1
(a) Working with a friend, suggest two other functions for which you might
be asked to prepare speeches.
(b) Why should speeches to be presented at a function be prepared ahead of

the occasion?
7.11.1 Speech Writing
Preparing a speech or speech writing can be a challenging exercise that will require
some effort. It will be helpful for the speech writer to approach the task through the
following steps:
 Make sure that the event for which the speech will be presented has been well
understood; is it a school event / function; is it a social gathering such a birthday
celebration or funeral;
 Conduct a mini research (inquiry) on the individual (in the case of funerals and
parties); or organization or institution the speech will be talking about;
 The mini inquiry should provide sufficient facts to be highlighted in the speech;
 Rearrange your ideas to produce a coherent speech outline;
 Finally, suggest a theme through which your written speech will develop.

Activities 4.0
(a) Working in a group of four people, and using the notes you prepared for
activity 1 give reasons why speakers at a function should use / not use
written speeches in their address.
(b) You have been assigned to prepare a speech to be read on the occasion
of the victory celebrations for a local marimba band that won a prize at a
music competition.
Prepare notes for the speech to be delivered by the Guest of Honour.
7.11.2 Writing the Speech
 To be assured of the best reception by the audience, the language code and
discourse of the speech should be well known by the audience, for example, if
the speech was to be delivered at a ZANU PF rally, remember to include such
phrases as “Zimbabwe shall never be a colony again!” or “The land reform is
irreversible!”
 Avoid using a language code that is ambiguous or might be misunderstood by

the audience.
 Remember that verbal communication with its need for careful sequencing of
ideas and a choice of vocabulary that is well within the capacity of the audience
is an important consideration;
 To that end, the speech should give the impression of a well knit and coherent
whole;
 Remember that fluency of speech helps to prevent interrupted thought in the

audience;
 Avoid the use of big words and complicated explanations;

 Aim at maintaining the attention and interest of the audience; and include some
jokes;
 Avoid production of a very long and repetitive speech.
Activities 5.0
(Individual task)
Look at Task 2(b) again. Choose one idea from your notes and write one paragraph of
the speech using vocabulary and fluency of speech that is within the capacity of your
audience
7.11.3 Nonverbal Communication - Supporting your Presentation
The messages we transmit through facial expression, gestures, variations in the use of
the voice and the signals we send by the eyes are all part of the nonverbal dimensions
of human communications. Neill (1991: 88) and DeFleur et al (1992: 81) say that the
study of body movements including gestures, postures and facial expression is called
kinesics. A hand, eyes, or an object (illustrators) can be used to point out things or
individuals. On the other hand, hand, arm and leg / foot movement used to reduce
stress or relieve boredom are gestures known as adaptors.
Nonverbal communication is unlike the communication with the voice (or by print) in
words and sentences which generally constitutes verbal communication.
Activity 4 Working in groups of four people each;
(a) Act out two different gestures to send out the message that „it is time up‟;
(b) Make one facial expression and one hand gesture to secretly identify a culprit;
(c) Make two body movements to indicate disagreement.
DeFleur et al (1992: 69) define nonverbal communication “as the deliberate or

unintentional use of objects, actions, sounds, time and space so as to arouse meanings
in others.” Farrant (1982) refers to this form of communicating messages as body

language. A single gesture such as a smile can tell some one else a great deal about
how you feel towards them. A slight movement of the hand can beckon someone to
you and a handshake can indicate more “truthfully than your words how warm or
otherwise your welcome greeting is” (Farrant, 1982: 15).
Neill (1991: 88) refers to the study of eye contact in nonverbal communication as
oculesics. For example, people use their eyes to indicate their degree of interest or
openness as they communicate. Even simple eye contact with another has meaning on
some occasions.
Activity 5
What assumption do we make when:
(a) Receivers of our message look down or away during a presentation?
(b) Someone stares at us?
(c) Students avoid the lecturer‟s gaze after he has posed a question?
(d) You fail to maintain eye contact with the people you are addressing?
7.11.4 Complementing Verbal Meanings
Verbal and nonverbal communication complement each other. Almost everything we

say, according to DeFleur, is accompanied by nonverbal actions, expressions, and other
behaviours that supplement or reinforce the meanings contained in our talk. For
example, the instruction “Bring that chair over here,” will not make much sense if it is
not accompanied by two hand movements to point at the chair and where it is to be
moved.
Furthermore, our audience can tell from our vocal tones whether we are happy, sad,
confident, nervous culturally refined and so on. The basic idea, according to DeFleur et
al, is that we surround the words we use with many kinds of voice quality, cues that
contribute significantly to people‟s judgments about us, and directly, to the meanings of
our messages.

If we did not include body language as we deliver our speech and the presentation was
not articulated in a manner that gives life to the speech, then the entire presentation
would be tasteless and would send the audience to sleep. Put simply, how you say
something can at times be as important as what you say . Many people (DeFleur
et al, 1992, J S Farrant, 1982) are convinced that meanings associated with our actions,
postures, facial expression, are more important than what is said. Other scholars
maintain that nonverbally transmitted meanings contribute as much as 90% to our
interpretation of other people‟s behavior.
This assertion attaches a lot of significance to the contribution nonverbal

communication makes towards the total effect of presentations we make.
Activities 6.0
Go over task 3 again. Read your speech to members of your group, supplementing the
presentation with nonverbal language you think will enhance the total meaning of the
text.
7.12 Points to Consider About the Audience
One should ask oneself questions regarding the following about an audience they are
going to address:-
Size, age, gender, level of education, cultural background, intelligence level, language
spoken by audience in society, income of audience, status of audience in business and
in the community
Activities 7.0
Discuss why it is important for the speaker to take into consideration each
one of the above factors

Answers to these questions will affect the way in which one prepares one‟s message.
One should also be aware of one‟s audience‟s prior knowledge about the subject one is
going to talk about. This helps in determining how much background information to
give to the audience. Mostly, one should be sensitive to the needs of the audience.
7.13 Persuasive Speaking
 Persuasion is the process of convincing or influencing the behaviour and

attitudes as well as the responses of a targeted audience.
 As a speaker one should be able to persuade the audience so that they realised
the importance or relevance of what is being said.
 It is intended to influence an opinion or behaviour of an audience even where
the people hold different views and beliefs.
 In order to deliver a persuasive message, the speaker should have credibility.
 Reputation, prestige and authority of a speaker as perceived by the audience all
contribute to the speaker‟s credibility.
 Listeners‟ acceptance of the speaker as a credible person will make it easier for
the speaker to get acceptance of their message.
 As a listener if you dislike or mistrust a person he or she will have a difficult time
in convincing you to accept his or her beliefs.
 A person‟s prior reputation in an audience can help or hinder his or her
persuasive ability.
7.14 How to Establish Credibility
If one does not have credibility, one has to establish it, that is, one has to work towards
achieving it. This can be done through:
 Competence
This refers to the wisdom and authority in a knowledge a speaker demonstrates.
 Charisma
A charismatic speaker grabs and holds the attention of people and gets masses to
follow him or her for example Martin Luther King Jnr, Malcolm X, Adolf Hitler, Barack
Obama etc.

 Character
 One‟s reputation, honesty, sensitivity and other related attributes build up
character.
 Some speakers are thought of as of high character because of their position,
experiences and comments others have made about them. Such speakers
have little problems with persuasion.
 On the other hand speakers who are negatively perceived need to try to alter
their listeners‟ belief about them by emphasizing about themselves first
which may lead to the audience reacting positively to their message for
example a former convict may want to tell their audience that they have
learnt from their mistake and that they are now positively changed before
delivering their speech.
7.15 Conclusion
As pointed out by Brown and Yule (1983) it is apparent that oral communication and
written communication require different approaches and demands on the
communicators. It is on this note that the chapter sought to highlight the various
aspects of oral communication and how to go about in oral communication especially
oral presentations. All in all, it can be noted that oral communication can arguably have
more advantages than disadvantages if all considerations are implemented as discussed
earlier on.

REFRENCES
Brown, G.and Yule, G. (1983) Discourse Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.
Ekman, P. and Friesen, W. V. (1969) “Non-verbal leakage and cues to deception” in

(ed) Argle, M. Social encounters Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin Books.
Goffman, E.(1981) Forms of talk. Oxford:Basil Blackwell
DeFleur, M L, Kearney, P, Plax, T G , 1992, Fundamentals of Human Communication,

Mayfield Publishing Company, London, United Kingdom.
Elton, L, 1987, Teacher in Higher Education: Appraisal and Training, Biddles Ltd, Surrey,
United Kindom.
Farrant, J S, 1982, Principles and Practice of Education, Longman, Hong Kong.
Feldman, R. S.(2005) Power Learning Strategies for Success in College and

Life:2005 Edition, McGraw Hill, Boston. ( pp 1-27)
Levy, D.M. (1979) “Communicative goals and strategies : between discourse and
syntax” inGivon, T.(ed) (1979)On understanding Grammar New York:Academic Press.
Neill, S, 1991, Classroom Nonverbal Communication, Routledge, London, United

Kingdom
Schenkein,J. (ed) (1978) Studies in the Organization of Conversational Interaction New

York:Academic Press.
Searle, J.R. (1969) Speech Acts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Sudnow, D. (ed) (1972) Studies in Social Interaction. New York: The Free Press..

Recommended Reading
Kline, J. A (1996) Listening: Listening Effectively
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (1998)

Baker, L. L. et al (1979) Groups in Progress: An Introduction to Small Group
Communication: Simon and Schuster Co., London.
DeFleur M. L, Kearney P., Plax T.G (1993) Fundamentals of Human Communication
Mayfield Publishing Company, California
Ealses, C & Hawkes-Whitehead, C (1995) Counseling Skills: A Quick Guide. Folens

Publishers, London.
Garman, M. (1990) Psycholinguistics: Cambridge UP, New York.
Hough, M. (1996) Active Listening in Counseling Skills: Pearson Longman, London.
Kaul, A. (2004) Business Communication Prentice Hall, New Delhi.
Kline, J. A (1996) Listening: Listening Effectively US Government Printing Office,

Washington DC.
Lynch, T. & Mendelsohn, D. (2002) Listening in Schmitt, N. (ed) (2002) An Introduction

to Applied Linguistics: Arnold, London.
Manning, G. Curtis K. & MacMillen S. (1996) Building the Human Side of Work
Community Thompson Executive Press, Ohio.
Severin, W. J & Tankard, J. (1981) Communication, Theories, Origins, Methods and
Uses in The Mass Media, Longman, London.
Shames, G. H. et al (1994) Human Communication Disorders: An Introduction 4th
Edition, Macmillan Colley Publishing Co., London.
Sawin, H. (2007) „Listening‟ Mail & Guardian October 16……..
Turner, J. (2002) How to Study A Short Introduction, Sage Publications, London.

(Part 1, pp 4-16, 32-43)
Ueland, B (1992) „Strength to Your Sword Arm: Selected Writings by Brenda Ueland.‟
The Estate of Brenda.

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SAIDI U.

PERSONAL COPY March 7, 2010

MIDLANDS STATE UNIVERSITY

CS101 - BASIC COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Communication Skills Centre |MSU R 22l

 To create awareness in students of those skills of thinking, personal organization

Communication Skills Centre |MSU R 22l

5 Note -making And Note–Taking

Communication Skills Centre |MSU R 22l

UNIT 1 STUDY HABITS & TIME MANAGEMENT

At the end of this unit students should be able to:

 Set short and long term academic goals.

1.3 Key Words

Active Leaner , transformative experience, Study Skills, priorities, modules, mental

Communication Skills Centre |MSU R 22l

1.4 Developing Study Habits:

1.4.2 Becoming an Active Leaner

1.4.3 University Life as a Journey

 A great deal of practical organization is required during the journey.

1.4.5 Information Regarding Your Learning:

Communication Skills Centre |MSU R 22l

1.4.6 What to expect

1.5 Academic Strategies:

1.5.1 The Plan:

Communication Skills Centre |MSU R 22l

(i) Make a list of some of your long term goals?

1.5.2 Time and Study Strategies:

Here are a few common daily activities for a university student.

1 Read a book with 10 pages.

1.5.3 Steps in Managing your Time:

Communication Skills Centre |MSU R 22l

(d) Evaluate your time usage and make necessary adjustments.

1.6 TIME MANAGEMENT

1.6.1 How to Manage Time

(i) Identify characteristics of bad time management.

The ABC Prioritization List- Alan Lakein

B-next most important

Communication Skills Centre |MSU R 22l

1.7 PEER DISCUSSIONS

Peer discussions belong to a form of learning known as interactive learning i.e.

practices. According to Splitter and Sharp (1995) cited in Mukabeta (2001:110), a

i) Compare and contrast the study habits of a student with a sense of

1.7.2 Models of Interactive Learning

Lecturer-whole class interaction

Giving reasons, which oof the listed models do you prefer?

1.7.3 The Role/ Benefits of Peer Discussions

Communication Skills Centre |MSU R 22l

i) Define each of the thinking skills listed by Bloom and Mukabeta.

Give illustrations of the thinking skills.

Discuss how peer discussions facilitate the above skills.

Communication Skills Centre |MSU R 22l

a) Encouraging spirit of enquiry.

Developing independence of thought.

Providing a more natural discussion than a lecture.

Respecting other students as sources of knowledge.

Building onto other students knowledge.

Barnes (1969) categorizes questions in a discussion as follows: